UNIT-2

Definition of society. Characteristics of society.

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and definition of society

Characteristics of society

Conclusion

Introduction

The term society is the most fundamental Concept in sociology.

Sociology is established as a separate science to study human society
scientifically. Human life and society are two faces of the same coin.
Man cannot live alone. He lives every Where in groups in society.
Society has became an essential condition for all round development
of personality. Hence “Aristotle” recognized that “Man is a social
animal.” man has created his own society because of his intellectual
capacity. Sociology only deals with human society.

Meaning and definition of society

In simple term. society is very loosely used in their daily life. Thus the
expression the agricultural society, women’s society, rural society
the weaver’s society, Cooperative Society, etc, But in sociology the
term society has a specific meaning

The term ‘society’ is derived from the Latin word ‘socius’. Which
means “companionship or friendship. It refers to the social nature of
man. companionship thus means sociability.

1] Maclver and page :“Society is “the web of social relationships

2] G .D.M. Cole :“Society is a complex of organised associations and
institutions within the community.”

3] Prof F. H. Giddings :“Society is the union itself, the Organisation,

the sum of formal relations in which associating individuals are
bound together.”

Characteristics of Society

Society the Group of Groups:

People collect together to form groups. Such groups combine

together to give rise to society. Every society has family, neighbour,
village, city, labour association, religious gathering, Political Parties
etc,
H.M.Johnson Has thus remarked that “society is the group of
groups”. But it is not just like a crowd. It is a system. It consists of
innumerable groups Which fulfil the various needs of the people.

Society is a web of Social Relations :

Social relation means ”The reciprocal contact between two or more

persons. Social relationships have a Wide range. For example
Teacher student, parent-children, patient-doctor, husband -wife and
so on. One individual enters in to several social relationships at the
same time. Maclver and page Point out that “society exists only
Where social beings behave towards one another in ways
determined by their recognisation of one another. Thus society is a
web of social relations.

Similarity or Likeness: The principle of ‘likeness’ is essential for

society. It exists among the people have similarities with regards to
their needs, works, aims, Ideals, values and so on. These similarities
inspire the people to interact and like each other and live together.
Hence mutual intimacy, Co-operation, love and affection, Sympathy,
sacrifice and feeling of oneness among people develops. Similarly
the people of same nature and behaviour live together in society.

Differences in Society :

Likeness and differences are two faces of the same coin. Therefore
we see natural differences among people in their interest, ability,
talent, attitude, intelligence and so on. Thus we find farmers,
labourers. Teachers, soldiers, businessmen, advocates, doctors,
engineers and others working in different capacities, Maclver and
page Said that “Primary likeness and Secondary differences are the
chief features of human Society

Co-Operation and Division of Labour :

Human Society is essentially based on ‘Co-operation and division of

labour.

Due to the feeling of Co-operation people share their joys and

Sorrows. The mutual Co~operation between male and female. is
essential for the reproduction of human race and lead to the growth
of culture and civilization.

The division of labour depends on peoples interest , ability, sex, and

age etc. Due to division of labour in various fields task are performed
more efficiently. In modern society, skilled and specialised persons
have more importance. Thus co-operation and division of labour are
reciprocal.

Interdependence:

Interdependence is another characteristic of society. An individual

seeks the satisfaction of his wants and the fulfillments of his goals
with the co-operation of others. For example “Family is a primary
institution is based on interdependence of members. With the
growth of civilisation and industrialization the need of
interdependence has increased. Today not only individuals are
interdependent but even communities are also interdependent.

Social Control :

Society has its own ways and means of controlling the behaviour 0f
its members '. society has formal and informal means of social
control‘ Simple society has customs folkways more, traditions, and
other informal means of social control. In modern complex society
we find law, legislation, police, Court and other formal means of
social control to regulate the behaviour of its members. Hence it is
very much essential for the stability and integrity of society.

Society is Dynamic :

Society keeps on changing forever. No society can ever remain

constant for a long period. New associations, institutions and groups
may come into being and old ones may die a natural death. Changes
may take place slowly or suddenly at a rapid pace. For example in
the rural society changes may occur at a slower pace; whereas in an
urban society changes will occur at a faster pace.

Definition Community. The elements of community.

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and definition

Elements of community

Conclusion

Introduction
Community is also an important concept in sociology. Community is
a geographic area having common interests and activities. It is
community is essentially an area of social living and marked by some
degree of social coherence. It includes a variety of associations and
institutions Within the range of at their economic, religious, political,
educational and other activities.

Meaning and Definitions :

Generally the term community is very loosely used Thus the

expressions like a caste community, a racial community, a religious
community, a linguistic community are used in a very limited sense.
But its sociological meaning is different and specific. The following
definitions make its sociological meaning some What clear.

1 E. S. Bagardus :“ Community is a Social Group with some degree of

“we feeling” and living in a given area”.

2. Kingsley Devis :“ Community is the smallest territorial group

that can embrace all aspects of social life

3. Lundberg :Community is a human Population living within a

limited geographic area and carry on a common interdependent life
Examples Tribe, Village, Urban, Taluk, District, State, Nation etc.

Elements of community

E.A. Bogardus Identified the following elements by community.,

Geographic area or locality and community sentiments are
considered as the essential elements of community. They are also
considered as Characteristics of community

A) Locality 0r Geographical area :

A Community is a territorial group. It always occupies some

geographic area. Locality is the physical basis of a community.
Locality Means “ A group of people became a community only when
it starts to reside permanently in a definite locality.

In Contrast With Society a community is more or less locally limited.

Living together facilitates people to develop social contacts, gives
protection, safety and security. It helps the members to promote
and fulfill their common interests. In Community physical conditions
may influence peoples social life, family, religion, belief, employment
etc.

The physical factors such as fertile soil, minerals, forests, water

resources, vegetation climate etc are included in the locality. These
factors influence the lives of community members in several ways.
They have a close bearing on their economic activities in particular.

Community sentiment : “ a feeling of belongingness towards. or “ a

kind of conscious identification with the local group.”

Community sentiment makes the people share their joys and

sorrows and brings social integrity in them. Common interests, and
similar life styles awakens community sentiments in people

Elements of community sentiment :

According to Maclver and Page Community sentiments contains

three main ingredients viz a) we feeling b) role-feeling, and c)
dependency feeling”

‘We-Feeling’ :It refers of the “ sense of communion” With the group

or community. This feeling leads men to identity themselves With
others so that they are able to develop “ we”=sentiment”. ’

‘Role-Feeling’ :Each person feels that he has a role to play, a

function to fulfil in the community affairs. This feeling involves the
Sub-ordination of the individual to the community as a whole.
Dependency Feeling: Every member of the community feels that he
is dependent upon the community. This involves both the
dependence and psychological dependence.

Hence these three elements are must in community sentiment

Community sentiment essential changes in accordance with
community size. If community is smaller the community sentiment
would be stronger, If community is larger the community sentiment
is diluted.

Other Characteristic of community In addition to the above

elements there are also others characteristics Which are essential
to community. They may be briefly examined here.

C) Stability or Relative Permanence;A community is not

temporary group like a crowd or a mob. It includes ‘ a permanent life
in a definite territory. As along as there is life on the earth, People
continue to reside permanently all through their life in the
communities. Therefore it is relatively stable. In exceptional case due
to natural calamities like earthquake or floods or any other reasons
communities may be destroyed.

D) Naturalness :- Communities are normally established in a

natural way. They are not deliberately created. They are not made
by planned efforts. The members of a community are the individuals
who are born in a community, As people live over a period of time in
a particular territory naturally the community feeling develops. Thus
communities are spontaneous in there origin and development. It
has a natural growth of its own.

Size of the Community: Community has no certain size. A

community may be big or small. A village is small community where
as a city is a big one. A city and a village may be included in a wider
community called the district. Hence there are communities within
communities. Nation as a big community, may include communities
like, Village, towns, cities, tribe, etc

Social Control :. Every community has its own rules and regulations
to control the relationship of its members. The nature of this
regulation depends Very much on the nature and type of the
community. For example In the rural and tribal communities
informal means of regulations such as customs, folkways, mores,
beliefs, rites, and rituals etc are enough to exercise social pressure
on the behaviour of the people, where as in the urban communities
formal means of control such as laws, legislations, police, Courts play
the role of controlling the behaviour.

A Specific Name :Every community has some particular name.

whether community is a village or a city or a tribe it has its own
name and identity. on the basis of these one community is
distinguished from the other.

Social System.

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and definition

Characteristics of social system

Conclusion

Introduction

Social system
The term ‘system’ implies an orderly arrangement, an
interrelationship of parts. In the arrangement, every part has a fixed
place and definite role to play. The parts are bound by interaction.
To understand the functioning of a system, for example the human
body, one has to analyse and identify the sub-systems (e.g.
circulatory, nervous, digestive, excretionary systems etc.) and
understand how these various subsystems enter into specific
relations in the fulfillment of the organic function of the body.

Likewise, society may be viewed as a system of interrelated mutually

dependent parts which cooperate to preserve a recognisable whole
and to satisfy some purposes or goal. Social system may be
described as an arrangement of social interactions based on shared
norms and values. Individuals constitute it and each has place and
function to perform within it.

Meaning of Social System:

It is Talcott Parsons who has given the concept of ‘system’ current in

modern sociology. Social system refers to’ an orderly arrangement,
an inter relationships of parts. In the arrangement, every part has a
fixed place and definite role to play. The parts are bound by
interaction. System signifies, thus, patterned relationship among
constituent parts of a structure which is based on functional
relations and which makes these parts active and binds them into
reality.

Definitions

The social system, according to Charles P. Loomis, is composed of

the patterned interaction of visual actors whose’ relation to each
other are mutually oriented through the definition of the mediation
of pattern of structured and shared symbols and expectations.

Characteristics of Social System:

1. System is connected with the plurality of Individual actors:

It means that a system or social system cannot be borne as a result

of the activity of one individual. It is the result of the activities of
various individuals. For system, or social system, interaction of
several individuals has to be there.

2. Aim and Object:

Human interactions or activities of the individual actors should not

be aimless or without object. These activities have to be according to
certain aims and objects. The expression of different social relations
borne as a result of human interaction.

3. Order and Pattern amongst various Constituent Units:

Mere coming together of various constituent units that from social

system does not necessarily create a social system. It has to be
according to a pattern, arrangement and order. The underlined unity
amongst various constituent units brings about ‘social system’.

4. Functional Relationship is the Basis of Unity:

We have already seen different constituent units have a unity in

order to form a system. This unity is based on functional relations.
As a result of functional relationships between different constituent
units an integrated whole is created and this is known as social
system.

5. Physical or Environmental Aspect of Social System:

It means that every social system is connected with a definite

geographical area or place, time, society etc. In other words it means
that social system is not the same at different times, at different
place and under different circumstances. This characteristic of the
social system again point out towards its dynamic or changeable
nature.

6. Linked with Cultural System:

Social system is also linked with cultural system. It means that

cultural system bring about unity amongst different members of
the society on the basis of cultures, traditions, religions etc.

7. Expressed and implied Aims and Objects:

Social system is also linked with expressed and implied aims. In other
words, it means that social system is the coming together of
different individual actors who are motivated by their aims and
objectives and their needs.

8. Characteristics of Adjustment:

Social system has the characteristic of adjustment. It is a dynamic

phenomenon which is influenced by the changes caused in the social
form. We have also seen that the social system is influenced by the
aims, objects and the needs of the society. It means that the social
system shall be relevant only if it changes itself according to the
changed objects and needs. It has been seen that change takes place
in the social system due to human needs, environment and historical
conditions and phenomena.

9. Order Pattern and Balance:

Social system has the characteristics of pattern, order and balance.

Social system is not an integrated whole but putting together of
different units. This coming together does not take place in a
random and haphazard manner. There is an order am’ balance.

It is so because different units of the society do not work as

independent units but they do not exist in a vacuum but in a
sociocultural pattern. In the pattern different units have different
functions and roles. It means that there is a pattern and order in the
social system.

Social value

SYNOPSIS
Introduction

Meaning and definition

Functions of social value

Conclusion

Introduction

Meaning of Values:

In sociology, the meaning of value is different from meaning of value

in economics or philosophy. For example, in economics values
means price. Social values form an important part of the culture of
the society. Values account for the stability of social order. They
provide the general guidelines for social conduct. Values such as
fundamental rights, patriotism, respect for human dignity,
rationality, sacrifice, individuality, equality, democracy etc. guide our
behaviour in many ways. Values are the criteria people use in
assessing their daily lives; arrange their priorities and choosing
between alternative course of action.

G.R. Leslie, R.F. Larson, H.L. Gorman say, “Values are group
conceptions of the relative desirability of things”.

According to H.M. Johnson, “Values are general standards and may

be regarded as higher order norms”.
Young and Mack write, “Values are assumption, largely unconscious,
of what is right and important”.

Michael Haralambos says “A value is a belief that something is good

and worthwhile. It defines what is worth having and worth striving”.

According to Peter Worsley, “Values are general conceptions of “the

good”, ideas about the kind of ends that people should pursue
throughout their lives and throughout the many different activities
in which they engage”.

In simple words, values may be defined as measure of goodness or

desirability.

Values are standards of social behaviour derived from social

interaction and accepted as constituent facts of social structure.
They are objects that social conditions desire. These are culturally
defined goals and involve “sentiments and significance.” These
consist of “aspirational reference.”

Values are expected to be followed for judging and evaluating social

interaction, goals, means, ideas, feelings and the expected conduct.
Without such evaluating standard, it would be difficult to judge
individual behaviour or social action. Values aim to integrate
expected individual behaviour and social action. It tends to forestall
tension and as such have tension management role.

Relation between Norms and Values:

Norms and values have salient relation. Norms are specific, values
are not. There may be, in a particular situation, delusion of norms,
but values are commanding. Norms are rules for behaving: they say
more or less specifically what should or should not be done by
particular types of actors in given circumstances. Values are
standard of desirability that are more nearly independent of specific
situations.

The same value may be a point of reference for a great many specific
norms; a particular norm may represent the simultaneous
application of several separable values. Thus, the value premise
“equality” may enter into norms for relationships between husband
and wife, brother and brother, teacher and student and so on.

On the other hand, the norm “a teacher must not show favoritisms
in grading” may in particular instance involve the value of equality,
honesty, humanitarianism and several others. Values, as standards
(criteria) for establishing what should be regarded as desirable,
provide the grounds for accepting or rejecting particular norm.

Functions of Values:

1. Values provide goals or ends for the members to aim for.

2. Values provide for stabilities and uniformities in group interaction.

They hold the society together because they are shared in
common. Some sociologists argue that shared values form the
basis for social unity. Since they share the same values with
others, the members of society are likely to see others as “people
like themselves”. They will therefore, have a sense of belonging to
a social group. They will feel a part of the wider society.

3. Values bring legitimacy to the rules that govern specific activities.

The rule are accepted as rules and followed mainly because they
embody the values that most people accept. The Americans for
example, believe that the capitalist organization is the best one
because it allows people to seek success in life.

4. Values help to bring about some kind of adjustment between

different sets of rules. The people seek the same kinds of ends or
 goals in different field of their life. Hence, it is possible for them to
modify the rules to help the pursuit of this end.

For example, if the Indian people cherish the value of “the principle
of equality”, then they will have to modify the rules governing the
interpersonal relationship of husband and wife; and man and
woman. As and when new activities emerge, people create rules in
the light of their beliefs about what is ‘good’ and ‘right’.

Social structure

Social structure is the basic concept for the proper understanding of

society. Herein we propose to give a somewhat detailed view of the
important concept of social structure.

I. Meaning of Social Structure:

Since long many efforts have been made to define ‘Social Structure’
but still there is no unanimity of opinion on its definition.

Herbert Spencer was the first writer to throw light on the structure
of society. He called society an organism but his view of society was
confused. Emile Durkheim also made a futile attempt to define it.

The following are the important views on social structure:

(i) Nadel’s view:

S. F. Nadel writes, “We arrive at the structure of society through
abstracting from the concrete population and its behaviour, the
pattern or net work (or system) of relationships obtaining between
actors in their capacity of playing roles relative to one another.”

Nadel has tried to explain in his definition that ‘structure’ refers to a

definable articulation, an ordered arrangement of parts. It is related
to the outer aspect or the framework of society and is totally
unconcerned with the functional aspect of society. So he has
emphasized that the social structure refers to the network of social
relationship which is created among the human beings when they
interact with each other according to their statuses in accordance
with the patterns of society.

Nadel, therefore, says, “structure indicates an ordered arrangement

of parts, which can be treated as transportable, being relatively
invariant, while the parts themselves are variable. According to him
there are three elements of a society: —

(i) a group of people

(ii) institutionalized rules according to which the members of the

group interact

(iii) an institutionalized pattern or expression of these interactions

The institutionalized rules or patterns do not change easily and this

creates orderliness in society. These rules determine the statuses
and roles of the individuals. There is an order among these roles and
statuses also which provides an ordered arrangement of human
beings.

(ii) Ginsberg’s view:

According to Ginsberg, “The study of social structure is concerned
with the principal forms of social organisation, i.e. types of groups,
associations and institutions and the complex of these which
constitute societies……. A full account of social structure would
involve a review of the whole field of comparative institutions.”

Ginsberg has written that the human beings organise themselves

into groups for the achievement of some object or goal and these
groups are called as institutions. The sum total of these institutions
gives birth to the structure of society.
The main defect of Ginsberg’s view is that he does not make any
distinction between social structure, social organisation and social
groups. At another place he writes, “The social structure of a
community includes the different types of groups which people form
and the institutions in which they take part.”

(iii) Radcliffe Brown’s view:

Radcliffe Brown was a great social anthropologist of England. He
belongs to the structural-functional school of sociology. He writes,
“The components of social structure are human beings, the structure
itself being an arrangement of persons in relationship institutionally
defined and regulated.

To clarify his definition he quoted examples from the Australian and

African tribal societies. He said that kinship system among them is
the description of institutionalized relationship. These relationships
bind the individuals together in a specialised way and thus ascribe to
them particular positions.

The kin, occupying the set of positions, creates a pattern which is

termed as “kinship structure.” He cited another example from the
Thonga and Bantu tribes of South Africa. There is a custom of paying
‘Bride-price’ called labola among them. This custom related to
marriage binds the individuals together. For the payment of labola
not only the members of family, but also the kith and kin join their
hands together.

This labola is given as an economic aid to be used at the time of

marriage of the bride’s brother or her near relatives. Thus the
institution of marriage brings not only the members of the families
but also brings a kind of economic aid. Thus the institutionally
defined and regulated marital relations become a link between two
families in the socio-economic field and thus their determined
positions create a pattern of marriage and kinship structure.

Later on, Radcliffe Brown gave another definition of social structure.

He said, “…Human beings are connected by a complex network of
social relations. I use the term ‘social structure’ to denote this
network of actually existing relations.” The components of social
structure are persons, and a person is a human being considered not
as an organism but as occupying position in a social structure.

Radcliffe Brown considers social structure as real as are individual

organisms. According to him, both the social structure and the
human organism are prone to change yet they are stable. By change
he means that the organs of both the structures are liable to
development or destruction. The capabilities of the human organism
first develop from infancy to maturity and then their downfall starts
in old age. Similarly, in social structure, new human beings take their
birth and the old go on dying.

But inspite of this continuous change their basic features remain

stable. In other words, we may say that the functional aspect of
social structure is always under change while outer framework is
stable. Radcliffe has used the terms, ‘actual structure’ and ‘general
structure’ respectively.

He has distinguished between structural form, and ‘social structure’.

Social structure is abstract; its expression is possible only in the
functions or roles of the parts or units of social structure. Therefore,
we can understand social structure only in terms of the functions or
roles of its components.

(iv) Parsons’ view:

According to Talcott Parsons, “Social structure is a term applied to
the particular arrangement of the interrelated institutions, agencies
and social patterns as well as the statuses and roles which each
person assumes in the group.”

Talcott Parsons has tried to explain the concept of social structure in

abstract form. All the units of social structure, i.e. institutions,
agencies, social patterns, statuses and roles are invisible and
intangible and hence are abstract. He has emphasized that the
statuses and roles of individuals are determined by customs,
traditions and conventions of society.

These statuses give birth to different institutions, agencies and

patterns. All these when interrelated and organised in a particular
manner build the social structure of society. Social structure is
concerned with forms of inter-relationship between these units
rather than with the units. These units constitute the society. The
ordered arrangement seen between these units is social structure.

ROLE AND STATUS IN GEETA PDF

SOCIAL NORMS AND VALUES IN GEETA PDF
CULTURE IN GEETA PDF
SOCIALIZATION IN GEETA PDF

SOCIAL GROUPS

Meaning and Definition: All human beings live in groups. Man’s daily
life is made up largely of participating in groups like family, peer
group, friendship group, school, college factory, office, hospital, bank
etc. So the study of sociology means the study of social groups.

According to Harry M. Johnson. “Sociology is the science that deals

with social groups”
Marshal Jones is of the opinion that a social group is ‘two or more
people between whom there is an established pattern of
interaction’.
R. M. Maclver and Page define social group as – ‘any collection of
human beings who are brought into human relationships with one
another.’

Ogburn and Nimkoff: “Whenever two or more individuals come

together and influence one another, they any be said to constitute a
social group.”

R. K. Merton: Group refers to “a number of people who interact with

one another in definite ways. Feel that they belong to the group, and
are regarded by others as members of the group.”

Characteristics of social group

A) Collection of Interacting Individuals: Social groups consists of

people. Social interaction is the very basis of group life, Hence, mere
collection of individuals does not make a group. The members must
have interaction. A social group is, in fact, a system of social
interaction. Different interaction patterns exist in different groups
such as family, friendship, and recreational associations etc.

B) Sense of Group Unity and Solidarity: Depending on the nature of

the group, its members are tied together by a sense of unity. The
solidarity or unity of a group is largely dependent upon the
frequency, the variety, and the emotional quality of the interactions
of its members. A friends’ group, or a peer group, or a professional
association is highly united because its members are related by
several common interests. Further, they maintain regular social
contacts with one another and express a high degree of belonging
and of loyalty. Unity is maintained more often by conscious efforts
C) Group Goals and Interests: The interests and goals of a group are
said to be common. Groups are mostly formed or established for the
fulfillment of certain interests. In fact, men not only join groups but
also from groups for the realization of their objectives or interests.
Forms of the group differ depending upon the interests of the
groups, educational groups, professional groups, recreational groups
and so on, to cater to the different needs and interests of the
members.

D) Groups are Stronger Than Their Individual Members: A group is

more than the sum of its parts. As Durkheim noted a group has a
reality of its own, or “suigeneris”. For example, the age and size of a
group are not simply derived from the ages and sizes of its members.
As Wallace and Wallace have pointed out, “Groups are generally
stronger collectively than even the strongest individual members.”
They have greater withstanding capacity and last longer than the
individual members

E) Group Norms: Every group has its own rules or norms which
the members are supposed to follow. These norms may be in the
form of customs, folkways, mores, traditions, conventions, laws, etc.
They may be written or unwritten norms or standards. Every group
has its own Sociology ways and means of correcting those who go
against the rules. The continued group-life of man practically
becomes impossible without some norms. These norms are
comparatively stronger and effective in organized groups whereas
they are found to be more relaxed and less effective in unorganized
groups such as crowds and mobs.

F) Size of the Group: Every group involves an idea of size. Social

groups vary in size. A group may be as small as that of a dyad (two
members’ group e.g. husband-and-wife-family) as big as that of a
political party having lakhs of members. Size will have its own impact
on the character of the group. Membership is limited or unlimited
depending on its purpose.

G) Groups are Dynamic: Social groups are but dynamic. They are
subject to changes whether slow or rapid. Old members die and new
members are born. Some existing groups may disintegrate and new
groups may come to be formed. Small groups may develop into
gigantic groups, and the larger ones may shrink in size. Group goals
and interests, group norms and procedures, group activities and
roles are all subject to change. Whether due to internal or external
pressures or forces, groups undergo changes.

H) Degree of Stability: Groups are found to be stable or unstable;

permanent of temporary in character. Some groups like, the crowd,
mob, audience, spectators, group, etc., are purely temporary and
unstable. But many groups such as political parties, students union
professional organisations and trade unions are relatively permanent
and stable in character.

CLASSIFICATION OF GROUPS

Sociologists have made a number of useful distinctions between

types of groups.

‘In-Groups’ and ‘Out-Groups”

W.G.Sumner In his book ‘Folkways’ differentiates between ‘in-

groups’ and ‘out-groups’. An ‘in-Group’ is simply the We-group, and
‘Outgroup’ the ‘They-group’. In-group is one to which an individual
belongs, or feels that he belongs; and the rest of the groups are “out-
groups”. Thus, an out-group is one to which an individual does not
belong or feels that he does not belong, in a particular context.
Examples: One’s own family, peer group, friendship group, religious
group, caste group, linguistic group, occupational group etc., are “in-
groups”, and other groups, are “out-groups”.

Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft

German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies classified communities into

“Gemeinschaft” and “Gesellschaft”. These two terms have been
translated into English as “Community” and “Association”
respectively. (i) Gemeinschaft: The ‘Gemeinschaft’ is characterized by
“Intimate, private, and exclusive living together”. It represents a
social groups in which individuals are involved in the process of
interaction as ‘persons’. They feel that they can satisfy all or most of
a wide range of purposes in the group. The family, kin group, the
neighbourhood, the rural community, the friends group represent
the Gemeinschaft

(ii) Gesellschaft: The Gesellschaft represents relationships that are

specific, partial, and utilitarian. Business contract, legal pacts
between individuals represent the Gesellschaft relationships.
Business companies, corporations, cities, towns, etc., represent
‘Gesellschaft’ type groups.

Primary Groups and Secondary Groups:

C. H. Cooley classified groups into primary and secondary groups.

Primary groups refer to “a social groups characterized by facte -
toface relationship, mutual aid and companionship”, Ex-family,
neighborhood friends club, peer groups etc. The “Groups which
provide experience lacking in intimacy” can be called secondary
groups, Ex: Schools and college the factory, the army, the labour
union, political party etc., (i) Involuntary and Voluntary Groups, (ii)
Institutional and Non-Institutional Groups, (iii) Temporary and
Permanent Groups: In his ‘Psychology of Human Society’

Charles A. Ellwood mentioned three categories of groups.

Involuntary Groups are those whose membership is beyond the

control of the individuals concerned. Membership is mostly
compulsory for the individuals who are born into these groups and
thus they have the least or no control over them. Examples: Family,
caste, racial and religious groups, the state, community, etc.,

Voluntary Groups are those whose membership is not compulsory.

Individuals have the freedom to join or not to join them. Examples:
Political parties, recreational clubs, cultural associations, sports
clubs, rotary club, etc.,

Institutional Groups are those that have the nature, structure and
the character of institutions. They are more stable and permanent.
Examples: Family, school, college, factory, hospital etc.,

Non-Institutional Groups are those that are either like organized or

unorganized and temporary groups. They do not have any
institutions base. Example: (i) Political parties, cultural associations,
recreational clubs, etc., which are relatively organized and more
permanent in nature. (ii) Crowds, mobs, audience, spectators’ group,
which mostly unorganized and highly temporary in nature.
(iii)Temporary Groups are like the unorganized groups and are short
lived. Examples: Crowd, mob, audience, etc.,
 Permanent Groups are like the institutional and the organized
groups and are relatively permanent. Examples: University, Bank,
trade union, political party, religious groups, etc.,

Horizontal and Vertical Groups:

American sociologist P. A. Sorokin classified groups into horizontal

and vertical groups.
Horizontal groups are large and inclusive groups in nature. Examples:
Nations, Organization, religious, racial groups and political parties
etc., Vertical groups are smaller divisions which give the individual
his distinctive status and rank in society. Example: Economic classes
[upper, middle and lower classes] and caste groups. Since the smaller
vertical group is a part of large horizontal one, the individual belongs
to both.

Territorial and Non-Territorial Groups:

American sociologist Park and Burgess distinguished between

territorial groups which have a territorial basis [e.g., communities,
tribes and states] and non-territorial groups which do not have any
spatial aspect [e.g., classes, castes, crowds and public]

Organised and Unorganised Groups:

On the basis of the degree of organization, groups have been

classified into “Organised groups” [Example: College, Bank, Hospital,
etc.,] and unorganized groups [Example: Crowd, mob, audience,
etc.,]