(Route location)

Horizontal
curves

(Chapter 5 A)

Juliana Useya

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 Lecture outline

▪ Introduction
▪ Circular curves
▪ Setting out of curves
▪ Compound and reverse curves
▪ Transition curves

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 Learning objectives (subject matter)

▪ Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to do the following:

1. Describe the different types and methods of calculating horizontal curves.

2. Describe the different types and methods of calculating vertical curves

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 Introduction

▪ In the initial design of roads, railways etc, a series of straight sections are connected
by horizontal curves.

▪ In the vertical design, intersecting gradients are connected by vertical curves.

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Why do we need curves?

Various reasons
❑ Speed limitations
❑ Increase concentration (drivers)
❑ Topography
❑ Safety reasons – avoid blinding for E-W roads, speed etc.

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 Types of curves

1. Circular (simple) curves (constant radius)

2. Transitional curves (constantly varying radius)
3. Compound curves
4. Reverse curves,
5. Vertical curves (parabolic form)

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Circular curves

▪ Used to connect tangents that meet (intersect at a point PI).

▪ Angle of deflection / intersection ∆ is equal to the angle
subtended at the centre of the curve.
Terminology
▪ ∅ - apex angle (rarely used)
▪ PC – entry tangent point (point of curvature)
▪ PT – exit tangent point (point of tangency)
▪ PC & PT are generally referred to as tangent points 7

▪ PC-PI & PT-PI are tangent lengths T

 Basic equations for circular curves
– T = R tan ∆/2 ……………………………………………………………………..1
Length of curve PCAPT = L = R ∆ (∆ in radians)
– L = π R ∆/180 …… …………………………………………………………….2
Length of main chord PC – PT = LC
LC - Long Chord
– LC = 2RSin ∆/2 …………………………………………………………………..3
– PI – A = apex distance = (PI-O) – R (external distance)
– PI-A = R (sec ∆/2 – 1) ……………………………………………………………..4
– A B = rise = R –OB = R – R cos ∆/2
– AB = R (1 – cos ∆/2) ………………………………………………………….5
– AB – middle ordinate
▪ The above equations are basic, used to compute parts of circular curves. Answers
8 should not be rounded off
if they are to be used in another formula
 Curve designation

– Curves are designated either by radius (R) or degree of

curvature (D°)
– The degree of curvature is defined as the angle subtended at
the centre of a circle by an arc of 100m.

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Location of IP and tangent points in the
field
▪ Locate the tangent lines AC & BD
▪ Set-up theodolite on one of the lines e.g. AC and sight
towards I
▪ Drive pegs x & y on AC such that BD will intersect line x-y
▪ Join x-y by a string
▪ Set-up theodolite on BD and sight towards I.
▪ Drive in a peg where the LOS intersect string
▪ Set-up theodolite at I and measure ∆.
▪ Calculate tangent lengths using R tan ∆/2
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▪ Measure distances and establish T & U
Example 1

▪ A simple horizontal curve of R = 300m connects tangents that

intersect at an angle 74°46’36’’. Compute tangent length, length
of arc, long chord, external distance and the middle ordinate.
– Answer
i. 229.27m
ii. 391.53m
iii. 364.33m
iv. 77.58m
v. 61.64m 11
Example 2

▪ A simple curve is to be set out so that its middle ordinate is 30m long
if the tangents intersect at an angle of 50°, what is the minimum
radius required?

– Solution
30 = R(1- cos 50/2)
R = 320m
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 Example 3

▪ The radius of a simple curve is half its tangent distance. What is

the angle of intersection between the tangents?

– Solution
T = R tan ∆/2
T/R = tan ∆/2
2 = tan ∆/2
∆ = 126°52’12’’
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Example 4

▪ What is the degree of curvature of a curve of radius 300m?

– Solution
D = 5279,578/300 = 19,009°

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 Through chainage

▪ It is horizontal distance from start of scheme for route location

▪ E.g. if distance from start of route to PC = 2115.50m, chainage of PC written as
(Chn 2115.50m) – sometimes just Ch.
▪ If pegs are stacked at 20m intervals – peg immediately prior to PC have chainage
2100m (multiple of 20) and the peg 2120m.
▪ Length of first sub-chord = 2120 – 2115.50 = 4.50m

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 Example

▪ What would be the length of the first sub-chord if the route was staked at 30m
intervals? (CH 2115.50m )

▪ NB: If Chainage of PI is known, chainage of PC = ChnPI – tangent length

▪ Solution (14.50m)

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 Setting out
curves

Juliana Useya

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Setting out curves

▪ This is the process of establishing the centre line of the curve on

the grid by means of pegs at pre-set intervals.
▪ Several methods are employed which include:
a. Tangential (deflection) angle method
b. Setting out with theodolite and tape
c. Setting out with two theodolites
d. Setting out using EDM
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e. Setting out using coordinates
 1. Tangential (deflection) angle method

– The most popular method and most accurate

– Can set out using theodolite and tape
– Arc TX ≈ chord TX
– Arc length TX = 2R𝜹1
(𝜹1 = deflection angle in radians)
– 𝜹1° = chord TX * (180°/2πR) = 28,6479 chord TX/R
– In practice 𝜹2 = 𝜹3 = 𝜹4 etc. since all chords except the
first and last are equal 19

– Usually only 3 tangential angles are calculated

Example

▪ The centre of 2 straights is projected forward to meet at PI, the deflection

angle being 30°.

▪ If the straights are to be connected by a circular curve of radius 200m,

tabulate all the setting out data assuming 20m chords on a through chainage
basis.

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▪ The chainage of PI = 2259,59m.
Solution

i. Tangent length = T tan ∆/2 = 53.59m

ii. Chainage of PC = 2259.59 – 53.59 = 2206m
iii. Chainage of peg after PC = 2220m
iv. Length of 1st sub chord = 2220 – 2206 = 14m
v. Length of curve (arc) = R∆ = π*200*30/180 = 104.72m
vi. Calc. no. of 20m chords:
➢ 104.72 -14 = 90.72
➢ 90.72/20 = 4 rem 10.72
➢ Therefore 2nd – 5th = chords = 20m each
➢ Final sub chord = 10.72m
➢ Check total = 104.72m 21
vii. Chainage of PT = 2206 + 104.72 = 2310.72m
 Solution
▪ Compute deflection angles
❑ 1st sub-chord = 28.6479*14/200 = 2° 00’ 19’’
❑ Standard chord = 28.6479*20/200 = 2° 51’ 53’’
❑ Final sub-chord = 28.6479* 10.72/200 = 1° 32’ 08’’
▪ Check ∑𝜹= 14° 59’ 59’’ ≈ ∆/2 = 15°
▪ Tabulate setting out data
Chord Chord length Chainage (m) Def. angle Setting out Remarks
no. (m) angle

1 14 2220.00 2.00.19 2.00.19 Peg1

2 20 2240.00 2.51.53 4.52.12 Peg 2

3 20 2260.00 2.51.53 7.44.05 Peg 3

4 20 2280.00 2.51.53 10.35.58 Peg 4

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5 20 2300.00 2.51.53 13.27.51 Peg 5

6 10.72 2310.72 1.32.08 14.59.59 Peg 6

 2.Setting out with theodolite and tape

– Theodolite is set up at PC & sighted to PI, 0° is set on the horizontal

circle.
– 𝜹1 is set by rotating theodolite of first chord measured with tape
peg is placed.
– Theodolite is then set to 𝜹1 & 𝜹2 and distance measured from
first peg.
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– Procedure is repeated
 3. Setting out with two (2) theodolites

▪ Used when taping is difficult

▪ 2 theodolites are set at PC and PT
▪ Intersection of lines of sight used as positions of pegs

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4. Setting out using EDM

▪ Distances from PC to pegs are calculated. The angles are set as in

previous examples.
▪ Distance to 1st peg = 2R sin 𝜹1 = 14.00m
▪ Distance to 2nd peg = 2R sin 𝜹2 = 33.96m
▪ Distance to 3rd peg = 2R sin 𝜹3 = 53.83m
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Setting out using coordinates

▪ Coordinates of pegs are calculated from those of PC

▪ Directions and distances from any station are calculated from
joins.
▪ Theodolite and EDM are set at control station, orientation done
and pegs are placed.

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 Compound and
reverse curves

Juliana Useya

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 Compound curves

– Used to avoid certain points, the crossing of

which would involve great exposure and which
cannot be avoided by a simple circular curve.
– The curve is set out by treating the two sections
separately.
– Tangent lengths IT1 and IT2 are not equal
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 Compound curves

▪ the total tangent lengths T1I and T2I are found as follows:
▪ R1tanΔ1/2 = T1t1 = t1t and R2tanΔ2/2 = T2t2 = t2t, as t1t2 = t1t + t2t
▪ triangle t1It2 may be solved for lengths t1I and t2I which, if added to the known
lengths T1t1 and T2t2 respectively, give the total tangent lengths.
▪ In setting out this curve, the first curve R1 is set out in the usual way to point t. The
theodolite is moved to t and backsighted to T1, with the horizontal circle reading
(180° – Δ1/2). Set the instrument to read zero and it will then be pointing to t2.
Thus the instrument is now oriented and reading zero, prior to setting out curve
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R2.
 Reverse curve

▪ In the case of the reverse curve,

both arcs can be set out from
the common point t .

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 Transition
curves

Juliana Useya

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 Transition curves

▪ A curve of constantly changing radius,

▪ If used to connect a straight to a curve of radius R, then the commencing radius of the transition will be
the same as the straight (∞), and the final radius will be that of the curve R.
▪ Consider a vehicle travelling at speed (V) along a straight. The forces acting on the vehicle will be its
weight W, acting vertically down, and an equal and opposite force acting vertically up through the
wheels.
▪ When the vehicle enters the curve of radius R at tangent point T1, an additional centrifugal force (P) acts
on the vehicle,
▪ If P is large the vehicle will be forced to the outside of the curve and may skid or overturn
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Transition curves
(c)

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 Transition curves (cont…)

▪ The resultant of the two forces is shown as N, and if the road is

super-elevated normal to this force, there will be no tendency for
the vehicle to skid. It should be noted that as P = WV2/Rg,
❑ super-elevation will be maximum at minimum radius R.
❑ It therefore requires a length of spiral curve to permit the gradual
introduction of super elevation, from zero at the start of the transition to
maximum at the end, where the radius is the minimum safe radius R.

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Transition curves (cont…)

▪ If road is super elevated (raised) – the resultant force is N.

▪ Resultant force acts perpendicular to road hence forces the vehicle down.
▪ The purpose of the transition curve is therefore
i. To achieve a gradual change of direction from the straight to the curve
ii. To permit the gradual application of super-elevation to counteract centrifugal force
and minimise passenger discomfort.
▪ rl should be constant along curve
▪ rl = c where r – radius at l and l – distance along35curve
 Centrifugal ratio
▪ P/W = V2/Rg
▪ V – design speed
▪ R – min safe radius
▪ g – gravity
▪ When v is expressed in km/hr
▪ P/W = V2/127R
▪ Commonly used vales are 0.21 – 0.25 on roads, 0.125 on railways.
▪ e.g. P/W = 0.25 design speed = 50km/hr
▪ R = 50*50/(127*0.25)= 79m
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▪ The minimum safe radius may be at 79m or greater
▪ Another method for finding R is using coefficient of friction
 Questions,
comments,
additions and
subtractions

Thank you for your attention

!!!!!!!!!!!

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