The State Department has discovered jazz, It reaches folks like nothing ever has, When our neighbours

called us vermin, We sent out Woody Herman, Thats what they call cultural exchange (Gioia, 2006: 9) Those lucky enough to hear the soaring trumpets of Dizzy Gillespie, Quincy Jones, Joe Gordon, E.V. Perry and Bama Warwick on their initial world tour with Gillespies Big Band had a memorable night. Whilst the only recordings that exist of this band are from concerts held in the United States, when listening to a live recording of this band at the Newport Jazz Festival in Rhode Island on Dizzy Gillespies At Newport (1957) one senses that hearing them in person was a special experience. In its inaugural 1956 tour of India, Iran, Pakistan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, Yugoslavia and Greece, the bands hard-swinging, fast-paced soli lines communicated more about the US to ordinary people in Eastern Europe and the Middle East than any lines used by an official diplomat could. This USs cultural diplomatic program demonstrated the effectiveness of using artistic products in communicating an approved message and the ideas and images of a country. This paper seeks to establish that the US State Department cultural programs that were suitably employed during the Cold War, such as the Jazz Ambassadors, were beneficial in debunking negative perceptions of the country at the time, and that the US requires similar programs to tackle its current problems. In a post 9/11 world, America finds itself with reduced influence as a global leader and innovator by both its enemies and its allies. The USA needs to concurrently deal with rising antiAmericanism within the Arab world and the growing distrust among citizens of the countries it counts as its allies. The challenges posed by overturning deep-seeded negative opinions in the Arab world will require a different strategy to that of changing opinions among the USs allies. A reinvigoration of a cultural diplomacy program is crucial to overturning these mindsets. Cultural Diplomacy has been utilised for hundred of years by leaders wishing to communicate a set of ideas and beliefs that demonstrate what their country stands for, to assert their power and to build lasting relationships. It is an effective tool because cultural products transcend politics and can connect with people on an emotional level. Through cultural exchanges, commonalities can be explored and differences can be better understood (Bound et al, 2007: 11). However, cultural diplomacy does have its detractors. There are many who believe art used as a tool by any government is corrupting the product. Demos, a UK think-tank, published its paper on British cultural diplomacy and Tiffany Adi Diner 82889 Page 1

Jenkins responded in her article Why should artists be agents of government? Jenkins provides an example of opposition to the concept of cultural diplomacy. She is particularly concerned that these proposed diplomatic efforts would sap funding for more provocative work (Jenkins, 2007). Jenkins cites McCarthyism as an example of such curtailing and censoring. However, that episode in American history only halted certain production of arts temporarily, but did not curtail the creativity of the artists. America first used cultural diplomacy prior to World War II to counteract the growing presence of Nazi German culture in Latin America that was undermining American interests in the region. Once war broke out in Europe, the US developed their methods further, focusing specifically on Brazil, Argentina and Mexico (Cummings, 2003: 3). After the conclusion of the war, with the establishment of Americas military superiority, these programs continued and were further supplemented. President Eisenhower, a military man, saw several benefits in continuing along this path: to present the vitality of our culture to non-Americans; to share ideas for the purpose of building bridges and bonds and to correct any incorrect or negative perceptions of the United States (Lewis, 1999: 6) The US government felt threatened by the rise of communism, and the birth of the Cold War saw a battle fought for competing ideas. New battlegrounds were drawn. This was a period of intense conflict not with military personnel, but with ideologies and political rhetoric. The USSR was propagating the tenets of communism and the evolving battles of the working class and equality. Conversely, the US presented itself as a beacon of freedom. Through their cultural exports, each offered the audience a representation of its definition of its superiority. The USSR chose to showcase companies that performed the traditional European arts with expertise and precision such as the Bolshoi Ballet. The US, alternatively, used jazz a native art that encapsulates and symbolises freedom and democracy. During the Cold War, the US proficiently executed cultural events to its benefit and used this active form of diplomacy to present itself as a sophisticated, tolerant and free society. The various programs were managed by the United States Information Agency, created in 1953 to understand, inform, and influence foreign publics in promotion of the U.S. national interest, and to broaden the dialogue between Americans and U.S. institutions, and their counterparts abroad (USIA, 1998: 5). Jazz was an effective means of communication with the people of other countries both the intelligentsia and the masses. For example, in 1956, the US State Department commissioned the Jazz Adi Diner 82889 Page 2

Ambassador program, a series of international tours undertaken by predominantly black musicians. The famous photograph (title page photo) of Dizzy Gillespie riding a motorcycle in Zagreb (Yugoslavia) surrounded by local musicians, is a demonstration of the positive effect Gillespie had on those who he encountered, whether it be via his music or his personality. Despite opposing governmental ideology, artists could rise above politics and connect directly with the people. Joan Channick succinctly iterates the reason artists like Dizzy Gillespie were so transcendental:
Artists engage in cross-cultural exchange not to proselytise about their own values but rather to understand the different cultural traditions, to find new sources of imaginative inspiration, to discover new methods and ways of working and to exchange ideas with people whose worldviews differ from their own. They want to be influenced rather than to influence. (U.S. Department of State, 2005: 5).

A further unintentional positive contributor in promoting free speech and democracy was the outspokenness of the black jazz musicians relating to their own political grievances. Appreciating the heavy irony that they were chosen as cultural ambassadors when they were often denied their civil rights back home, the freedom with which they spoke of these inequalities with impunity provided a positive impression on the oppressed (Schneider, 2003: 2). Dizzy Gillespie believed the band that performed on the inaugural tour to be the best he had assembled (Maggin, 2004: 278) and each night they played to sold out audiences. Gillespie was the first of many jazz greats of that era to undertake a tour under the Jazz Ambassador Program. Other luminaries included Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Dave Brubeck and Miles Davis, just to name a few. This program focused not just on bringing jazz behind the Iron Curtain, but also to many developing countries, such as India and Pakistan, where Communism was being explored as a potential political solution to their internal problems (Gioia, 2006: 7). This was by no means the US governments only cultural export. The Jazz Ambassador program was complemented by a nightly radio program on Voice of America, a worldwide radio station sponsored by the US government. Willis Conover, the host of the most popular program on the station, Voice of America Music USA, would present an hour of jazz music. Charles Fishman, Dizzy Gillespies manager in 1989, remembers how people in Moscow would ask Dizzy about Willis Conover and impart how influential he was in cultivating their love of jazz music (Fenner, 2007).

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The fall of the Soviet Empire marked the end of the Cold War and a victory in the eyes of the United States. With the ideological battles completed, the 1992 presidential election focused on domestic issues, particularly the ailing economy (Cummings, 2003: 11). A shift in interest away from foreign policy gave Bill Clinton the ability to slash funding to cultural diplomacy projects during his administration. By 1999, the USIA was decommissioned and the remaining cultural exchange programs became the responsibility of the State Department. For the remainder of the century, the United Sates enjoyed its place as the worlds sole super-power and rested on its laurels there was no considerations made to enhance the countrys image through cultural products. When two planes crashed into the World Trade Centre on September 11, 2001, the world stage changed and the rules for how political conflict would be wrought in the new millennium were re-written. The attacks put the US on the defensive against an enemy they could not find. Al-Qaeda is a starkly different enemy to that of the former Soviet Union. During the Cold War, America had an enemy whose location was known. Al-Qaeda is clear and identifiable but has no exact, static location. Osama bin Laden, the worlds most wanted man, has not been found and the US finds themselves once again fighting a guerrilla war, not dissimilar to that of the Vietnam War. These terrorist attacks have borne a more visible and confrontational anti-Americanism in the Middle East. The USs relationship with the region has historically been dictated by the petroleum industry, coupled with the USs interest in building secure spaces of support (Dutta-Bergman, 2008: 8). However, dislike of the US in the Middle East is not a new phenomenon. Some people are envious of the USs success and resent its power. For others, it is a reaction to the perceived weakness of the US that must resort to demonstration of supreme military power. And for still others, the US provides a scapegoat for their own failures and shortcomings (Chiozza, 2006: 1). To what extent this anti-Americanism has spread has been the subject of the much cited Pew Global Attitude Surveys which have been conducted annually since 1999 by the Washington DC based Pew Research Centre. According to one of their studies published in 2006, there was a decreasing trend in the favourable opinions of people living in Islamic countries. The notable exception was Pakistan, an ally of the US in its War on Terror (Kohut et al, 2006: 10). The main factors contributing to this declining popularity are the two wars in which the US is currently engaged: in Afghanistan and Iraq both Islamic countries. Furthermore, the rhetoric used by President Adi Diner 82889 Page 4

Bush in 2002 seemed for many to set the tone for a clash of civilisations war, a war of good against the axis of evil, a war between Christians and Muslims (Akunyili, 2008). Since 2001, America has attempted to increase its influence on Middle East politics to curb the rise of Islamic fundamentalism. However images and reports of both physical and civil liberty abuses at Abu Ghraib and Guantanamo Bay hinder its ability to present itself as a moral alternative. Military intervention and political pressure has not been an effective method of obtaining influence in the Middle East. Sharif Shuja urges the US to not ignore its soft power capabilities, citing numerous sources who convey a sense that Americas recent interventionist foreign policy program has failed and an alternative approach is needed. He states unequivocally that USs neglect of public diplomacy, such as cultural diplomacy programs has undermined its ability to persuade and influence other nation states (Shuja, 2008: 19). Compounding its military and political manoeuvring overseas, the current presidential race has demonstrated an inherent phobia of the Islamic world within the US. Broadcast to the world were accusations that Barack Obama, the Democratic nominee, was a Muslim, that he attended an Islamic madrassah whilst living in Indonesia as a child, and that he was sworn into Congress on the Koran (Rutenburg, 2008). These accusations, aired on cable news channel, Fox News, aimed to reflect and play on the fears of US citizens. When these messages are being simultaneously broadcast around the world, they are a significant obstacle to any US government attempt to connecting with people in Islamic countries. Whilst there exist misconceptions in the Middle East about the US, there are conflicting attitudes towards the Middle East in the US. Cultural diplomacy in the form of artistic workshops and concerts would be an effective way for people in the Middle East to better understand Americans, whilst reciprocated events in the US would begin to bridge the divide and create a dialogue to move past old stereotypes. However, the US must realise that what works in one country does not necessarily work in another. In her paper, Diplomacy That Works: Best Practices in Cultural Diplomacy, Cynthia Schneider (2003: 4) recognises that whilst there are countless songs, books and films that communicate the US ideals, they are not necessarily universal. What was successful in Europe during the Cold War will not necessarily be as effective when targeting a different cultural group in a different century. A report by the US State Department acknowledges that rampant anti-Americanism has diminished the Unites States ability to champion freedom and democracy, and sees cultural diplomacy as a means to reach influential members of foreign countries who are not directly affected by the embassys work Adi Diner 82889 Page 5

(U.S. Department of State, 2005:1-2). Therefore, the US government has not completely ceased cultural diplomacy in the Middle East. Radio Sawa, a US government funded radio station in the Middle East, and Al-Hurra, its television affiliate, hope to paint a favourable picture of the US by framing the American perspective on foreign policy more palatably to the Arab public. Optimists believe this radio station holds the key to the transformation of public opinion in the Arab world regarding America as satellite television and radio are heavily relied upon for news and information in the region (U.S. Department of State, 2005:21). Radio Sawa, playing a mixture of hits from the Arab world and United States, finds that its strength is attributed to its popularity amongst the youth in a region that currently holds the most anti-American sentiments (Iskandar, 2008: 3, 12-13). In early October, the Washington Post reported that the US Defence Department committed to paying four private communications contractors US$300 million to produce news stories, entertainment programs and public service announcements to be featured on Iraqi media (De Young et al, 2008). There is clearly recognition that a formal public diplomacy program must be developed specifically for the Middle East. The Centre for Arts and Culture published a paper, Cultural Diplomacy: Recommendations and Research that urges the government to increase funding to already existing programs, and to ensure that all activities promote US mores whilst recognising the value of foreign cultures and a desire to learn from them (Centre for Arts & Culture, 2004: 9). The State Department report mentioned above went further, outlining the need to:
Expand international cultural exchange programs, inviting more Arab and Muslim artists, performers and writers to the United States, and sending American counterparts to the Islamic world, encourage US cultural organisations to sponsor internships for young men and women from the Islamic world, and to encourage US museums to sponsor tours of artworks and artefacts from museums in the Middle East. (U.S. Department of State, 2005: 19-20).

Since these reports were published, there has been a slight increase in the funding. For example, currently US$1.3million has been invested in the Rhythm Road project run by Jazz at Lincoln Centre: a reworking of the Jazz Ambassador program from the Cold War, which has seen over 100 musicians visit the worlds most remote and conflict-ridden corners over the past three years to perform and run workshops (Wilkins, 2008). Countries visited include Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Saudi Arabia and Yemen, all places with a significant Islamic population. Ultimately, this engagement must be a twoAdi Diner 82889 Page 6

way exchange. Whilst Radio Sawa and Al-Hurra propagate US values and opinions, they do not engage the listener like direct cultural interactions, which are more effective in breeding positive opinions, as demonstrated by the Rhythm Road projects success. In addition to the USs efforts to win over the hearts and minds of the Islamic world, disillusionment in the US is growing amongst its European allies. Whilst these negative perceptions are seen as a significantly smaller threat to US interests, they nonetheless demonstrate a further negative trend in US popularity worldwide. The Pew Research Centres published findings in 2006 saw a decrease in favourable opinions towards the US from its allies in Europe. The most notable drop was 19% in Great Britain from 2002 to 2006 who is the USs most committed partner in the War on Terror. Furthermore, more people in Britain now believe the USs presence in Iraq is a larger danger to world peace that nuclear weapons in Iran (Kohut et al, 2006: 2-4). Contributing factors to this decline of public opinion include the ongoing mismanagement of the War in Iraq where the alleged weapons of mass destruction have not materialised; and a decrease in European confidence that George Bushs decisions are virtuous (Kohut et al, 2006: 11). This is compounded by the atrocities at Abu Ghraib and the continuing controversy surrounding Guantanamo Bay where prisoners are denied the very rights America claims they are fighting to protect. The most recent economic crisis is yet another dent in the armour of the US. Commentators are

writing about the end of American world dominance as a positive step to repairing the world. John Gray, an English philosopher in his article A Shattering Moment in Americas Fall from Power published in The Guardian, elaborates on his belief that the current financial crisis marks the end of American global leadership. Whilst successive administrations have lectured other emerging economies on sound financial practices, it was following a different set of rules at home (Gray, 2008). All of these incidents highlight the hypocrisy with which many see play out in the United States policies. These negative images are allowed to fester due to the neglect of a public diplomacy program (Fulton, 2004: 3). Thus, there have been calls from within the arts community to revive the old cold war cultural programs, with an understanding that artistic products can influence (Riding, 2005). Jazz music and musicians have proven, through their successful tours during the Cold War, that they are able to bridge the divide between the US and its detractors in Europe. However, the question of whether jazz is still a relevant American art form has been the subject of much discussion, and is the basis of Stuart Nicholsons book Is Jazz Dead? (Or Has it Moved to a New Address). Nicholson Adi Diner 82889 Page 7

argues that whilst the US is the undisputed birthplace of the genre, the most innovative work is being produced outside of the US, particularly in the Nordic region (Nicholson, 2005: XIII). This belief however advances the idea that jazz is an effective tool: it is now widely appreciated music with local dialects. Interestingly, Rhythm Road at JALC, although administrated by a jazz-focused organisation, toured Latin and urban music groups and intends to include other American music - blues, bluegrass zydeco, country and gospel in future tours with the desire to reach a broader audience (Wilkins, 2008). There is thus an implied acknowledgement that while jazz still embodies the essence of the United States, it no longer communicates to the breadth of people necessary, particularly in Europe. As stated above what works in one country does not necessarily work in another, and similarly, what worked in 1960 is not necessarily appropriate for 2008. For instance, jazz has been surpassed in popularity, particularly among younger generations, by newer sounds, such as hip-hop. This lead to the US government appointing Toni Blackman, a rap lyricist, vocalist, actress and writer as its Hip-Hop ambassador in 2006. However, the success of current cultural exchange programs such as the Rhythm Road at JALC proves that it is the combination of music and direct personal interaction that presents as the most potent cultural weapon for the US. A varied approach, based upon location and the populations ethnic make-up is necessary to maximise the potential to affect change in public opinion. There is the need for the US to create a two-way dialogue with both its enemies and its allies. Old forms of propaganda are no longer sufficient to sway public opinion. The Wilton Park Conference report in 2006 titled Public Diplomacy: Key Challenges and Priorities stated that, mutual understanding and trust are key to the success, or failure, or public diplomacy. Seeing ourselves through the eyes of others, a technique widely used in the business community, is now perceived as a necessary component in the development of effective public diplomacy strategies (Lane, 2006: 5). Toni Blackmans tours of Africa and South-East Asia confirmed her belief that there are many ways musical expression can be used more effectively to promote diplomacy (Blackman, 2006). However it is J. William Fulbright, a pioneer of US cultural diplomacy post-World War II, who so eloquently surmised the power of soft power when he stated: In the long course of history, having people understand your thought is much greater security than another submarine. (Lillywhite, 2008). For the US to reassert itself as the popular leader of the world, it must adopt cultural diplomacy as a core component of its foreign policy and this will begin with an increase in funding to already existing exchange programs. Adi Diner 82889 Page 8

Americans are currently casting their ballots to elect a new President. It is in the best interest of the incoming US President to ensure cultural diplomacy is brought to the forefront of US foreign policy. With the decreasing popularity of President Bush and his administrations foreign policy in both Europe and the Middle East, the next President will be required to help the US rejoin the global community, rather than remain outside of it. Cultural diplomacy has historically proven a successful weapon for the US to counter opposition to its values and foreign policy; currently, it is an underutilised tool that in the long term will help create positive opinions of the US.

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References
Akunyili, C. (2008) Islam and Cultural Diplomacy, Institute for Cultural Diplomacy Blackman, T. (2006) Rap Music Artist Discusses Hip Hop, International Diplomacy, http://usinfo.state.gov/usinfo/Archive/2006/Aug/01-973885.html Date Accessed: 06/10/08 Bound, K., Briggs, R., Holden, J. & Jones, S. (2007) Cultural Diplomacy. Demos. Chiozza, G. (2006) Disaggregating Anti-Americanism: An Analysis of Individual Attitudes Towards the United States Paper presented at the annual convention of the International Studies Association, San Diego Cummings, M. (2003) Cultural Diplomacy and the United States Government: A Survey, Centre for Arts and Culture De Young, K. & Pincus, W. (2008) U.S. to Fund Pro-American Publicity in Iraqi Media, Washington Post, 03 Oct Dutta-Bergman, M. J. (2008) U.S. Public Relations in the Middle East: A Critical Analysis, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, New York Fenner, L. (2007) Jazz, Americas Best Ambassador Breaks Down Barriers Article published online at http://www.america.gov/st/washfileenglish/2007/September/20070919140158xlrennef0.6895563.html Date Accessed: 06/10/08 Fulton, B. (2004) Taking the Pulse of American Public Diplomacy in a Post-9/11 World. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Montreal. Gillespie, D. (1957) At Newport, Verve Gioia, D. (2006) Cool Jazz and the Cold War NEA Arts Vol. 2: 7-10 Gray, J. (2008) A shattering moment in Americas fall from power, The Observer, 28 Sept Iskandar, A. (2008) "Speaking To The Enemy: US Government Public Diplomacy and Discourses of Cultural Hybridity" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication Association, New York Jenkins, T. (2007) Why should artists be agents of government? The Independent, 28 Feb Kohut, A., Doherty, C. & Wike, R. (2006) Americas Image Slips, but Allies share U.S. Concerns over Iran, Hamas, The Pew Global Attitudes Project Lewis, M. (1999) Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics American Theatre, Vol 16 Issue 3, March: 6-7. Adi Diner 82889 Page 10

Lillywhite, J. (2008) On Globalisation, the Internet and Cultural Diplomacy: A Perspective Article published online at http://www.culturaldiplomacynews.org/index.php?aid=372 Date Accessed: 21/09/08 Maggin, D. (2004) Dizzy: The Life and Times of John Birks Gillespie. New York: HarperCollins Nicholson, S. (2005) Is Jazz Dead? (Or Has it Moved to A New Address). New York: Routledge Riding, A. (2005) Rerun Our Cold War Cultural Diplomacy New York Times, 27 Oct Rutenburg, J. (2008) The Man Behind The Whispers New York Times, 13 Oct Schneider, C. (2003) Diplomacy That Works: Best Practices in Cultural Diplomacy, Centre for Arts & Culture Shuja, S. (2008) Why America Cannot Ignore Soft Power, Contemporary Review, Spring 2008: 16-22 U.S. Department of State (2005) Cultural Diplomacy: The Lynchpin of Public Diplomacy, Washington: U.S. Department of State United States Information Agency (1998) United States Information Agency: Washington, USIA Centre for Arts & Culture (2004) Cultural Diplomacy: Recommendations and Research: Washington DC, Centre for Arts & Culture WP06/ 21 (2006) Public Diplomacy: Key Challenges and Priorities, Wilton Park Conference Wilkins, T. (2008) Jazz Diplomacy for Troubled blog/2008/9/17/rhythm-road Date Accessed: 25/09/08 Times http://www.jazz.com/jazz-

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