Semiconductor Diode @ 87 (ii) Peak inverse voltage. {tis the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand with- out destroying the junctio Ifthe reverse voltage across a diode exceeds this Value, the reverse current increases sharply and. breaks down the junction due to excessive heat. Peak inverse voltage is extremely important when diode is used as a rectifier. In rectifier service, it has to be ensured that reverse voltage across the diode does not exceed its PLV during the negative half-cycle of input ac. voltage. As a matter of fact, PIV consideration is generally the deciding factor in diode rectifier circuits. The peak inverse volt- age may be between TOV and 10 kV depending upon the type of diode ii) Reverse current or teakage current. It is the current that flows through a reverse biased diode. This current is due to the minority carriers. Under normal operating voltages, the reverse current is quite small. Its value is extremely small (< Ij. A) for silicon diodes but itis appreciable (= 100 A) for germanium diodes. Itmay be noted that the reverse current is usually very small as compared with forward current. For example, the forward current for a typical diode might range upto 100 mA while the reverse current might be only a few wA—a ratio of many thousands between forward and reverse currents. 6.7 Crystal Diode Rectifiers For reasons associated with economics of generation and transmission, the electric power available is usually ana. supply. The supply voltage varies sinusoidally and has frequency of $0 Hz. Itis used for lighting, heating and electric motors. But there are many applications (e.g. electronic circuits) where dc, supply is needed. When such a d.c. supply is required, the mains ac. supply is rectified by using crystal diodes. The following two rectifier circuits can be used | (i) Half-wave rectifier (ii) Full-wave rectifier 6.8 Half-Wave Rectifier In half-wave rectification, the rectifier conducts current only during the positive half-cycles of input .¢, supply, The negativehalf-cycles of ac. supply are suppressed i. during negative half-eycles, no current is conducted and hence no voltage appears across the load. Therefore, current always flows. in one direction (i.e, d.c.) through the load though after every half-cycle. ti @ Fig. 620 Ciecuit details. Fig. 6.20 shows the circuit where a single crystal diode acts as a half-wave rectifier, The a.c, supply to be rectified is applied in series with the diode and load resistance R Generally, ac. supply is given through a transformer ‘The use of transformer permits two advantages. Firstly, it allows us to step up or step down the ac. input voltage asthe situation demands. Secondly, the transformer isolates the rectifier circuit from power line and thus reduces the risk of electric shock.88 = Principles of Electronics Operation, The ac, voltage across the secondary winding AB changes polarities afer every halfeycle. During the positive half-cycle ofinput ac. voltage, end A becomes positive w.rt. end B. ‘This makes the diode forward biased and hence it conducts current. During the negative half-cyele, end is negative wrt, end 8, Under this condition, the diode is reverse biased and it conducts no current, Therefore, current flows through the diode during positive half-cycles of input ac. voltage only ; it is blocked during the negative half-cycles [See Fig. 6.20 (ii)]. In this way, current flows through load R always in the same direction. Henze dc. output is obtained across Ry. It may be noted that output across the load is pulsating dc. These pulsations in the output are further smooth- ‘ened with the help of filter circuits discussed later ‘Disadvantages : The main disadvantages of a half-wave rectifier are (The pulsating current in the load contains altemating component whose basic frequency is ‘equal to the supply frequency. Therefore, an elaborate filtering is required to produce steady direct curent (ii) The ac. supply delivers power only half the time. Therefore, the output is low. 6.9 Output Frequency of Half-Wave Rectifier ‘The output frequency of a half-wave rectifiers equsl to the input frequency (50 Mz). Recall how a complete cycle is defined. A waveform hasa complete eycle when it repeats the same wave pattern overa given time. Thus in Fig. 621 (i), the ac. input ¢ voliage repeats the same wave pattern over 0° ~ 360°, 360° ~ 720° and so on. In Fig. 6.21 (i), the output waveform also repeats the same Wave pattem over 0° ~ 360°, 360° ~ 720° and so on This means that when input ac. completes one eycle, the output half wave rectified wave also completes one cycle. In other words, the ‘output frequency is equal to the input frequency i. Sout = Son For example, ifthe input frequency of sine waye applied to a half-wave rectifier is 100 Hz, then frequency of the output wave will also be 100 Itz 6.10 Efficiency of Half-Wave Rectifier The ratio of de. powcr output othe applied input ae, power is wen known as rectifier efficiency ie. = d itput Recuterefteeny.n, = 4 DONE una Ac, SUPPLY Fig. 6.22 Consider a half-wave rectifier shown in Fig. 6.22. Let y= V,, sin bethe alternating voltage that appears across the secondary winding. Let r, and R, be the diode resistance and load resistance respectively. The diode conducts during positive half-cycles ofa.c. supply while no current conduc- tion takes place during negative half-cycles.: fon = 2301 = 395% (i) Efficiency of ectification = 9-275 x 100 = 39.5% Example 6.18. 4 half-wave rectifier is used to supply $0V'd.c. toa resistive load of 800.2 The diode has a resistance of 25 2. Calculate a.c. vollage required. Solution, Output de. voltage, I, = SOV Diode resistance, 1, = 25.0 Load resistance, R, = 800.0 Let I", be the maximum value of ac, voltage required & Vg = xk, = Bem 7a or 50 = was 4 Roo) 800 . reso Gna Hence a.c. voltage of maximum value 162 V is required. 6.11 Full-Wave Rectifier In full-wave rectification, current flows through the load in the same direction for both half-cycles of input ac. voltage. This can be achieved with two diodes working alternately, For the positive half- cycle of input voltage. one diode supplies current to the load and for the negative half-cycle, the other diode does so , current being always in the same direction through the load. Therefore, a full-wave tectifier utilises both half-cycles of input ac, vollage to produce the dc. output. The following two circuits are commonly used for full-wave rectification () Centre-tap full-waverectifier (ii) Fullewave bridge rectifier 6.12 Centre-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier The eireuit employs two diodes D, and D, as shown in Fig. 6.24. Acentre tapped secondary winding, AB is used with two diodes connected so that each uses one half-cycle of inputac. voltage. In other words, diode D, utilises the a.c. yollage appearing across the upper half (0.1) of secondary winding for rectification while diode D, uses the lower half winding OB ‘Operation. During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end A of the secondary winding becomes positive and end B negative. This makes the diode {), forward biased and diode D, reverse biased. Therefore, diode D, conducts while diode D, does not, The conventional current flow is through diode D,. load resistor R, and the upper half of secondary winding as shown by the dotted arrows. During the negative half-cycle, end 4 of the secondary winding becomes negative and end B positive. Therefore, diode D, conducts while diode D, does not, The conventional current flow is through diode D,, load R, and lower half winding as shown by solid arrows, Referring to Fig. 6.24, it may be seen that current in the oad R, isin the same chrection for both half-eycles of input ac. voltage, Therefore, dc. is obtained across the load Ry. Also, the polarities of the dc. output across the load should be noted.92 ™ Principles of Electronics Ac. SUPPLY Fig, 624 Peak inverse voltage. Suppose ¥,, is the maxi- ‘mum voltage across the half secondary winding. Fig 625 shows the citcuit atthe instant secondary voltage reaches its maximum value in the positive direction. Atthis instant, diode D, is conducting while diode Dy isnon-conduciing, Therefore, whole of the secondary voltage appears across the non-conducting diode. Con sequently, the peak inverse voltage is twice the maxi- ‘mum voltage across the half-secondary winding i. PIV =2v, Disadvantages (i) Its difficult to locate the centre tap on the secondary winding, Gi) The de. output is small as each diode utilises only one-half of the transformer secondary voltage. ii) The diodes used must have high peak inverse voltage, 6.13 Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier ‘The need for a centre tapped power transformer is eliminated in the bridge rectifier. {contains four diodes D,, Dy, Dy and D, connected to form bridge as shown in Fig. 6.26. The a. supply to be teclified is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge through the transformer. Between other two ends of the bridge, the load resistance R, is connected AG. SUPPLY Fig. 6.25 ‘SECONDARY ‘VOLTAGE DP,DD,DP, Fig. 626Semiconductor Diode ™ 93 om, During the postive alfeycle oF secondary vliag, the end P of the secortary Fiat Pelee and end @ agave Thismakes draes D, and Dy forward based wile Fi Oe evga bined Therefore, oly diedes D, aD conduct, These wo dds oi Oar oi avsghiheload, asshown inFig 6 27(7). The conventional cutent flow shown ant avoms lrmay be seen hat current ows fm A throu the ood Ry Tring te negative haleoyele of secondary vollage. en 7 cores negative and end @ post Uae erndcs Dy and D, forwand biased whereas dds D and D, ate reverse biased a ances, nial conduct. These two dds wil be inacris though the lea Ry a8 Rane eee eaT al the etrent Tow i shown by the sold artows. Hr may be seen that ag3in sae fom wo B though the load fe in the same direction as forthe posite hal-cycle ‘Thesefore de cutput is abtained actos lad. Ac, supply Fig. 627 Peak inverse voltage, ‘The peak inverse voltage (PIV) of cach diode is equal to the maximum. secondary voltage of transformer Suppose during positive half cycle of input ac.,.end P of second- ay is positive and end @ negative. Under such conditions, diodes D, and Dy are forward biased while diodes D, and D, are reverse biased. Since the diodes are considered ideal, dives D, and Dy Cunbreplaced by wineeas shown nFig-6.28 (0), Thiseireuit isthe same as shown in Fig. 6 28 (i. af | + £ 4 Dy Dy | AG, AG, "J y SUPPLY mA 8 suPpiy Dy ED | pyr, | - + 0 « Fig. 628 Referring 10 Fig. 6.28 (i) itis clear that two reverse biased diodes (ie. D, and D,) and the secondary of transformer are in parallel. Hence PIV of each diode (D, and D,) is equal to the maxi ‘mum voltage (V,,) actoss the secondary. Similarly, during the next half cycle, D, and D, are forward pet ail D, and D, will be reverse biased. Itis easy to see that reverse voltage across D, and D, Advantages (The need for centre-tapped transformer is eliminated (Gi) ‘The ouput is twice that of the centre-tap circuit for the same secondary voltage (iii) The PIV is one-half that of the centre-tap cizeuit (for same die. output) Disadvantages (0 It requires four diodes.94 @ Principles of Electronics (i) As during cach half-eycle of ac. input two diodes that conduct are in series, therefore, voltage drop in the internal resistance of the rectifying unit will be twice as great as in the centre tap. circuit. This is objectionable when secondary voltage is small, 6.14 Output Frequency of Full-Wave Rectifier ‘The output frequency of a full-wave rectifier is double the input frequency. Remember that a wave has a complete cycle when it eepeats the same pater. In Fig. 629 () the input ac. completes one cycle from 0° - 360°, However, the full-wave rectified wave completes 2 eycles in this period [See Fig. 6.29 (ii)]. Therefore, output frequency is twice the input frequency i. Sou” 2a FULL-WAVE RECTIFIED WAVE. 180° 300" o Fig. 629 For example, ifthe input frequency toa full-waye rectificr is 100 Hz, then the output frequency will be 200 H2, 6.15 Efficiency of Full-Wave Rectifier Fig. 6.30 shows the process of full-wave tectification. Let v= V, sin @ be the ac. voltage to be rectified Let r, and R, be the diode resistance and load resistance respectively. Obviously, the rectifier will conduct current through the load ia the same direction for both half-cycles of input a ¢. voltage, The instantaneous curtent is given by y Y. sino WR +R, i Fig. 6.30 4.c.output poser. The ouput currentis pulsating diteet current. Therefore, inorder to find the e. power, average current has to be found out. From the element tary knowledge of electrical engi neering,Semiconductor Diode ™ Q5 yy =e: aw 2 de.power ouput, Py = Boek, = (24) xR, o np power, Thea. input power iagiven by: Pe = Lalry+ RD) Fora full-wave rectified wave, we have, he, = NE Je * Py (4) rR) (i) ++ Full-wave rectification efficiency is =e . Clark, ” Boe In) (B) er 2, O8TR ost WU RD Ry R 1 ‘The efficiency will be maximum ifryis negligibleas compared to Ry. : Maximumetficieney = 81.2% Thisis double the efficiency due tohalf-wave rectifier. Therefore, full-wave rectifier is twice as effectiveas a half-wave rectifier. Example 6.16. A full-wave rectifier uses two diodes. the internal resistance of each diode may be assumed constant at 20 Q The transformer rm.s. secondary voltage from centre tap to each end of secondary is 50 V and load resistance (3 980 Find : (i) the mean load current (ii) the rms. value of load current Solution. 7 = 202, R,=9800 Max. ac. voltage, I, = 50xJ2 =70.7V , IV Max. load current, J, = Fok DHS = 70.7 mA 21, _ 2 ()— Meantoadcurrent,,, = 222 = 25707 = gsma (i) RMS. value of load current is 1 = 4, 707 mR Example 6.17. In the centre-tap circuit shown in Fig. 6.31, the diodes are assumed to be ideal Le. having zero internal resistance. Find : () de. output vohtage(ii) peak inverse voltage (iii) rectification efficiency. B= S0mASemiconductor Diode ® 101 The fact thata pulsating de. contains both de. and.a.c. compo- nents canbe beautifully illustrated by refersing to Fig, 6.38. Fig. 6.38 {(i)showsa pure dc. componeat, whereas Fig. 6.38 (ii) shows the ‘ac. ‘component. [fthese two waves areadded together, the resulting wave will be as shown in Fig. 6.38 (i). It is clear that the wave shown in Fig. 6.38 (ii) never becomes negative. although it contains both ac and d.¢. components. ‘The striking resemblance between the rectifier ‘output wave shown in Fig. 6.37 and the wave shown in Fig. 6.38 (if) Rectifier may be noted. Ie follows, therefore, thata pulsating output of a rectifier contains a de. component and.an ac. component 6.18 Ripple Factor ‘The output of a rectifier consists ofa d.¢. component and anc. component (also knownas ripple). The a.c. component is undesirable and accounts for the pulsations in the rectifier output. The effee- tiveness of a rectifier depends upon the magnitude of a.c. component in the output ; the smaller 1 ‘component, the more effective is the rectifier. The ratio ofrm-s value of a. component to the de. component in the rectifier output is known as ripple factor ie, ‘faascyalie of neeomponent, value of de component ~ Ty, Therefore, ripple factor is very important in decid- ing the effectiveness ofa rectifier. The smaller the ripple factor, the lesser the effectivea.e. eomponentand hence more effective isthe rectifier Mathemallcal analysis. The output current of a rectifier contains de. as well ase component. The undesired a.¢. component has a frequency of 100 Iz (i.e. double the supply frequency $0 Hz) and is salled the ripple (See Fig, 639). Itis a fluctuation su- Perimposed on the dc. component. Hie 639, By definition, the effective i.e. rms.) value of total load current is given by : Ripple factor = WoonsmipeLE fa (rma) re z or dig Dividing throughout by /,., we get, But, /L, is the ripple factor. Ripple factor For half-wave rectification, In half-wave rectification, Ine IN © Although thea ¢, component is nota sine-wave, yet itis alternating one102 © Principles of Electronics hae Ripplefactor = Fe} ~! = 121 tis clear that a.¢, component exceeds the de, component in the output of a half-wave rectifier. ‘This results in greater pulsations in the output, Therefore, half-wave recifier is ineffective for con- version of ac, into de. (i) For full-wave rectification. In full-wave rectification, Ripple factor = je, {itive ne component _ 545 de. component ‘This shows that in the output of a full-wave rectifier, the de component is move than the ac component. Consequently, the pulsations in the output will be less than in half-wave rectifier. For this reason, full-wave rectification is invariably used for conversion of ac. into dc. Example 6.22. A power supply A delivers 10 ¥' de with a ripple of 0.5 Virm.. while the power supply B delivers 25 V de with a ripple of I mV'rms. Which is better power supply ? Solution, The lower the ripple factor of a power supply, the better itis. For power supply A Ripple factor = S24 = For power supply B Ripple factor = “SYSR4 = 2991 5 100 = 0.004% Clearly, power supply B is better 6.19 Comparison of Rectifiers Rectifier type: Hal-wave Full-wave Centre-tap Bridge Rectifier Schematic ., diagram: * R ‘Typical ourput wavetirn: OO. 2. BAAN” ‘S.No. | Particulars Bridge type T_| No.of diodes a 2. | Transformer necessary n0 3 | Max efficiency 40.6% 81.2% 81.2% 4 | Ripple factor 121 0.48 0.48 5 | Output frequency ie 24, 2s, 6 | Peakinverse voltage v, 2V, ve102 ® Principles of Electronics 1,12) Ripple factor = fl 7 2) ~Vei2 {tis clear that a ¢. component exceeds the d c. component in the output of a half-wave rectifier. ‘This results in greater pulsations in the output. Therefore, half-wave rectifier is ineffective for con- version of ac, into de (di) For full-wave rectification. In full-wave rectification, In, = % Ripple factor = effective ac component _ ie, = de. component ‘This shows that in the output of a full-wave rectifier, the de. component is more than the ac. component, Consequently, the pulsations in the output will be less than in half-wave rectifier For this reason, full-wave rectification is invariably used for conversion of ac. into dc ‘sample 6.22. A power supply A delivers 10 V de with a ripple of 05 Vrms. while the power supply B delivers 25 V'de with a ripple of | mV'rmss. Which is better power supply? Solution, The lower the ripple factor of a power supply, the better itis For power supply A Ripple factor = For power supply B Ripple factor = Clearly, power supply B is better 6.19 Comparison of Rectifiers Rectifier type: Malfowave Fulbwave Cenvesap Bridge Rectifier Schematic Ry Aagram: ie a Ry) ‘Typical output wavetorm: OA AYN HEATING. S.No.| Particulars Talf-wave Bridge type 1_| No ofdiodes T 2 | Transformer necessary no 3 | Max efficiency 4 | Ripple factor S| Output frequency Sy 6 Peak inverse voltage E;104 ® Principles of Electronics capacitor is charged to the peak value V,, ofthe rectifier Voltage. Now, the rectifier voltage starts to decrease, As this occurs, the eapacitor discharges through the load and voltage across it (ie. actoss parallel combination of R-C) decreases as shown by the line AB in Fig. 6.41 (iii), The voltage actoss load will decrease only slightly because immediately the next voltage peak comes and recharges the capacitor. This process is repeated again and again and the output voltage waveform becomes ABCDEFG. It may be seen that very little ripple is left in the output. Moreover, output voltage is higher as it remains substantially near the peak value of rectifier output voltage. RECTIFIER OUTPUT Re a wa ity Fig. 6.41 -apacitor filter circuit is extremely popular because of its low cost, smalll size, little weight and good characteristics, For small load currents (say upto $0 mA), this type of filter is preferred, It in transistor radio battery eliminators, Choke input filter. Fig. 642 shows a typical choke input filter circuit. It consists of a choke L connected in series with the rectifier output and a filter capacitor C across the load. Only a single filter section is shown, but several identical sections are often used to reduce the pulsations as effectively as possible. The pulsating output of the rectifier is applied across terminals | and 2 of the filter circuit. As discussed before, the pulsating output of rectifier contains ac. and d.c. components. The choke offers high opposition to the passage of a.c, component but negligible opposition to the dc. compo- nent. The result is that most of the a.c. component appears across the choke while whole of dc. component passes through the choke on its way to load. This results in the reduced pulsations at terminal 3, © AGsDc. COMPONENT. LOAD Fig. 642 Atterminal 3, the rectifier output contains d.c. component and the remaining part of ac. compo- nent which has managed to pass through the choke. Now, the low reactance of filter capacitor by- passes the a,c, component but prevents the dc. component to flow through it. Therefore, only dc component reaches the load. In this way, the filter circuit has filtered out the a.c. component from the rectifier output, allowing d.¢, component to reach the load Capacitor input filter or z-filter. Fig. 6.43 shows a typical capacitor input filter or filter. Iteonsists ofa filter capacitor C, connected across the rectifier output, a choke Zin series and + "The shorthand name of inductor coil is choke. The shape ofthe circuit diagram of this filter circuit appears like Greek letter (pi) and hence the name efilterSemiconductor Diode ™ 105 another filter capacitor C, connected aerossthe ond. Only one iter sestion ff is stown but several identical sections are often used 1o improve the smoath- oor os ing action, ‘The pulsating output from the rectifier is applied across the input pecrisicn. terminals (ie. terminals Land2) ofthe “ourruT —> filter. The filtering action of the three components vie C), L and Cy of this filter is described below : ea toa (e) The filter cupacitor C, offers lw reactance to a. component of retiier output whi it offersinfinite reactanes tothe d&. component. Thetcfore, capacitor C, bypasses a apptecisble amount fac. component while the de- component continues its journey to the choke L. (0) The clioke (offers high reactance to the a.¢, component but it offers almost zero reactance tothe dc. component, Therefore, itallows thed.e. component to flow through it, while the *unbypassed .¢. component is blocked. (e) The filter capacitor C, bypasses the a€. component which the choke has failed to block. ‘Therefore, only dic. component appears across the load and that is what we desire Example 6.23. For the circuit shown in Fig. 6.44, find the output de. voltage. F wo 113 Vin oie Fig. 644 Hecan be proved that output de. voltage is given by : : 1 v Va! 7 a] Here Vjqny = Peak rectified full wave voltage applied t the filter "f= Output feequency Peak primary voltage, Vigjami= YZ ~ HS = 163V Solutio Peak secondary voltage, Vig) ($) +163 = 163V Peak full-wave rectified voltage atthe filter input is, Youn = Vp yey 220.7 = 163-14 = 14 9V For full-wave reet Now ‘That partof a.e. component which could not be bypassed by capacitor C,446 © Principles of Hectronics Example 17. Adc. power supply is delivering 10V (normally) to a load sat is varying ‘sinuveidally benween O5A.and 1 A.at.avate of 10 AM If the outpul impedance of the power supply 4 O.OIL2 at 10.AH determine the fluctuations in the output vohage caused by this periodic tad Solution. For rapidly changmg load levels—the normal situation in elecuonic systems—the ‘output impedance of pomer supply Varies with the firqusncy of the load change. This chang: with frequency occurs because of the ampedunce of the powet supply Ourpot empedance of pow er supply is MY, are 2" 5 oc AV, = 2.7 Al, = 001 = (1-05)=0005V=smv Therefonc. the ouput wottver will hve SiaV pp fluctuations ata rate of FOL: Note. The poser supply Bot only acts as a Wwhage wcurce bl also itchales aa ouput umpaluece When spetifing apomer supply wusput mpedance 1 an important consideration The smallet the output wmpebice ‘of power supply the beter wo Example 17.7. A volarre repulator experiences a 10 pV charge in its ourput volnage when its input voltage changes by SV Determine the value of line regulation for the circ. Solution. In practice. achange in input voltage toa voltage regulator will cause a change wits ‘outpa voltage The fier erxellaniom wf a yollage regulator indicates the change in output voltage that ‘wall occur per unit change inthe input voltage L¢ Lincregulation = Sn ~ MY oan The 2WV tating ofthe voltage regulator meat thal the outa voltage will change by 2 nV ho every 1V change the repulao's apa valage 17.3 Regulated Power Supply Ade. poner mupply which maintaine she output veltaxe comstant irneypective of ae. mains factor tions or Hood variations és known as ergulated dc, pawer supply, Fig. 116 Arepulated power supply consists of an ordinary powcr supply and voltage regulating device Fig 17 6showsthe Nock diagramol aregubated powcr supply The sutpat ofondinary power wply is fed tothe voltage regulator which produces the final owiput The output voltage remains constant “whether the load current changes ot there are Buctuations.an the wnput a © vobiage fig 17 Tahows the complete eneut of a regulated powect supply uuing sence drake av a voltage regulating device Ax you can see, the regulated peence supply tv combination of three eeurt 10) Wrulge rectifier (i) a capacitor filer C and tin fener voltage regulator The Berdge rectifier ‘converts the tranvfurmer secondary a¢ voltage (point into pulsating wollage (poet Gy The pul= ating de voltage i apphedto the capacitor filter This flict reduces the pulsabons mn the rectafictRegulated D.C. Power Supply m 447° de output voltage ¢poant KR) F anally, the sener votinge regulator performetwo funcbome Firth reduces the vanahons in the filiced ouipst vottage Secondly, it keeps the output vokage ( nearly sonstant whether the load current changes oF there i change in Input a ¢ voltage ‘shows the waveforms at vattous wages of regulated power supply. Note that brulge rect 17K iZ TTT Fig capacitor fier constitute an ontinary power supply However, when voltage regulating device ts added to this ondimary power supply, at turns into a repulated power supply Nate. In practice, this ape of regulators rarely wed The primary pioblem with the simple zene teaulaie the {oct thatthe zenet wate 4 emendous amount OF power Pracuca edly egulilice conta aie of cree a cv miegraedacuve devices. Nevemclss this cxcun gies si es abou the regulite poser supply Need of Regulated Power Supply nan ordinary powcr supply the vollage regulabiomis poor ie de outpul voltage changos appre bly with load current Morscver, autput voltage alsa changes due ta sartatims inthe mput 2 wokage: This ic due tothe following reasons (i) Inpracice, there ate consier- able varabons ina c ine voltage canned bby outnde factors beyend out contrat Ths changes the dc output vottnge Most ofthe eloctonte circu will tine fo woik sattefactorily on sist on pat voltage Mluctuations This neceselatos tose tepulated de power supply (i The antermal revi dinary power supply av elatvely large (3042) Therctore, output wage ts markedly affected by the amour of ead, ‘current dias from the supply. These arian an de soltage may cause ! Fane operation of electramic eweuits inci Tharetore, regulated dic power supply le coon” ‘ the only solution im such satuanons ater i ce af are4468 © Fiinciples of Electronics 17.4 Types of Voltage Regulators Adovice which maistains the output valtage of an ordmary poreee supply constant irrespective of load variations changes in input ac voluge x knows as a tulle repilaior A voltage regulaoe ‘enctally cmploys clevttome devicesio achieve tins obysctive Theis as basic Bo types voltage tepulators vi: (0) aches voage replat () shunt voltage regulate The serire regulator ts placodun serics with the load as sherwa ih Fag. 17.947) Onthe other band, the shunt regulator is placed inpatallel wih the Jasd as shun in Fig 17.9 (41) Fach typeof reguator Provides an output voltage that remains constant even if the input voltage varies ofthe load current “ToL “Zul | 1 dl Fig. 17.9 1. Fer kane voltages, For law dé oxtpal voltages (upto $0V), either renet diode alone ot renet in conjunchon with tranustor is used. Such supplies are called transivtonised powcr supplicy A traneistor power supply can give only low stubilived voltaycs hee ‘cause the nafe value of Ve 1s about $0 V and if tisineteased ubore this valu, the iteakdinwn of the junction may ecu 2. For high vultages, For-voltages greater than S0-¥, glow tubes are used in conjunction with vacuum tube amplifiers. Such sunplics ate gencrally called tubs power supphes and are exiei- savely used! fot the pueiet operation of vacuum valves 175 Zener Diode Voltage Regulator ‘As discumed im chapter 6, when the zener diode is operated an the Ricakdinen of senor tapi, the Voltage actoss m is substantial ‘comctant foe a Lge change of current through it ‘This characteristic permits itto he used as a voltage regulator Fig 17 10 showsthe circuit of a zenct diode regulator As tong as input voliaze V, seater than rener voltage W the zenet operates in the breakdown region and maintains constant ‘voltage actos the baad The series imiting tesistance R, limits the anput current [UNREGULATED 0.¢.) Fig. 17.10Regulated D.C, Power Supply @ 449 Operation. The zener will maintain constant aa voltage cross the load inspite of changes in load cxrrent or pul vohage. Asthe kad.current creases, the zener current decreases so that current through resrstance Rts constant. As output woltaze IR, and F 5 constant, therefore, ourput voltage remamsunchanged. Thereverse would be ue should the load current decrease, The circust will aso correct, forthe changes in input voltages. Should the ‘wollage V, increase, mare currem will low throuch the zener’ the voltage drop across R, will mcrease fut land voltage wuld remain constant The reverse ‘would be true should the input voltage deetease Limitations, A zener diode regulator has the following drawbacks i) tchas low efficrency for heavy fond currents i ie because if the load current is large, there swillbe considerable per cr Hoss in the series fkmating resistance The output vohage alightly changenduc tozencr impedance a6 Vy =p feZz Changes in load current produce changes in zenet cultent, Consequenily, the oummal volige also changes. Thete~ fore, the use of this extcud 1s hmuted ta only kuch ap plications where variations i load eutrent ant ‘mpat voltage are mall 17.6 Conditions for Proper Operation of Zener Regulator Wheaa ener dhode m connected una circu for vollage regulation. the fatlowang comet must be satisfied 46) The acnct mastopctate un the Wrcabilow i region of egulating tspram ee. Betmcem fy. ad Yeas TE CUPFEE Fog (BeRetATlY NWA) 19 the Mimi Zener CuFERt to put the rect dace AEON mate be regulating region The curiertdy yy inthe marinmum genet current that zener diode scan conduct without getling desirnyed duc tn exeenal ve heat diy The gener should not be allowed to excced maximum draipation power otherwise it-wall be destroyed ductoexcemsive heat [f maximum power linipation of azener inf"y,_.,and sencr vokage int, then, P, “ Feiss * xy ies There is a minimum value of Ry te ensure that zene diode will remain mn the regulating region Le, breakdoren region IF the value of R, falls below this minimum value. the proper wolta ge ‘will not be availahte across the rener to drrve tint the breakdown rez Example 17.8. Fig, 17.11 shows she zener regulator. Calculare (2) current through the series resistance fib minimum und maccimuwen doaul currents and (iii minim and maximum Zener Cur- rents, Comment om the ress Solution. . ¥- ny “ 4-3: Ta = Sms 44) The manimum load current occurs when Ry +=. - = 0A450 Principles of Electronics 4 Ryn tean unncouaten | PowER suPpLy| 24 Wig. IU ‘he maximum foad current ossurs when Ry, ~ 200 42 : 1 = Me ‘owt Rie OE “ay Fatwns = 45 —4agnany = TS— 60 = AS A Fy nuny = Ag~ Fe foay = 18-0 = TS, Comments. The current fy through the series resistance Ry is constant When load current increases from Oo mA, the zener curtent decreases ffom TSmA to 13 mA, maintaining F, constant mvalue Thus ss the normal operation of zener regulator ie. f, and V,,, Femain constant mspite of changes inJoad current or source voltage ‘Example 17.9. A cencr regudator has Vy = 15¥. The input voltage may vary from 22¥ to 49 sant Loa! current from 20 mA 10 100.mA, To hold loud voltage constant unter all condirions, what should be the vate af series rexisuance ? Solution. In order that zener regulator may hald oartpur volge constant under all operatns: ccondimoas it must operate m the breakdown region. Inother words, there must be zener current for all input voltagesand laadeurrcats ‘The worst case occurs When the input voltage ts munummurn and foad curtent 1s maximum because then zener cursent drops ta.a minimum 2 WL = Sate a ma Example 17.10, Determine the minimum acceptable vatue of R, forshe ener voliage meputatar circuit shown in Fig. 17.12. The rener specifications are: Vp BBV F Bye SMA Ay = 100m nom 4 V2 BV ds Hye MIDE Wo 2 we Fig. 17.12460 © Principles of Electronics Fig. 17.24 Operation, The unregulated d e. supply is fed to the voltage regulator. The circuit will produce an output voltaze (V,,.) which is independent of changes in input voltage and af changes in the load over a wide range. With a decrease in load or increase in the input voltage, there would be tendency for the voltage across the resistive network R,,R, and R,to rise. The result is that voltage on the grid Of triode T, becomes less negative. The triode T, then conducts more current anu! a greater current flows through R, which causes a greater voltage drop seross this resistor, The increase in voltage across R, will raise the negative potential on the grid of tnode 7). This increases the resistance of 7, and hence the voltage across it. The rise in voltage across 7, tends to decrease the output voltage, The reverse would be true should the load increase or input voltage decrease 17.15 IC Voltage Regulators We can also use integrated circuits (10) to produce voltage regulators One advantage of fC voltage regulators is that properties like thermal compensation, short citcuit protection and surge protection can be built into the device. Most of the commonly used AC voltage regulators are three-terminal devices. Fig. 17.25 shows the schematic symbol fora three-terminal £C voltage regulator. 1c veliage regulator Power Supply recitior and In Out Load: ae xo Fig. 17.25 There ate basically four types of IC voltage regulators vi, () Fixed positive voltage regulators (ii) Fixed negative voltage regulatorsRegulated D.C. Power Supply @ 461 ii) Adjustable volage regulators (iv) Dual-tracking voltage regulators The fted positive and fted negative IC voleage regulators ate designed to provide specific urput voltages. For example, LIM 309 (fixed postive) provides a+ $V de. up (es long as the ‘regulator input voltages are within the specified ranges). The adjustable voltage resulatos con be adjusted to provide any dc. ouput voltage thats within its two specified limits. For example, the LA 317 output can be adjusted to any value between its limits of 1 2V and 32V de. Both positive and negative adjustable regulatorsare available The dual-fracking regulator provides equal positive and negative output voltages. For example, the RC 4195 provides outputs of + SV and —18Vd.e, Ade justable dual-racking regulators are also available 17.16 Fixed Positive Voltage Regulators This IC regulator provides a fixed positive output voltage. Although many types of IC regulators are available the 7800 series of £C regulators isthe most popular. The last two digits in the part number indicate the de. outputvoltage For example [See Table below, the 7812s a+ 12V regulator whereas {he 7805 is = SV regulator. Nove that this serics (7800 serics) provides fixed regulated voltages from: +3Vir RV “Type number | Ontpat valiage 7805 TE0V 7806 soov | + ’ 7808 +80 ‘ 7809 90 i . Vom+ iv 7812 ov | | i . 7815 +150 I | | I 7818 +180v 704 2240 ‘The 7800 series Fig. 17.26 Fig 17 26 shows how the 7812 £C is connected to provide a fied de. output of + 12V. The Lniseulated input voltage Vis connected tothe C's £N terminal and the IC” s OUT temninal provides J ARN Canactions, although not always necessary, ate sometimes used on the input and output se shown in Fig. 1726. The output capacitor (C,) acts basically a a line filter to improve timeieed ‘response. The input capacitor (C,) is used to prevent unwanted oscillations Example 17.19. Draw a voltage supply using a full wave bridge rectifier, copactior filter and 1C regulator to provide an output of + 5V. 13 | Wesv tems) . 250) "| c Fig. 17.27462 © Principles of Electronics Setation, The resulting citeuit is shown in Tig, 1727, Here we use 7805 1C with unregulated power supply. 17.17 Fixed Negative Voltage Regulators This 1C regulator provides a fixed negative ouput voltage. The 7900 series of[C regulators i com- monly used for this purpose. This series (7900) isthe negative-vollaze counterpart ofthe ROO te cy {Sce Table below], Note that 7900 series provides fixed regulated voltages from SV to. 24 ¥" Negative, input Negative IN 7912 OUT, CRY Fiz 17.28 ‘The 7900 series Fig 17.28 shows how 7912 JC is connected to provide a fited dc. auiputof— 12 V. The unregulated negative irput voltage V, is connected to {C's IV terminal and the IC's OUT terminal provides - 12 V. (Cepacitors used inthe circuit perform the same function as in a fixed positive regulator 17.18 Adjustable Voltage Regulators ‘The adjustable voltage regulator ean be adjusted to provide any dc. output voltage that is within its {two specified limits. The most popular three-terminal fCadjuslable voltage regulator is the LM 317. thas an input terminal, output terminal and an adjustment terminal. An external voltage divider is used to change the de. output voltage of the regulator. By changing R,, a wide range of output voltages can be obtained 1817 Fig. 17.29 ‘The LAf 317 is a three-terminal positive adjustable vollage regulator and can supply 1.5 A of load current over an adjustable output range of 1.25V to 37V. Fig 17.29 shows an unregulated power supply driving an LM 317 circuit, The data sheet of an LA 317 gives the following formula for the output voltage TR v= 135(e) This formula is valid from 1,25 V 10 37.Regulated D.C. Power Supply ® 463 Example 17.20. In Fig, 17.30, R; is adjusted t9 2440. Determine the regulated de, ouput voltage Sor the circuit Lsai7 Power i ¥ 9 My un Leal me ADI a Sao ony t" 7 a sea 3g, Fig. 17.30 Solution. The regulated d.c. output voltage for the circuits given by ; R Vag = 128 (RH) ~ 12s 2882) Example 17.21. The LM 317 is adjusted to provide a 4 8 V,, regulated output vohage. Deter- ‘mine the maximum allowable input voltage to the device. 25) (11) = 13.18 Solution. The maximum allowable difference between V,, and V,,, of an adjustable voltage regulator is called its input/output differential rating and is denoted by V, I this rating is exceeded, the device may be damaged. For the LM 317, V, = 40V. Therefore, the maximum allowable value of input voltage is Yinimasy ~ Vouguyy * Ma = +8V,,+40=448V 17.19 Dual-Tracking Voltage Regulators ‘The dual-tracking regulator Provides equal positive and negative output voltages, This + 1#T2 +30 V & KIN regulator is used when sp Inputs RetiDS ourputs supply voltages are needed, The RCAI9SICprovidesdc.ouputs = 18 TO-30V eo -15V of + ISV and— 1SV. The device needs two unregulated input voltages. The positive input may bbe from + 18V to + 30V and the negative input fiom - 18V to ~30V. As shown, the two outputs ate £ 1SV. The data sheet of an RC 4195 lists amaximum output current of 150 mA for each supply ‘anda load regulation of 3mV, Adjustable dual-tracking regulators arealso available. These regulators ‘have outputs that can be Varied between their two rated limits.