PRINCIPLES OF SCRIPTWRITING

By: Simon Mutunga Erimba

Contents
PRINCIPLES OF SCRIPTWRITING
.......................................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction
...................................................................................................................................................... 1
Objectives
...................................................................................................................................................... 1
Course Outline
...................................................................................................................................................... 1
COURSE CONTENT
...................................................................................................................................................... 1
1 GENERATING STORY IDEAS
1
2 SCREENWRITING TOOLS AND TERMINOLOGIES
4
Creative screenwriting tools
................................................................................................................................................... 4
Technical screenwriting tools
................................................................................................................................................... 6
3 FEATURE FILM SCREEN FORMAT
7
Master Scene Elements
................................................................................................................................................... 7
4 SCREENWRITING RULES, PRINCIPLES, AND GUIDELINES
8
Screenwriting rules
...................................................................................................................................................... 8
Screenwriting guidelines
...................................................................................................................................................... 9
Industry Expectations
...................................................................................................................................................... 11
5 THE CLASSIC STORY STRUCTURE
11
6 CHARACTERISATION
14
7 WRITING DIALOGUE
18
8 WRITING THE FIRST DRAFT
21
9 STORY TYPES
23
10WRITING A DOCUMENTARY SCRIPT
24

Introduction
This module will introduce you to the art of screenwriting. The focus of this course will be
writing for film. Since film can be either fiction or non-fiction, the module will introduce you to
both types of writing. You will therefore be introduced to Fiction film writing and writing for D
ocumentaries. The module will lay a foundation for future screenwriting courses that will delve
into details of the art of screenwriting. In this module, you will be required to perform writing
exercises some of which will be used for assessment purposes. This module will therefore take
a practical approach to screenwriting.

Objectives
By the end of this module, you should be able to;

N. Write two five-minute film scripts one for a fictional film and another for a documentary.
i. Describe basic screenwriting tools and terms that are used during the scriptwriting
ii. Use screen-writing software to format their scripts into the universal screen format

Course Outline
1 Generating Story ideas
2 Screen Writing Rules, Principles, and Guidelines
3 Screen Writing tools and terminologies
4 Feature film screen format
5 The classic Story Structure
6 Characterisation
7 Writing dialogue
8 Writing the First draft
9 Story types
10 Writing a Documentary Script

COURSE CONTENT
 1 GENERATING STORY IDEAS
It is not easy coming up with a story from scratch but Ideas for stories come from:

N. Life experiences- both personal and other people’s experiences. Take a specific
experience and extend it into something, which might have meaning/resonance
for others. While writing from life experiences avoid writing the life history as it
exactly happened.
i. Everyday lines of dialogue and people- this requires a writer to carry a notebook
and a pen to note overheard conversations, write about characters that catch
his/her eye noting their dress, speech mannerisms
ii. Visual stimuli -These include photographs and painting.
iii. Newspapers, advertisement slogans, songs, and magazines -this is a fertile
source area, especially for contemporary TV drama. It is required that writers
should keep a file of clippings or stories that stimulate them.
iv. Brainstorming –This technique is regularly used in advertising. It involves picking
a subject, listing down a free association of thoughts and feelings that come to
the writer, and writing unstructured odds and ends.
v. Dreams –Keep a notebook beside your bed and record stories and images from
dreams dreamt
vi. Visualization –these are conscious imaginations. Conscious creative visualization
involves accessing the unconscious via conscious relaxation techniques
vii. Adaptations –This involves adapting from novels and real-life stories. It requires
the writer to obtain permission from copyright owners
viii. Intertextuality –thisis another word for plagiarism. Copy from others but in a
wise way.

Exercise 1 – Before the Internet

With the Internet offering such a wealth of information at your fingertips, it is easy to forget
how vital other avenues of research can be to finding intriguing stories. The local library is a
good place to find information that is not available on the Internet. A quick look at the local
history section can reveal some unique inspiration for true stories.

1. Scan the books about local history or focus on your personal experiences for potentially
interesting people or events in your region.

2. Choose one person and one event, then either:

a. Put the person in the event and write about how they might react.

b. Make note of the main plot points taking place in the event, adapt them slightly to increase
drama if needed.

c. Write a brief character study on the person and identify a dramatic turning point in their life.

3. Using part 2, write a timeline for how the story that you have found or adapted could be told.

Exercise 2 – New Information

Researching something that you have absolutely no knowledge of can be interesting and
useful when finding a story to tell. First, choose a character, it can be one that already exists or
you can invent one. Think of one subject that your character knows a lot about, but that you
know nothing about.
Now list ten facts about this subject:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
These facts will be known by your character and will contribute to his/her personality. Make
notes on how this aspect of a character’s personality could be used within a story.

Exercise 3 – Interview
We are constantly surrounded by stories, every person has a story to tell, and so a brilliant
story may be closer than you think. For this exercise, ask a relative or family friend if you can
interview them about their life (bear in mind an older person will have more stories to tell).
Interview them in a journalistic way, asking detailed, probing questions. Be sure to take notes
about periods of their life that stand out as particularly dramatic or emotive.
From the interview, pick apart one thing to focus on and write a short sentence for a potential
story idea.
Example:
If I interviewed my Granddad, a succinct story idea description might be:
1. A short film about the emotional journey of an old widower whose only son has left home to
join the army and fight in a war.
Story Ideas:
1.
2.
 2 SCREENWRITING TOOLS AND TERMINOLOGIES
Getting a story out of your head is difficult, but it helps if you remember that at this early stage
it does not have to be groundbreaking or even good. Just get it on paper. The following tools
will help you get your story out of your head.

The Cambridge Dictionary defines a tool as something that helps you to do a particular activity. It also
defines a tool of the trade as something you need to use to do your job. Screenwriting tools, therefore,
are those things that you need to market your script and deliver your screenplay correctly and in the
industry-standard screenplay format. These tools can be divided into two broad categories: creative
tools and technical tools.

Creative tools are those things that screenwriters use to help them transfer the stories in their minds
into written stories effectively. They help the writers to remain focused throughout the writing process
and ignite their creativity and therefore serve as a road map in telling their stories. These tools include; a
logline, Premise, Treatment, Beat Outline, Step Outline, and Synopsis.

Technical tools on the other hand are the equipment and software that are needed to help the writer in
the craft of writing and formatting the screenplay. Technical tools include the computer and the
screenwriting software that is used in the formatting of the script.

Creative screenwriting tools

Creative screenwriting tools act as beacons and they keep you on track as you write. If you create
these tools before you write your screenplay preferably at the prewriting stage then your writing will be
smoother and enjoyable than if you did not.

N. Story concept
A story concept is a simple general story idea that piques your curiosity and pulls you into exploring its
potential developments and ramifications. A concept can be expressed like this; A drug dealer
becomes a teacher. Concepts, such as the one above,can be developed into several completely
different stories. Once you got your concept the next step is to convert the concept into a story
framework.

i. Story Framework
A story framework is a story statement of what the story is about based on the central character
(protagonist) that is expressed in a maximum of three sentences. To develop a framework you need to
have two ideas –one about the character, and another about the situation and an end. Express your
story framework like this;

This is a story about, CHARACTER, who wants to DO SOMETHING and ends up

SUCCEDING, FAILING, CHANGED .

Here is an example of a story framework from the concept above;

This is a story about John who wants to be a drug dealer and ends up becoming a teacher.
Exercise 4: Write a Story framework of your idea.

ii. A logline

A logline is a one-sentence summary of the story put forward in your movie screenplay or television
pilot. A noisy logline jumps off the page and makes youwant to immediately read the screenplay that
follows. A logline is different from a tagline. A tag line is the words on the poster or advertisement used
to sell the movie to the public. A marketing team will come up with the tagline. It is also called a
strapline .

A logline is a short pithy slogan, typically one or two sentences that convey the concept of your script.
It captures at an emotional level what the story is about by highlighting the dramatic core of your story.
The purpose of the logline is to attract the audience and create the right expectations in producers and
agents. If you write a logline before you start writing your script, it will help you to focus on where you
need to focus your energies when telling the story.
Your logline needs to set up the character, conflict, world, and stakes. It’s the first sentence that gets
people to read the next 100 pages of your script.

Logline Formula is as follows:

In a world where , has to , otherwise will happen.

Example; “In a world where their best friend died, a group of friends bands together to
honor his last wish and put him in his football jersey, otherwise, their friend will
be cremated without his last wish being fulfilled.”

After writing your logline using the above formula using the formula below to refine it:
Inciting Incident + Protagonist + Journey + The Stakes

they open a Snapchat from their dead friend, a group of friends has a crazy night out on the town trying
to fulfill his dying wish before he’s cremated and they worry their friendship will disappear along with
him.”

Exercise 5: Write a Logline for your Idea

iii. A Treatment
A treatment is a summary of what happens in a story. A treatment is a prose document that tells your
plot as it happens chronologically in your play. Treatments are 12 – 15 pages for a one-hour TV play
and up to 25 – 30 pages for feature films, typed and single-spaced on A4 paper. It is not a must that
writers write a treatment in the prewriting stage but it is important to do so because it helps them to
organize their thoughts and develop the texture of their script and since they must write it to sell the
story to the producer they would better do that earlier on because it will help improve on their
creativity. Treatments can help writers to see the direction a story will take before they start writing up
the work. It is also useful for producers/publishers/agents to get a feel for a story before they read a
longer piece of work. Treatment should be economical and reader-friendly. Therefore do not describe
characters, locations, or actions extensively and do not use paragraphs that are too long. Dialogue,
Images, clip art, and distracting fonts should not be included in treatment.

A simple treatment can be broken down into five main points which need to be addressed. These are;
a. Title: Write the title of your story. (Sometimes the title will change after you complete writing
your script.)
b. Logline: (A Logline is one sentence that explains what the story is about)
c. Set up: (This is a little about the background and some build-up of the story)
d. Hook: (This is the aspect of the story that makes it different and original)
e. Resolution: (How does the story turn out?)

Exercise 6: Write a one Paragraph treatment of your story

iv. A Step Outline

This is also called a scene-by-scene breakdown or a step sheet. Write a scene heading (slug line) and
describe the action and substance of each scene in brief, clear notes, and include snatches of dialogue.
Each scene should have a beginning middle and end. Insert and discard scenes as you deem fit and
organize your scenes into sequences and acts. Examine how each scene juxtaposes with the next one,
the story and character development and the pacing, and where the climax occurs.

Exercise 7: Write a Scene breakdown of your story

Technical screenwriting tools

Screenwriting is an art, but it is also a developed science. Strict formatting guidelines should be
adhered to if you want your masterpiece to be palatable to anyone in the industry. The key to following
and maintaining proper formatting rules as you write your screenplay is to use the right software for the
job. Microsoft Word is great for reports but it will not work when writing for the screen (whether big or
small). Instead, opt for software specifically designed for writing screenplays — this allows you to
spend less time worrying about complicated page layouts and more time focusing on your killer story
idea.

Examples of such software are;

a. WriterDuet
The Basic online version is free and it is affordable for a subscription or lifetime version with Pro
features, WriterDuet is the most powerful screenwriting software. It preserves pagination and formatting
and also works well with Final Draft and other software. Its main feature is that two or more
screenwriters can log in to WriterDuet, for free, and edit the same script on the screen, in real-time, as e
very single character is typed by each of the writers. Beyond that, it’s a great tool for solo writers as
well.
b. Final Draft
Debuting in 1991, this screenwriting software grew to become very popular during the screenwriting
boom of the 1990s and early 2000s. It was the first and dominant screenwriting software in the industry
until lower-cost options came to the market in recent years.
 c. Celtx
This is a cheap option that is now available as a download for your PC, Mac, or tablet. It is appropriate
for students.
d. Movie Magic Screenwriter
This is another cheaper version of screenwriting software comparable to Final Draft.

3 FEATURE FILM SCREEN FORMAT

The Film Screen script layout on a page should adhere to the dimensions shown in the diagram below.

The dimensions above were arrived

at for a writer to time the scripts.

Using these dimensions and the correct font type and font style will ensure that one written page is equal
to one minute on screen.

A script must be typed on white A4-sized paper and one side of each sheet. The font should be 12
point courier. This font is preferred because;
N. It is easy to read
i. It helps the reader time a script. For the film, one page is equal to one minute for TV one page
is equal to 30 to 40 seconds of screen time.
Pages are numbered in the top right-hand corner or the center bottom page. Make sure that the
program you are using to write the script has the above settings before you start using it.

Master Scene Elements

Technically speaking, a Screenplay is divided into scenes. A scene can be defined as a unit of dramatic
action that takes place in a specific location in continuous time. A master scene has six elements which
are written on a page as shown in the diagram above.
These master scene ELEMENTS are:
N. Scene heading (slug line) – thisprovides the basic where and when information for the scene
that follows. Each new scene has its slug line and the slug line is always written in capital letters.
The information is set out in a very specific order; where the scene takes place whether inside
or outside, the general location followed by the specific location which sometimes can be
reversed, and then the time of day.
For example;
EXT. MARTHA’S HOUSE. NIGHT
INT. JACK’S CAR. MOI AVENUE. DAY.

i. Scene direction – also called the business or black-stuff. It is the text which contains all the
descriptions of the character's actions and natural events relevant to the story. Mostly written in
lower case. It has to be clear and concise. It should be written in the present tense. All
character names in the scene direction are in lower case except when they appear for the first
time in your script. If the weather is important to the scene it is written in capital letters. In the
case of a montage, the lines should be double spaced for each direction. Any sounds that are
crucial to your script and are not caused directly by the actor should be included in the scene
direction and they should be in capital letters.

Example;
JACK notices MARTHA standing at the side of the
road. He slams the brakes on and the car SCREECHES
to a halt.

ii. Character cue – this is the name of the character who speaks. It is written above the dialogue
that they speak. Characters with minimal functions in the story may simply be given role names
like Secretary instead of names.

iii. Parenthetical – Also called actor direction. It is written in brackets under the character’s name.
This is where you issue direct instruction on how to deliver dialogue. It is advisable not to use
these in your script unless the tone of delivery is in direct contrast to the meaning of the words in
which case you use it for dramatic purposes.

iv. Dialogue – It runs immediately below the name of the character speaking. All dialogue is single-
spaced and there should be no large blank spaces in between words unless they are filled with
beats.
v. Transitions – FADE in at the beginning of your script and FADE OUT at the end of it is
allowed. Avoid any other transitions in your script.

4 SCREENWRITING RULES, PRINCIPLES, AND GUIDELINES

Screenwriting rules
Screenwriting rules can be defined as accepted prescribed objective elements in the film industry
that need to be adhered to when writing a screen script. The most basic screenwriting rules focus on
the screen script’s visual format or layout. The universal screenplay format that is used today has
evolved from theatre stage plays, through the early days of cinema, and into the 21st century when
filmmaking changed due to technology and the growth of the industry. The evolution of the
screenplay format was triggered by the screen writers’ desire to time the script. This format is based
on the placement of different elements of a scene from the margins of a page and the font size and
font style that is used when typing and printing the script. The format, as a rule, is based on the
Master Scene Format elements because a screen script is made up of scenes. These scene elements
are Scene Heading, Action, Character Name, Parenthetical, Dialogue, and Transitions. Each of these
scene elements is governed by essential regulation(s) that every screenwriter must follow when
writing that element. Some of these regulations can be bent but they cannot be broken.

Scene Headings, for example, must communicate whether the scene is an interior (INT.) or exterior
(EXT.) location and designate whether the scene takes place during natural sunlight hours (DAY) or
after the sun has set and night (NIGHT) has fallen. This essential information of INT or EXT, LOCATION
, and DAY or NIGHT is important in both visualizing the film and making that cinematic story come to
life as it is written. This scene heading rule cannot be broken by any means. However the rule can be
bent by using variations of DAY and NIGHT such as DUSK, DAWN, or MORNING but only when it is
necessary for instance, to communicate a more specific absence or excess of light in the scene.

Equally important is the layout rule which stipulates the distance from the page margin where each
scene element should be written. This rule extends to scene description (action), character names,
parentheticals, dialogue, and transitions. All of these elements have regulations on how they
should be formatted to communicate the visual and audio aspects of the screenplay which will be
covered in the next lesson.

Another rule is that the scene description (action) should be written in the present tense. This is
important because this tense conveys the concept that the events described are happening right
now (in the mind’s eye of the script reader). The character cue tells us the name of the person who
is speaking the dialogue that appears under it. Parentheticals are used to offer added information of
action or emotion that is attached to the words being spoken. And finally, transitions (DISSOLVE TO,
SMASH CUT TO) can be used to convey a sense of visual style within the script. However, it is good to
note that a scene does not need to have all the six elements. Each scene is unique and the elements
in it depend on what the scene is intended to communicate.

The screen script format, therefore, is the sole screenwriting rule which serves a fundamental
purpose and screenwriters should do their best to keep that format consistent and straightforward.
Failure to adhere to this rule will make any script get rejected by the film industry professionals
even if it has a great story.

Screenwriting guidelines
Screenwriting guidelines can be defined as instruction, recommendations, suggestions, or pieces of
advice given by experienced screenwriters based on the knowledge and experience of those who share
them. Out of experience, these professionals realize that there are some aspects of screenwriting that
work and serve a particular purpose and because of the experience that they have, they can provide
specific guidelines to follow when writing your script and so that your script can have a cutting edge in
the industry. Examples of these guidelines include;
 N) The type of story structure to use. This is a pretty strict guideline that many consider a rule
because without structure, it is difficult to portray a cinematic story within the confines of a
two-hour running time. However, nobody should dictate what type of structure should be used
— as a rule. There are many different types of structures that screenwriters can choose to use,
as we will find out in lesson six, some of which have been evident in acclaimed and successful
films.
i) Capturing the reader within the first five to ten pages. This is a piece of solid screenwriting
advice meant to help you get your script above the others. This is because if you take thirty
pages to get to the central conflict of the script readers will lose interest in your script.
ii) Avoid lengthy scene descriptions. The phrase Less Is More is commonly used to express how
a scene description should be written. Many industry insiders suggest this guideline to help
screenwriters get the visuals across as quickly as possible, so the pacing of the script is fast. A
fast-paced script enables the script reader to visualize the script quickly when reading it
because the images play within their mind’s eye as quickly as reels of film releasing images onto
a theatre screen. However, there are certainly times when your scene description calls for a little
more detail beyond the often-suggested one to two lines per scene description block. This ,
therefore, makes the Less Is More phrase a guideline.
iii) Use as little dialogue as possible. With dialogue, the Less Is More phrase applies as well
because cinema is a visual medium and in film, stories are told primarily through action, reaction,
and physical emotion. We indeed live in a speaking world but in film, dialogue is used to help
tell those stories. When writing dialogue, therefore, remember the phrase Show, Don’t Tell .
Every time you want to write a dialogue ask yourself if there is a way you can show what you
want to express using dialogue. All the same, there are obvious exceptions to this guideline. For
example, in Character-driven films dialogue is used as a sort of cinematic poetry to convey
inner emotions and conflict such as the outstanding Before Sunrise (1995) and Night school
(2019). This is therefore an important guideline to follow, but certainly not in every case.
iv) Do not direct your script by using transitions in screenplays. This is often mistaken as a hard
rule. Back in the earlier days of cinema, screenplay transitions were cues to the editing team to
communicate how transitions between shots were to be handled. In older scripts, you will often
find CUT TO transitions between every new scene but nowadays it is assumed that we will
CUT TO a different location and scene so it is unnecessary to include that transition between
every scene. Variations to that transition began to appear as cinematic styles started to form.
Artistic but technical transitions such as FADE IN, FADE OUT, and DISSOLVE TO started
to appear in scripts. In the 21st century, there is a shift away from using transitions in between
scenes because screenwriters are advised not to direct the script. However, there are instances
where a screenwriter can use a transition to convey a point, a moment, or a specific vision that
is partial to the story and how the script reader should visualize it.
There are no set-in-stone rules for guidelines beyond format elements — story, pacing, characterization,
theme , and conflict. Some scripts have a lesser story than others, others embrace slow-burn pacing
while others call for a fast pace atmosphere. Some characters have significant arcs while others do not.
Some stories have more conflicts than others and certain genres require less or more of these elements.
The guidelines you find about these essential elements, therefore, are less about being rules, and more
about being pieces of advice for your script to stand out. This however is not an excuse for you to
ignore these guidelines.
Industry Expectations

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines expectation as the act or state of expectingoranticipation. The
Collins Dictionary defines expectations as “a person's strong beliefs which they have about the proper
way someone should behave or something should happen. Expectations go beyond rules and guidelines
because expectations address an individual’s core belief of what your script should entail. This
individual could be the person considering your screenplay who could be a producer, executive
manager or agent, or a member of the general audience sitting in a theater ready to watch your movie.
Failure to meet the expectations of these people will lead to a rejection of your script. Expectations fall
under two categories:
N) Expectations of the industry insiders
For your script to be marketable, the script has to live up to the expectations of the logline, which is
generally the first thing about your script that industry insiders will read. If your script does not deliver
on that concept and genre pitched, you will not have met their expectations. Each genre has its
expectations. So before you start writing your script you should first determine the genre of your story.
A comedy has to be funny, a horror movie has to be scary and an action flick has to be full of action
and adventure. If you are writing a drama, it has to be full of dramatic events and emotion. Action
scripts need to have a big action opening and many additional unique action sequences throughout the
rest of the script (Story genres will be covered in lesson 3.3).
i) Audience’s expectations
These refer to the target audience of your movie. The audience has expectations that need to be met
when they watch a given movie. This simply goes back to the genre expectations discussed above for a
comedy needing to be funny, an action script needing to be action-packed, and a horror script needing
to be full of scares. The expectations of the industry and those of the audience are often inescapable
and you must maneuver them with the understanding that Screenwriting is a business for the industry
and a service for the audience which comes with expectations that you often but do not always have to
meet.

5 THE CLASSIC STORY STRUCTURE

All stories have a beginning, middle, and end. Most movies simply take that concept and
create three distinct Acts that organize your Protagonist’s struggle. Movie scripts are further
broken into “beats,” or places in the script that are pivotal turning points in the story, such as
the presentation of the central challenge or the final battle.

The three Act story structure divides the story into three parts. The First Act is one
quarter of the story length, the second act is a half the story length and the Third act is
a quarter of the story length.
Here are the proportions in linear presentation.
Act I: Beginning Act II: Mid-Point
Act III: End

1/4 Set UP/Exposition ½ Development ¼ Resolution

OPENING IMAGE: The first thing the audience sees: a visual that establishes your tone and
genre and hooks the reader.
EXAMPLE: Old-fashioned footage of Bob (aka Mr. Incredible), alone, being interviewed about
what it’s like to be a superhero.
INCITING INCIDENT: The event, problem, invitation, or opportunity that presents the Central
Conflict that your Protagonist will have to overcome.

A life-changing moment is an interesting point around which to create a story. It could happen
at the beginning of a story in which a character has to come to terms with their new life. It
could happen at the end of a story in which the character is dissatisfied with their life and
wants a way to change it. Or it could happen partway through a story and contain aspects of
both.

Either way, going through a life-changing moment can make a character more believable and
well-rounded. For this exercise create a transformational moment in a character’s life and a
nswer the following questions:

• What was the character’s life like before the transformation?

• What took place during the transformation?
• What were the obstacles to transforming (both inside the character and external)?
• How did the character face these obstacles?
• Name the other people involved in this transformation. What were their roles in the
moment transformation?
• What happened to them because of this transformation?
 • What was the outcome for the character?

EXAMPLE: Superheroes are outlawed. Bob is forced into retirement; his whole reason for being
is taken away from him.

END OF ACT I: Your Protagonist makes a proactive decision to face the challenge at hand.

EXAMPLE: Jobless and disowned by the government, Bob takes a secret assignment that will
call upon the hero he was.

ESCALATION: Your Protagonist will attempt to solve the conflict through the easiest recourse
available. This will fail and allow countering forces to gain strength.
EXAMPLE: Bob works as a superhero secretly and lies to his family about his job. Syndrome, the
villain, reveals himself.

MIDPOINT: The stakes increase which forces your Protagonist to cross a point of no return. He
is more committed to the goal than ever before.
EXAMPLE: Bob finds out every superhero is being targeted for elimination, including his wife.
Stakes are raised.

CRISIS: The forces against your Protagonist intensify. Eventually, mounting pressure takes
everything away from his worst fears are realized.

EXAMPLE: Bob is captured. Syndrome blows up a plane, dropping the Incredibles into the
ocean. Bob thinks his family is dead.

END OF ACT II: As a result of the Crisis, your Protagonist gains the proper insight to conquer
the problem posed by the central conflict. He decides to act.
EXAMPLE: Bob reunites with his family. He learns that Syndrome’s ultimate plan is to destroy
the city. He gathers his family for the showdown.

FINAL CHALLENGE: This is the head-to-head final confrontation where the Central Conflict will
be resolved.

EXAMPLE: An epic battle begins between the Incredible and Syndrome. The Incredible will
prove the value of superheroes.

CLIMAX: The point of highest drama. With the lessons learned during their journey, your
Protagonist can resolve the Central Conflict.

EXAMPLE: Syndrome attempts to kidnap the family’s baby, who turns out to have superpowers
of his own. Syndrome gets blown up.

RESOLUTION: The resolution ties up the loose ends of the story, giving an idea of where the
characters are headed.
EXAMPLE: The whole family is reunited. A new villain appears. The Incredibles suit up and are
back in action.

6 CHARACTERISATION
Generally speaking, there are three basic categories of characters in every screenplay;
− Main characters – this the protagonist and anyone who advances the story in conjunction with
them
− Secondary characters – those who interact with your protagonist and have a significant effect
on the plot or the main characters like the antagonist
− Minor characters – those who add color, atmosphere, or comic relief, and do other minor roles
like opening doors, delivering messages, and generally contribute to the world of the story.
The first step one needs to follow when creating characters is choosing a name for your characters. The
name you give your characters is very important. Choose good strong names that evoke certain
feelings in the audience. Some names are generation-specific for example, Rose, Kate, Tracey.
Consider the way names can be used to underscore emotion. A character who has always been known
by the first name might be annoyed by the pointed use of their last name or a nickname. A good source
of names is one of those books that list names for babies. Try to give each of your characters a name
that does not share the same initials with another character unless there is a vital plot reason for it.

After selecting a name for your main characters, create their biography and backstories. Although you
will not use over 80% of the character’s information in the script you need to know it because it clarifies
and focuses things on your mind. So write a complete biography of the principal characters in the story
from birth to the point they enter the story. You also need to work out the back story and relevant
events that happened to the principal and secondary characters before they entered the script. The
more you know about your characters the more well-rounded they will become. Ensure that each
principal character in your story has some imperfection. This shortcoming of a character is called a
character flaw.

Exercise 9– Determining the Main Character

PROTAGONIST

This main character will be your story’s Protagonist. A Protagonist does not necessarily have to
be a good person (although typically, most are), only that his challenge serves as the engine of
the story.
Stories are often character-driven; this means that a character (or characters) in the story has a
particularly interesting personality, and it is their way of perceiving and interacting with the
things around them that moves the story forward in an entertaining way. The most important
question to answer when developing the main character is, “What does my Protagonist want?”
It’s also important to know what will happen if he doesn’t get what he wants (this establishes
the stakes involved in the story) and what internal and external factors are preventing his
s uhcceenscsr.eating any character, remember that the more details you can imagine, the better. It’s
W
often the minor quirks and small glimpses of humanity that transform a name on paper into a
living, breathing personality on screen.
This exercise will help you develop your main character, but it can also be applied to other
characters.

1. Consider what might be your character’s Dramatic Need? This means, what does the
character want to win/gain/get/achieve throughout the story? Define this in a sentence or two
2. What is your character’s Point of View? This is their way of seeing the world around them,
for example; are they a cynic/idealist/dreamer/optimist? Define this in a sentence or two.
3. The final aspect to consider is Change. Seeing how a character change allows the audience
to connect more with that character. What sort of change does your character undergo
throughout the story? Write a few sentences about this.

Character
Exercise 10– Bringing a Character to Life
Without a well-developed back-story, characters can easily lapse into being flat stereotypes or
clichés, rather than interesting three-dimensional individuals. The best way to make your
characters more real is to understand their history; giving your character history in turn gives
them an individual personality influenced by everything they have been through – just like a
real person.
Though the audience will not necessarily see all, or any, of the biography, the character’s
actions and behavior that arein the story will be directly related to their past.
For this exercise, you need to write a brief biography of your character, starting from their birth
up to the point at which we meet them in your story.

Fill in the various attributes of your Protagonist below.

Age……………………………..
Gender…………………………
Name………………………………
What does your Protagonist love?
What does your Protagonist hate?
What does your Protagonist fear?
What does your Protagonist want more than anything? This will be your Protagonist’s goal
throughout the story and set up the central conflict that will fuel each scene.
What is your Protagonist’s flaw? Your Protagonist’s flaw should be an internal block to
achieving a goal. Before the end of your story, your Protagonist will have to address this flaw.
What would happen if your Protagonist doesn’t achieve the goal? This will set up the stakes of
your story and the consequences of your Protagonist’s failure. The more serious the
consequences the better.

ANTAGONIST

Next, create your Antagonist. The Antagonist is the character in your story that is preventing
your Protagonist from achieving a goal. Just as your Protagonist’s flaw is an internal block to
success, the Antagonist acts as the principal external block. Make sure that your Antagonist is
as interesting and well-developed as your Protagonist. Developing a good villain can often
elevate a movie script from good to great.
Next,
Character
Exercise 11– Personality Traits
Knowing your characters’ personality traits is important when writing a script; personality traits
will dictate how someone reacts in different situations. This simple exercise will help to
cement a character’s personality and stick firmly in your mind as you write.
Write your character’s name vertically down the left-hand side of the page. Then for each
letter of their name, write an aspect of their personality.
First Name: ………………………….
Surname:………………………………..

CHARACTER

Next, choose a well-known serious or emotional character and list ten things that they do for
fun or that make them happy.

CHARACTER

1.
2.
3.
4.
 5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Character
Exercise 12– Character Descriptions
This is a quick method for practicing effective character descriptions. Think of ten well-known
film characters and write a one-sentence description of each of them in the left-hand column
of the table below (don’t write their name yet!).
Now swap with a partner and see if they can guess the characters by writing their guess in the
middle column.
Finally, in the last column write the character you were describing and see how many your
partner got right.

DESCRIPTION PARTNER’SGUESS ACTUAL

 7 WRITING DIALOGUE
There are broadly two kinds of dialogue: Expository dialogue and Action dialogue.
Expository dialogue says something about the characters, and the who, what, why, how and
where of the film’s narrative.
Action dialogue, on the other hand, is a way of moving the plot forward.
For this exercise, write a sequence of dialogue between two characters to expose them and
move them to the next scene

Dialogue
Exercise 13– Conversation on a Journey
1. Open a phone book to two random pages, and select two businesses. You are going to move
two characters from Business A to Business B by whatever means you like and create a reason
for the journey.

Journey
From:
To:
Reason:

2. Write a conversation between two characters on this journey. Try to use the interchange not
only to explore the reason for the journey but in doing so, reveal who the characters are,
individually and in their relationship to each other.

Dialogue
Exercise 14– The Subtext of Conversations

Writing dialogue is not only writing what people say. It includes writing why we say or don’t
say the things we do. For this exercise think about the last few conversations you had, then
answer the following questions:
Did I say everything I wanted to say?
Why or why not?
What did I leave out?
What is my general attitude when I talk?
How does it change depending on whom I’m with?

Dialogue
Exercise 15– The Way We Talk
Think about what defines the way a person talks; do you see people differently because of it?
Many aspects of someone’s personality can be revealed through the way they talk. Focusing on
a character you have developed for this exercise, first:

Make a list of 3 things that define your character’s personality:

1.

2.

3.

Now, list 2 ways this personality reflects in the way they talk.

1.

2.

Finally, write one scene with dialogue that reveals aspects of your character’s personality.

Dialogue
Exercise 16– Show Don’t Tell

It is important to remember that it is much better to show the audience what is going on, rather
than telling the audience what is going on.
For this exercise, convey the five statements below using brief passages of descriptive
dialogue, without using the actual statement itself.

1. I love you.

2. I don’t trust you.

3. Accept me for who I am.

4. We’re in danger

5. I’m really excited

Dialogue
Exercise 17– Drawing on real-life conversations
Writing dialogue that sounds natural is difficult, especially if that dialogue is then going to be
performed by actors when you are writing for stage, screen or radio. One way to write better
dialogue is to use actual dialogue you have heard. Accurately making a mental note of the
things you hear is a skill you can develop through practice, repeating the following exercise a
few times will help you recall conversations more accurately.
(You will need a Dictaphone or tape recorder for this exercise).

1. Record two people having a conversation for 5 minutes then stop and do something else for
10 minutes.

2. After 10 minutes, write down as much of the dialogue as you can remember. Recreate the
conversation as accurately as you can, include the details of how the people speak, not just
what they say.

3. Check how you did by playing the recording back.

ACTIVITY

Choose one of the following scenarios and write a short scene of dialogue (about 500 words)
in which the characters negotiate with each other:
• A man tries to tell his father that he is gay;
• A woman tries to break up with her boyfriend;
• A man tries to ask a woman out;
• A child tries to patch up an argument with a friend.

Before beginning to write, consider the following questions about your characters:
• How do they talk?
• Do they have any mannerisms or verbal tics?
• How might they avoid saying what they want to say?
• How might they try to imply particular meanings?
• What do they do with their bodies?
• Where are they? Can their conversations play ‘against the grain’ of the setting for
dramatic effect?

When you have written the first draft of your scene consider the following:
• Is it clear who the main character is?
• What is the difference between the beginning of the scene and the end?
• How has the condition of the main character changed by the end of the scene?
• Did they start powerful or happy and end up weak or sad? Or vice versa?
• If the condition of the main character does not change, what is the point of the scene?

8 WRITING THE FIRST DRAFT

This is the actual writing stage. At this stage, the first draft of the script is written. This draft is
called the exploratory draft. This process takes about 5% of the whole process. When writing an
exploratory draft write it is important for you to go into your writing process with some general
direction but avoid seeking to know every detail of your story because you will discover much
as you write. You indeed want some general beats to write towards but you also have to allow
enough room for discovery along the way. The best preparation you can offer yourself is having
a good balance between knowing the major story beats, character moments, and twists and
turns while also allowing yourself plenty of room for that discovery. As you write you should
visualise the broad strokes of your whole story from beginning, middle, to the end. If you see
those broad strokes through your mind’s eye, you’ll have created a visual map of story points;
beats, plot twists, reveals, and revelations that you can use as you write your script.
The following are the stages of writing a script

• Produce an extract of your treatment in script form.

• Break your sequence into scenes.

• Make sure that, in each scene, some sort of change has been brought about – it should
move the story along.

• Tell your story visually – don’t just let your characters talk at each other, but tell us
what we will see on the screen that will provide us with narrative information.

• If using dialogue, make sure you know why people are speaking and how.

• Your script should

– be formatted correctly
– consist of approximately 800 words
– combine screen directions and dialogue
Exercise 18– Break Down a Story
A good way to understand structure is to get into the habit of noticing the structure in other
people’s work. For this exercise, examine a story make a list of each scene. Make a note of
where it takes place and a brief description of the point of the scene, answering the questions
in the table below.

Scene No. What happens in Is the intention of Is the intention of

the scene? the scene to move the scene character
the plot forward? development
 9 STORY TYPES
Genre

Exercise 19 – Confrontation in Genre

Different genres follow different sets of conventions. Establishing and maintaining the conventions
of the genre in which your story takes place is vital in allowing the audience to follow what is
happening, and giving an amount of expectation as to what is possible further into the story.

Although certain genres can overlap, it would be confusing for the audience and inconsistent if, for
example, a confrontation in what started as a romantic comedy suddenly featured the bloody
slaughter of a ghost-hobbit by an FBI agent with a lightsaber! Too many genres are mixed up.

For this exercise, think about how confrontational situations are resolved in different genres.
Imagine two vehicles arrive at the same parking spot; changing the vehicles and characters
accordingly, write about what would happen if the genre were:
1. Romantic Comedy:

2. Action Adventure:

3. Horror:

4. Fantasy/ Sci-fi:

Genre

Exercise 20– A New World

Many horror, fantasy, and science fiction stories create whole new worlds for the audience to
partake in. Identifying the rules for these worlds and displaying them for the audience is important
in explaining the plot.

Before writing a story in any of these genres you must identify the rules of the world in which your
story is based. For example, is there gravity? Are there humans? Do the same rules apply to all
characters in the world? In this exercise, invent a set of rules that could apply to a new world you
create, then write a title and one-sentence story idea based on your new world.

New world:

Potential Story

Title:

Summary:

Genre

Exercise 21– Made You Jump

Certain characteristics give a story its’ genre. For example, all horrors are intended to make people
scared. Focusing on horrors for this exercise, study what induces fear.

As you engage with a horror story or part of one, take note of each scary point. When you have
finished, look at all the scary points and write a short paragraph about the common thread between
them.

Story:

Scary Points:

Common Thread:

Genre

Exercise 22– Re-writing Genre

A good understanding of codes and conventions used in different genres is vital when writing a new
story. A good way to see the true value of different genre conventions is to make a story out of the
genre it was originally written for.
For this exercise, choose one scene that you know well. It could be a scene you have been working
on or a famous scene. Then re-write the scene as though it were part of a different genre, either:

1. Romantic Comedy

2. Action Adventure

3. Horror

4. Fantasy/ Science Fiction

Original Scene:

Scene re-written in

10 WRITING A DOCUMENTARY SCRIPT

A documentary is a story about factual events

Some types of documentaries are;

N The Reportage - This important strand of a television documentary that originated in the
post-War period as anextension of current affairs coverage, owing as much to radio as to the
well-established film
tradition.
i Exposé: investigations,undercover and theso-jo – this is a new standardfor investigative
reporting. Reporters use undercover cameras to unearth issues such as corruption, gender
violence, and other crimes.
ii Docu-soap and mocu-soap – Soap operas usually deal with domestic themes,broadcast on
radio or television. Often shortened to soap.
iii Docudrama – This is a film or television program based on true events, presented
in dramatized form.

All documentaries require designing and focusing, casting and planning, creative collaboration, and
scripting in some form.

Here are some guidelines for the scripted documentary:

N Write a logline This is one sentence that encapsulates the storyline and the style in which it
will be told.
i Provide a Title: Good titles help clarify the complexity and define the promise.
ii Craft a Narrative arc: Whether it is a history of a war or a country, the genesis of an idea oran
invention, a metaphorical journey through time or an actual railway journey, thenarrative
paradigm will normally apply, because the film – at least in the way that mostpeople
consume it in the cinema or on television – is a linear medium. The narrative arc is the line
that connects those three, alternatively defined as ‘proposition, conflict and resolution’.
iii Voice: Most landmark series are built around a given presenter, who will normally be
responsible for the original script. It then falls to the producer and/or director toestablish
how that will be visualized, how much will be voiced in vision, how much incommentary,
whether this will call for a secondary commentary voice and/or readersfor written extracts,
and how many complementary speakers will be called on in thecourse of the program. Too
many can make the pace frenetic and programsuperficial; too few may make it slow and
monotonous. How strong is your presenter’svoice, especially in voiceover? Can they manage
long pieces to camera, enablingdeveloping shots, or will their takes have to be cut around,
line for line? Can they writeconversationally, or must the script be completely re-imagined
for the untutoredviewer?
iv Resources: Even the most lavish productions will be constrained by budget, not leastin how
many locations can be afforded. This is not the academic area of specialty,so you have to
advise roughly how much traveling is feasible before their first draft,then plan a schedule of
how much on the page can be achieved. With music, art, andarchive, there are also major
copyright considerations, which will restrict how muchsecondarily sourced screen time can
be afforded. Location and picture research willhelp flesh out the script and reveal more
accurate figures on costs, but the level ofambition of the series will have been set by the
commissioner and the budget given.What they will require is more bangs for their bucks;
strolls through castles orgalleries are rarely accepted unless that is the point. But they will
want pictures ofthose castles, and getting to each costs money, as do the aerials or crane
shots thatachieve the stunning panoramas.
v Pictures: Scripts need to be realistically prescriptive in shot needs. With a visualdemand that
has doubled cut rates in recent years – few shots lasting more than threeseconds and sound
bites, or interviews, rarely exceeding ten seconds – picturestarvation is a prominent
problem in edit suites. Unless the requisite number and varietyof shots have been acquired
on location, the film will fail to sustain its visual richnessand dynamic tempo as the
filmmaker is reduced to repeating or eking out shots. Thisvoracious demand for material
would be reason enough to justify at least elementaryscripting, but it also serves equally
pressing demands to evolve a distinctive stylisticsignature.
vi Style: Commissioners increasingly fetishize ‘talent’, and that not only means theon-screen
talent but the director. S/he may well be instrumental in getting a projectgreen-lit, and their
style will be integral to that decision, albeit their reputation andpast success is the real key.
Building that style and reputation, even the mostserious filmmaker needs a stylistic
reference to kick-start the creative conceptualization of a film. It may be one scene that s/he
knows is indispensable from the start, and which everything else leads up to or evolves
from. It can be a pictorial reference –a work of art, the style of a photographer, a particular
way of shooting the landscape.It can even be a speech or a piece of music.
vii Music: Music becomes ever more important to providing the emotional tempo and timbre of
film.
viii Prepare for the unexpected: However well planned and scripted a documentary is, Sod’s
Law applies, i.e. if something can go wrong, it will. Flexibility – from wet weather
alternatives to standby interviews – can make use of time otherwise wasted. Scripting
should never be a straitjacket, merely a plan of action. Spontaneity and improvisation
should remain essential elements in the director’s armory. Events, people, opportunities
arise during filming that a smart director can seize and use to enhance the film.
ix Script form: Do not use screenwriting software packages such as Celtx and Final Draft; these
are only appropriate for drama. The most useful script layout for a documentary is the classic
television dual column layout, sequence by sequence. The left-hand column carries all the
visual information – shots defined and enumerated, with graphics where appropriate –
 while the right-hand column carries the aural information – script, whether in or out of vision,
music, and sound effects, including their ins and outs.

The skills required to do a documentary are;

N Expert briefing – interviewing

The most sophisticated and demanding skill in the documentary, and the one that is the most
undervalued is that of the interview.

i Do the research

It would seem axiomatic that to interview someone you should befamiliar with their work, but all
too frequently you hear writers, filmmakers, and artistsinterviewed by people who have neither
read nor seen their work, nor seem overinterested in so doing. Familiarity with the subject matter is
essential to ensure that thetime is spent wisely if only to be sure that the simple essentials are
covered. You are
also much more likely to get a good interview from someone who feels your respectand appreciates
your empathy for them and their subject. Even telephone interviewsconducted for research or
written purpose are always more productive if theinterviewer has done adequate preparation, not
just because they know what to ask,but because the interviewee senses that their time is not being
wasted. Few prominentpeople or pundits have the time or patience to be the raw material for a
poorly
researched.

ii Consider the context

You should know what knowledge level you can assume ofyour audience, and ideally the position
within the film’s informational structure that eachinterview will fill. Normally it is sensible to
explain thesefeatures to your interviewee sothat they will tailor their performance accordingly and
ideally drip-feed information asrequired. But there is a balance to be struck between gaining an
expert’s respect and
co-operation.

There are two ways that a documentary script can be written. The First one is the traditional TVstyle
where the visuals are indicated on the left side of the script and the sounds on the right-hand side.
The other style of scripting is the three-column where the narration appears on the left the visuals i
n the middle and the other sounds on the right. Here are the two ways of scripting a documentary.

Two Column Script

VISUALS SOUND
1. Pan of EAUR Building Kigali Music: University Anthem
2. MS: VCs office
3. CU of VC
4. MS of students entering and leaving History of the EAUR
the University
5. FS of the VC
 6. Images of past graduation ceremonies Explanation on graduation ceremonies

FX: Background music

Three-column script.

NARRATION VISUALS SOUND

ROB INT: ROB’SLIVING ROOM -DAY Continuous Ambiance

I think about him all the Rob walks to the window FX: Echoing footsteps on

time. His memory follows and looks out. Then he floor

me around like my shadow. moves to the sofa and tries

to read a book.
Sometimes I see a

movement in the side of my Rob looks up from his book MUSIC: Faint note of a string

eye, but when I turn around, and his eyes move around instrument.

there’s nothing there. the room.

It’s driving me crazy. CU of Rob’s eyes. FX: Echoing sigh

Rob closes his eyes.

Dissolve to:

EXT: BENCH IN PARK-DAY Continuous Park Ambiance

SUE CU of Sue’s eyes.

I do try and get out as much Sue looks around her as she
as possible. The more I sit sits on the park bench.
at home, the more I think Sue opens her purse and
about what happened. takes out her wallet.
But there’s no escaping the She looks at a picture of herself

memories. I carry them with standing with a man.

me. I feel guilty if I don’t She closes the wallet and
think about him constantly puts it back in her purse.

Some writers use the narration column to write interview questions instead of the narration. This
depends on the type of documentary you are scripting.

Exercise 23:Write a one-page documentary on a topic of your own using the three-column format of
a documentary script. In thenarrationcolumn, write interview questions that you will use for your
documentary.