Chapter‐8

GLASS & WOOD

1. GLASS

 Glass is an amorphous substance(1) having homogeneous texture

 It is hard, brittle, transparent material
 It is the common material glazed into frames for door, windows and curtain
walls
 Ordinary colorless glasses are alkali‐lime silicate and alkali‐lead silicate
 Tensile and compressive strength of alkali‐lime silicate is 30 N/mm2 (4,000
psi approx.) and 60N/mm2 (8,700 psi approx.)
 Tensile and compressive strength of alkali‐lead silicate is 700 N/mm2
(1,00,000 psi approx.) and 1,000N/mm2 (1,45,000 psi approx)
 The strength is very much affected by internal defects (air bubble), cords and
foreign intrusions

Amorphous substance (1): Any non‐crystalline solid in which the atoms and
molecules are not organized in a definite lattice pattern.
1.1. Constituents of glass
 Raw materials used in manufacturing of glass are sand (60%), lime (20%),
sodium carbonate‐soda ash (20%) etc.
 These are fused over 1500oC
 Iron, lead and borax are added to modify hardness, brilliance (brightness)
and color
1.2. Methods of manufacture
 Four steps for manufacturing of glass are:
1.2.1. Melting

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  Fine grained ingredients closely controlled for quality, are mixed to make a
batch, which flows into the furnace, which is heated up to 1500oC.
1.2.2. Float Bath
 Glass from the furnace gently flows over the molten tin, like the oil float over
the water surface starting at 1100 deg Celsius and leaving the float bath as
solid ribbon at 600 deg Celsius.
1.2.3. Annealing
 This is a controlled process for cooling glass
 The glass is made to move through the annealing lehr (oven for cooling in
controlled conditions) where such internal stresses are removed, as the glass
is cooled gradually, to make the glass more prone (level) to cutting.
1.2.4. Inspection
 To ensure the highest quality inspection takes place at every stage.
 Occasionally a bubble that is not removed during refining, a sand grain that
refuses to melt or a tremor (shiver) in the tin puts ripples (waves) in the glass
ribbon.
1.2.5. Cutting to Order
 Diamond steels cut glass plates to size dictated by the computer.
 Glass is finally sold in square meters.

Fig: Production of Float Glass

1.3. Types of glass

1.3.1. Float glass

 Molten glass is floating on molten tin sheet
 This method gives the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces.
1.3.2. Rolled glass


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 Fig: Float glass Fig: Rolled glass
 In a red hot form it is made flat of uniform thickness by use of pressure
rollers.
 Due to these rollers the lining appears in the glass
1.3.3. Laminated glass
 Two or more glass plates with intervening layers of transparent plastics are
bound under effects of heat and pressure
 In event of breaking, it is held in place by an interlayer, typically of polyvinyl
butyral (PVB), between it two or more layers of glass
1.3.4. Toughened / Tempered glass
 Glass plate is heated and is cooled.
 It has increased strength compared with normal glass and will usually shatter
into small fragments, rather than sharp shards, when broken
 Tempered is used for glazing entrance doors or in making table tops, shelves,
counters etc.
1.3.5. Wired glass
 It is transparent glass with special steel wire mesh completely embedded
between the layers of glass during the process of its manufacturing
 It fire retardant and provides safety in the event of any breakage, wire pieces
holding the broken pieces from flying and causing injury.
 Available in 6.4m thickness
 It is used for skylight, glazed partition, door and windows
1.3.6. Insulation glass

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  Two layers of glass separated by 6mm to 12mm of dehydrated air are
hermetically sealed (airtight) to provide heat insulation and to ensure
transmission of light
1.3.7. Colored glass
 By adding oxides of metals to molten glass the finished product gets colored.
 It is used for decoration work
 Glass with light tints (shade) are used to cut off sun
1.3.8. Heat absorbing glass
 It has bluish green tint and cuts off ultra violet rays of sun
 It is used in glazing windows of railway carriage and in building where heat of
sun is desired to be cut.
1.3.9. Mirrors
 A mirror is an object with a surface that has good specular reflection, i.e. is it
is smooth enough to form an image
 Curved mirrors are also used to produce magnified or de‐magnified images
or focus light or simply distort the reflected image.
 Mirrors are commonly used for personal grooming (clean), decoration and
architecture
 Mirrors are also used in scientific apparatus and industrial machinery
1.3.10. Etched glass
 Etching refers to the technique of creating art on the surface of glass by
applying acidic, caustic or abrasive substances
1.3.11. Stained glass
 The glass that has been colored by adding metallic salts during its
manufacturing
 The term stained glass is also applied to windows in which all the colors have
been painted onto the glass then annealed in a furnace

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1.4. Photo Album

Fig: Toughened / Tempered glass Fig: Laminated glass building

Fig: Wired glass Fig: Insulation glass

Fig: Heat absorbing glass Fig: Etched glass

Fig: Stained glass

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1.5. Advantages
 Can be made in different sizes and objects
 Can be colored or colorless
 Waterproof
 Glass transmits up to 80% of available natural day light in both directions
without any yellowing, clouding or weathering.
 The glass is fully weather resistance so it can withstand the effects of the
wind, rain, or the sun and can retain its appearance and integrity.
 Glass does not rust so it does not degrade gradually by chemical and
surrounding environment effects.
 It is dust proof and can be easily cleaned.
 Glass allows natural light to enter the house even if doors/windows are
closed so thus it saves energy and also lowers the electricity bills, brightens
up the room and brings out the beauty of the home and most importantly it
boosts the mood of occupant.
 It is an excellent insulator against electricity. It is impossible to conduct an
electric current under the influence of an electric field.
 Glass provides an ideal way to showcase a product.
 Glass is 100% recyclable and it does not degrade during the recycling process,
hence it can be recycled again and again without loss of quality or purity.
 The glass is UV stable, since it is not attacked by ultraviolet radiation and
hence cracks, discoloration or disintegration will not occur.
 The glass is excellent abrasion resistant so it will resist surface wear caused
by flat rubbing and contact with another material.
 The glass is stable over a wide range of temperature so it is used for fireplace
glass, high‐temperature light lenses, and wood burning stoves, cooking tops
and high‐temperature areas where low expansion is needed.

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  It is unaffected by noise, air, water and most of the acids hence discoloration,
alteration in the degree of shine, softening, swelling, the detachment of
coatings will not occur.
 It is used to achieve the architectural view for external decoration.
1.6. Disadvantages
 An expensive material
 Breaks easily
 Melts in high temperatures
 When broken, the pieces may be sharp
 Manufacturing of glass is high energy consuming process due to high
temperature required for processing the raw materials, and it is expensive
material and ultimately increases the cost of a building.
 The glass is very rigid and brittle materials so when it is subjected to stress, it
breaks without significant (strain).
 The glass is less impact resistant so the capability of the glass to withstand a
suddenly applied load is very poor.
 Use of glass also enhances the cost of security.
 The glass is also unsafe for earthquake proven area. Unfortunately, there is
no such glass as an earthquake proof material but costly treatment makes
them withstand against earthquake.
 The glass is poor in terms of heat preservation, leading to higher costs in the
operation of air‐conditioners.
 Though many feel that once you provide glass in a building façade (fəˈsɑːd/
frontage) you are free from painting expenses for ever but this is not fine.
You may have to spend equally for cleaning of glass. Sometimes it is as costly
as expose painting. Again, you may paint building once in a 5 years but for
glass you have to clean regularly.

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 Glass absorbs heat and hence act as a greenhouse and hence not suitable in
warm and hot climates. It will increase A\C load and more energy
consideration for air conditioning.

Fig: Sharp edges of broken glass

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2. TIMBER
 Wood suitable for building or other engineering purpose is called timber
 When it is part of living tree it is called “standing timber”
 When the tree has been cut down it is called “rough timber”

2.1. Classification of trees

 Trees can broadly be grouped into exogenous and endogenous trees

according to the way in which their stem diameter increases.

2.1.1. Endogenous tree

 Endogenous trees increase from within, the new wood‐strands being
interspersed (mixed) among the old, and causing cross‐surfaces to appear
dotted
 These trees area banana, bamboos, palm and cane
 Even though the stem of trees of this class is light and tough yet it is too
flexible and slender to furnish material suitable for engineering works, with
exception of bamboos

2.1.2. Exogenous trees

 The tree grows by the addition of new wood outwards, immediately under
the bark.
 The trees grow outwards by the addition of one concentric ring every year
 These rings are known as annual rings
 Timber obtained from this class of trees are extensively used in engineering
works

Fig: Endogenous tree Fig: Exogenous tree

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Fig: Endogenous tree Fig: Exogenous tree

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2.2. Structure of tree

2.2.1. Bark
 It is the outer protective covering of cells and woody fibres on a tree

2.2.2. Cambium layer

 Outermost one ring between the bark and sap wood is known as the
cambium layer
 In due course, cambium changes to sapwood

2.2.3. Annual/Growth rings

 The rings of woody fibre arranged in concentric circles around the pith are
known as annual rings
 One such ring is added every year

2.2.4. Sapwood
 Outer annual rings of the tree constitute the sap wood which transmit the
sap (fluid transported in xylem cells) from roots to branched
 Compared with heart wood, sap wood is lighter in color, weaker and more
liable to decay

2.2.5. Heartwood
 The inner most rings surrounding the pith constitute the heart wood.
 This wood is darker in color, stronger more compact and durable

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 Fig: tree sap
2.2.6. The Pith
 It is the first formed portion of the stem of tree
 It dies up and decays when the plant becomes old

2.2.7. Medullary rays

 These are thin horizontal veins radiating from the pith towards the bark
 They carry sap from outside to the inner of the tree and nourish it
 They keep the annual rings tightly gripped together

2.3. Characteristics of good timber

 It should have straight and close fibre

 It should be of uniform colour
 It should have regular annual rings
 Timber with narrow annual rings are generally the strongest
 Out of same variety of timber, darker and heavier pieces are stronger
 It should be free from too many knots
 It should have compact medullary rays

Fig: Knots in timber

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2.4. Seasoning of wood

 Newly felled tree contains a considerable quantity of sap

 If this sap is not removed the timber is likely to warp, crack and shrink. It may
even decay
 Seasoning is to extract the moisture under controlled conditions as nearly as
possible
 At uniform rate from all parts of the timber and to leave the remaining
moisture that cannot be extracted

2.4.1. Objectives of the seasoning

 Wet timber is an easy prey to decay by fungi and termites etc. seasoning thus
makes timber resistant to decay
 Seasoning makes timber lighter
 It is easier to paint and polish seasoned timber
 It is easier to treat seasoned timber with preservative
 Seasoning stops shrinkage of timber on drying
 Seasoned timber has better electrical resistance

2.4.2. Methods of seasoning

2.4.2.1. Air seasoning or natural seasoning
 As soon as the tree is fallen, the log is converted by sawing into battens and
planks etc.
 These are the stacked into a well drained place in the shade
 While stacking, care should be taken to ensure free circulation of fresh air all
around each piece
 The stacking should be done on masonry or concrete supports a few
centimeters above the ground
 It gives very strong and durable timber
 This method of seasoning is extremely slow
 It takes more than six months for timber to season in moderate climate

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 2.4.2.2. Kiln seasoning or artificial seasoning
 This method speeds up the seasoning process
 Kiln seasoning is done in a chamber equipped with arrangements for heat
and humidifying the air to required conditions of relative humidity and
temperature and for its circulation across the timber staked in the chamber
 The seasoning process starts at a comparatively lower temperature and high
humidity
 As the timber dries these conditions are gradually altered until at the end of
the seasoning the temperature of air inside the chamber is fairly high and the
humidity is low
 Seasoning by this method takes about four to five days under normal
conditions
 It is used when large scale production of seasoned timber is required

2.4.3. Comparison of Air seasoning and Kiln Seasoning

Sr. # Air seasoning Kiln Seasoning

1. It slow process It is a quick process
2. It simple and economical It is quite technical and expensive
3. It is difficult to reduce moisture content below Moisture level can be reduced to
15% to 18% any desired level

4. Air seasoned timber is more amendable to the Less amendable to attacks of

attacks of insects and fungi insects and fungi

5. It requires more stacking space Require less stacking space

6 It gives stronger timber A little weaker timber is obtained

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2.5. The Advantages of Wood as a Building Material

2.5.1. Light weight

 It can support its own weight better, which allows for larger spaces

2.5.2. Electrical and heat resistance

 Wood has a natural resistance to electrical conduction when dried to

standard moisture content (MC) levels, usually between 7%‐12% for most
wood species.
 Its strength and dimensions are also not significantly affected by heat

2.5.3. Sound absorption

 Wood absorbs sound, rather than reflecting

 Wood’s acoustic properties make it ideal for minimizing echo in living or
office spaces

2.5.4. Beauty

 Wood presents an incredible range of aesthetic options

2.5.5. Wood Is Renewable

 Unlike concrete or metals, wood is a building material that can be grown and
re‐grown through natural processes

2.5.6. Wood Is Biodegradable

 Wood will break down much more quickly and actually replenish (fill) the soil
in the process.

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2.6. Disadvantages of wood

2.6.1. Shrinkage and Swelling

 Wood is a hygroscopic material. This means that it will adsorb surrounding

vapors which may create swelling.
 It loses moisture which causes shrinkage

2.6.2. Deterioration of Wood

 Gets deteriorate by action of fungi, termites etc

2.6.3. Fire

 Wood easily catches fire.

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References:

1. https://www.britannica.com/science/amorphous‐solid
2. https://www.aisglass.com/glass‐manufacturing‐process
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ig4G5WbOMLc (manufacturing of glass)
4. https://sites.google.com/site/thekacassite/glass/what‐are‐the‐advantages‐and‐disadvantages‐of‐glass
5. https://gharpedia.com/advantages‐disadvantages‐glass‐building‐material/
6. Source: https://www.slideshare.net/krishnasahit7/different‐types‐of‐glasses‐35923468
7. (Types of glass)
8. Engineering materials by Surendra Singh, 5th Edition
9. https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/tree.htm (trees)
10. https://hubpages.com/education/Timber‐As‐A‐Material‐Of‐Construction (Timber)
11. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN,98769/wood‐as‐a‐building‐material‐it39s‐benefits‐and‐disadvan‐.html
(advantages & disadvantages of wood)

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