Power Generation

(EE-411)
1
Class Introduction
Expectation from Course
 Course Outline
 Power Stations - Introduction, Types of power Station, Choice of type of
Generator, Cost of Electrical Energy
 Hydro Electric Stations - Introduction, Types of Hydro Electric Power
Stations, Principle of working of a Hydro Electric Plant, Power Station
Structure and Layout, Types of Turbine and their characteristics, Arrangements
and location of Hydro Electric Stations, Types of Hydro Electric Plants and
Dam, Characteristics of Generators, Costs of Hydro Electric Stations
 Steam Power Plants - Introduction, Main Parts and working of a steam
Station, Plant Layout, Rankine Cycle and its types, Types of Boiler and their
characteristics, characteristics of steam turbines, Design of a steam Power
Station, Steam station auxiliaries, Cost of Steam Station
Course Outline (Cont.)
 Diesel Electric Station - Introduction of Diesel Engine, Principle of
working, characteristics of diesel engines, sizes and dimensions of
generator sets, Coordination of Engine and Generator Characteristics,
Use of Diesel Sets as Alternative Power Plant, cost of diesel Plants.
 Nuclear Power Stations - Introduction, Nuclear Reaction, Main Parts
of Nuclear Power Stations, Plant Layouts, Principle of Nuclear Energy,
Nuclear reactor and reactor control, Types of Power Reactor,
Comparison of various types of reactor, Economics of Nuclear Power
Stations.
 Gas Turbines - Introduction, Main Parts of Gas turbine plant, Plant
Layout, Principle of Operation, Characteristics of Gas Turbine plants,
Gas Turbine Power Plant operation and Control, Combined Cycles Cost
of Gas Turbine Stations.
 Books

 Elements of Electrical Power Station Design, by M.V.

Deshpande

 Generation and utilization of Electrical Energy, by

S.Sivanagaraju, M.Balasubba Reddy, and D. Srilatha

 Principles of Power System, by VK Mehta and Rohit Mehta

 Any other relative Material/Book from web

ASSESMENT

 Midterm= 20 marks
 Class Project= 10 marks
 Assignment/Test= 05 marks
 Quiz/ Attendance= 05 marks
 Final Paper= 60 marks
Electrical Network:
Transmission and distribution system (T&D) transmit the electric power from generators to
the loads. They include high and low voltage lines, cables, substations etc. and its task is
to move power from generation plants to the end users
Why Does Energy Literacy Matter?

A better understanding of energy can:

• Lead to more informed decisions
• Improve the energy security of a nation
• Promote economic development
• Lead to sustainable energy use
• Reduce environmental risks and negative impacts
• Help individuals and organizations save money
Why Does Energy Literacy Matter?

 Without a basic understanding of energy, energy sources,

generation, use, and conservation strategies, individuals and
communities cannot make informed decisions on topics ranging
from smart energy use at home and consumer choices to national
and international energy policy.
 Current national and global issues such as the fossil fuel supply and
climate change highlight the need for energy education. Human
society has and will continue to develop rules and regulations to
help minimize negative consequences. As new technologies are
developed, energy policies are reevaluated, requiring individuals
and communities to make decisions.
Power Generation
(EE-411)
1
Load Characteristics

The load characteristic plays an important role in

determining the total power and energy
requirements of the system
planning the installed capacity of a power plant
selection of suitable generating capacity for
each unit of the plant..
Load Characteristics

Some of the terms in connection with the load

characteristics are explained below
Demand
The demand of a system is the load at the
receiving terminals(usually in kW or kVA) averaged
over a suitable specific interval of time of short
duration.
Load Characteristics
 Demand Interval
It is the period over which the load is averaged.
 Load Curves of a Generating Station
The total power requirement of a generation station can be
estimated using this curves
 Load Curve
It represents the load in its time sequence. As shown this curve is
obtained by plotting the station load along Y -axis and the time
when it occurs along X-axis. Usually, it is plotted for one day by
taking average load based on the time interval Δt, which is
usually an hour. The area under the curve represents the total
energy consumed by the load in one day.
Load Characteristics
Load-Duration Curve

It represents the same data (i.e. load versus time) but the
ordinates are rearranged in magnitude sequence (not time
sequence). Here, the greatest load is plotted on the left, lesser
load towards the right and the least load on the extreme right,
as Shown in Figure.
Load Characteristics

The areas under the load curve and load

duration curve are equal and each represents
the total units consumed during a day of 24
hours. The load duration curves can be daily,
weekly, monthly and annual. Sometimes the
plots are done in per unit values.
 Load Characteristics
The total load supplied by a generating station is normally divided into three
parts:
 Base load
 Intermediate load
 Peak load
The base load is the load below which the demand never falls and is
supplied 100% of the time.
The peak load occurs for about 15% of the time.
The intermediate load represents the remaining load region in the load curve.
Load Characteristics
Actual Load Curve
Connected load

It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the

equipment connected to supply system.
Maximum load

It is the greatest demand of load on the

power station during a given period.
Demand Factor

It is the ratio of maximum demand on the

power station to its connected load

DF=Maximum Demand/Connected Load

 Demand Factor

The value of demand factor is usually less than 1. It

is expected because maximum demand on the power
station is generally less than the connected load.

If the maximum demand on the power station is 80

MW and the connected load is 100 MW, then
demand factor = 80/100 = 0.8. The knowledge of
demand factor is vital in determining the capacity
of the plant equipment.
 Average Load

It is the average of loads occurring on the

power station in a given period (day or month
or year) is known as average load or average
demand.
 Load Factor
The ratio of average load to the maximum demand
during a given period is known as Load Factor.

*The cost of electrical energy per kWhr would be a

minimum, if LF=100%
 Load Factor

If consumer’s avg. load is not equal to maximum

load then cot of electrical energy is higher

*The is to smooth out the load curve of the

system
Diversity Factor

It is the ratio of sum of individual maximum

demands to the maximum demand on the
powerstation
 Diversity Factor

Diversity helps in obtaining better

conditions for power supply
Diversity is a silver lining to the
dark cloud of the load factor.
Lighting load have greater diversity
 Problem:
 The load curves of 4 consumers having both
lighting and domestic appliance. Each ha a
Maximum demand of 2000 w. However, the
maximum demand of consumer No.1 occurs
between 7 p.m. and 9 p.m. that of consumer No. 2
between 9 p.m. and 11 a.m., that of consumer
No. 3 between 12 noon and 2. p.m.;
and that of consumer No.4 between 5 p.m. and
6pm. From the curve, find the diversity factor of
the loads and the simultaneous maximum demand.
Solution:
Problem:
Problem:
Problem:
Problem:
Solution:
Significance of Diversity Factor:
 Significance of Load Factor:
Load factor is, in fact, an index to the proportion of the
whole time a generator plant or system is being worked to its
full capacity.
 The generating equipment has to be selected on the basis of
the maximum power demand that is likely to be imposed on
it.
However, it seldom happens that the generating equipment is
loaded to its maximum load during all the 8,760 hours of a
year.
 Significance of Load Factor:
But whether the equipment is being worked to its full
capacity or not, there are certain charges (like interest,
depreciation, taxes, insurance, part of staff salaries etc.)
which are adding up continuously.

In other word, the equipment is costing money to its owner

whether working or idle. The equipment earns profit only
during those hours when it is fully loaded and the more it is
fully loaded the more is the profit to the owner.
 Significance of Load Factor:
Hence, from the point view of economics it is desirable
to obtain high load factors. If the load factor is poor i.e.
kWh of electrical energy produced is small, then charge
per kWh would obviously be high. But if load factor is
high i.e. the number of kWh generated is large, then
cost of production and hence charge per kWh are
reduced because now the fixed charges are distributed
over a large number of units of energy.
Connected Load Factor:
 Plant Capacity Factor

It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the

maximum possible energy that could have been
produced during a given period.
Plant Capacity Factor

If the considered period is one year

 Plant Use Factor

It is the ratio of kWhr generated to the product of

plant capacity and the number of hours for which
the plant was in operation
 Plant Use Factor
The plant capacity factor is an indication of the
reserve capacity of the plant.
 A power station is so designed that it has some
reserve capacity for meeting the increased load
demand in future. Therefore, the installed capacity
of the plant is always somewhat greater than the
maximum demand on the plant.
Reserve capacity = Plant capacity − Max. demand
 Plant Use Factor

It is interesting to note that difference between

load factor and plant capacity factor is an
indication of reserve capacity.
 If the maximum demand on the plant is equal to
the plant capacity, then load factor and plant
capacity factor will have the same value. In such a
case, the plant will have no reserve capacity.
 PUF and PCF

The choice of the size and the number of

generating units in a station is governed by the
best compromise between the plant capacity
factor and plant use factor.
Difference between PUF and PCF
Difference between PUF and PCF
Difference between PUF and PCF
Difference between PUF and PCF
 Practice Problem
1.The maximum demand on power station is 100 MW .
If the annual load factor is 40%, calculate the total
energy generated in a year.
(Ans:3504*10^5kwhr)
2. A generating station has a connected load of 43MW
and a maximum demand of 20 MW, the units generated
being 61500000KWhr per annum. Calculate the
(i) the demand factor (0.465)
(ii) the load factor(35.1%)
 Importance of load curve
The daily load curves have attained a great importance in
generation as they supply the following information readily:
The daily load curve shows the variations of load on
the power station during different hours of the day.
The area under the daily load curve gives the number
of units generated in the day.
Units generated/day=Area(in kWh) under daily load
curve.
The highest point on the daily load curve represents
the maximum demand on the station on that day
 Importance of load curve
The area under the daily load curve divided by the
total number of hours gives the average load on the
station in the day.
The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total
area of rectangle in which it is contained gives the load
factor.
The load curve helps in selecting the size and number
of generating units.
The load curve helps in preparing the operation
schedule of the station.
 Problems:
A power station has a load cycle as under:
260MW for 6hr; 200MW for 8hr; 160MW for 4hr;
100MW for 6hr. If the power station is equipped
with 4 generating sets of 75MW each, calculate
the load factor and the capacity factor from
the above data.
 Problems:
A generating station has a connected load of
43 MW and a maximum demand of 20 MW.
The total annual energy generated by the
station is 61,500,000 kWh (Units). Calculate
the load factor, demand factor and
connected load factor.
COURSE TEACHER: Dr.umbrin
 The load on a power station varies from time to time due to
uncertain demands of the consumers and is known as
variable load on the station

 An ideal load on the station, from stand point of equipment

needed and operating routine, would be one of constant
magnitude and steady duration.
EFFECTS OF VARIABLE LOAD ON POWER
STATION
 The variable load on a power station necessitates to
have additional equipment.

 By way of illustration, consider a steam power

station. Air, coal and water are the raw materials for
this plant. In order to produce variable power, the
supply of these materials will be required to be
varied correspondingly.
 For instance, if the power demand on the plant increases, it must
be followed by the increased flow of coal, air and water to the
boiler in order to meet the increased demand. Therefore,
additional equipment has to be installed to accomplish this job.

 As a matter of fact, in a modern power plant, there is much

equipment devoted entirely to adjust the rates of supply of raw
materials in accordance with the power demand made on the
plant.
 The variable load on the plant increases the cost of
the production of electrical energy. An alternator
operates at maximum efficiency near its rated
capacity.
 If a single alternator is used, it will have poor
efficiency during periods of light loads on the
plant.
 Therefore, in actual practice, a number of alternators of
different capacities are installed so that most of the
alternators can be operated at nearly full load capacity.

 However, the use of a number of generating units

increases the initial cost per kW of the plant capacity as
well as floor area required. This leads to the increase in
production cost of energy.
 When the load changes, the frequency of the
system also varies. For proper operation, the
frequency must be within the permissible limits.
 In order to keep the frequency within limits,
additional control equipment are required. Such
equipment increase the cost and complexity of the
system.
 Due to variation in loading conditions, various
machines like transformer, electronic devices and
other machines show increased losses due to
magnetization characteristics, saturation and
variation in parameters. This decreases the overall
efficiency of the system.
COURSE TEACHER: Dr.umbrin
 Bulk electric power is produced by special plant known a
Generating Station or power plants.
 A generating station essentially employ a prime mover
coupled to an alternator for the production of electric power.

 The prime mover (e.g. steam turbine , water turbine etc.)

converts energy from some other form into mechanical
energy.

 The alternator converts mechanical energy of the prime mover

into electrical energy.
Steam power stations
Gas turbines
Hydroelectric power stations
Diesel power stations
Nuclear Power stations
 In all engineering works question of cost is of first
importance.

 Designing electrical power generating stations and other

 systems efforts are made to achieve overall economy so that

the per unit cost of generation is the lowest possible.

 This will enable supplier to supply electrical energy to its

consumers at reasonable rates.
 In every system, economy plays an important role.

 A saving in cost of generation of electrical power represents a

significant reduction in the operating cost as well as fuel cost.

 The electrical engineer has to adopt a cheapest and most

convenient scheme.
Following general points should be kept in
mind during selection of type of generation

 Kind of fuel available

 Fuel Cost
 Availability of suitable site for water power
 Nature of the load to be supplied
Raw material availability.
Location (with respect to the marketing
area.)
The cost of transmitting the energy to the
consumer
The cost of transmitting the fuel to the
station(road, rail or water transport)
Cost of an oil pipeline
Cost of land
Topography of the land
Climate (Rainfall during the year/wind
capacity)
Availability of labours.
Availability of utilities (Water, Electricity).
 Environmental impact and effluent
disposal.
 Local community considerations.
 Political strategic considerations.
 Taxations and legal restrictions
 Catchment area
 Suitable site for storing water behind
the dam
 Sufficient quantity of water at
sufficient head
 Cost of civil engineering works
 Transmission lines cost
 Foundation
 Noise
 Storage space for fuel
 Transport facilities
 Availability of water for cooling the
engines or prime movers
 Nature of load
 Degree of reliability
 Cost of purchased power
 Process steam
Thus the economic construction and
efficient operation of a process unit will
depend on

 how well the plant and equipment

specified on the process flow sheet is
laid out.
 The principal factors that are considered
are listed
 below:
1. Economic considerations: construction
and operating costs.

2. Process requirements.
3. Convenience of operation.
4. Convenience of maintenance.
5. Health and Safety considerations.
6. Future plant expansion.
7. Modular construction.
8. Waste disposal requirements
 Selectionof units and their operation
plays an important role in the working of
power station and economics of power
generation.

 Thesize and number of units is decided

from the load curves.
The choice of the size and the number of
generating units in a station is governed by the best
compromise between the plant capacity factor and
plant use factor.
 Load type
 Load profile
 Demand factor
 Load factor
 Demand of power
 Max. efficiency
 Growth of demand in near future
 Capacity of plant should be 15 or 21%
more than the expected maximum
demand.
The variation is greater with a poorer
load factor.

Case 1.
 The minimum number of unit chosen
could be one
 Inthis case (load factor<100%), the
prime mover and generator would be
working on full load only for a short
time, during the period of maximum
demand or whenever the load is
approximated to the maximum
demand
Large size units are more beneficial
than small size units because-
 Less floor area
 Less operating labour
 Less maintenance
 Better efficiency
 During the day sometimes the load on the
system is much less than the peak load,
 so the unit running at that time does not
give the max. efficiency and generation cost
per unit should increase.
 In case of complete failure or supply due to
breakdown on maintenance.
 It
is essential for a power station to
maintain reliability and continuity of
power supply at all time.
 Capacity
of each set corresponding to
the maximum demand.

 Whenthe first set is out of order or is

being opened up for overhaul or repair
then use other one.
 Capital cost would be for two sets.

 Considering isolated station which

supplies the system alone, without any
other stations in the same system for
interconnection.
 Large number of units
 The area of the building increases
 Building cost increases
 More sets involve more starting,
stopping, and parallel operation of the
equipment
 Capital and maintenance cost increases
 A power station has to supply the load as follows:

Draw load curve. Calculate load factor. Select the number

and size of generator units to supply this load. Reliability
of supply is to be maintained. Find the reserve capacity of
the plant required. Calculate the Plant Capacity Factor.
Determine the operating schedule of the units in the
station. Calculate Plant Use Factor
 Energy generated during 24 hours = 38,750 kWh
 Maximum demand = 2500 kW
 Load factor = 64.7 %
 Three generator sets: 2 sets each of 1000 kW and 1
set of 500 kW capacity
 Reserve capacity = 1000 kW
 Installed capacity = 3500 kW
 Plant Capacity Factor = 0.46 or 46%
 Plant Use Factor = 0.994 or 99.4%
Base power plant:

The power plants to be employed as base power plants

should have:
(i) low operating cost
(ii) capability of working continuously for the long
periods
(iii) requirement of few operating personnel and their
repair should be economical and speedy.

Peak power plant:

The power plants to be employed as peak power plants

should have the capability of quick start, synchronization
and taking up of system load and quick response to load
variation.
 The Hydro-power plants are well suited for both
base load and peak load operations.
 The hydro-power plants should be employed for
base load operation as far as possible because of
their higher capital cost.
 However, during the periods of peak, hydro-plants
may be used as peak load plants.
A steam power plant gives minimum cost
of generation per unit when used as base
load plant. However, in order to save fuel
it may be used as peak load plant.
 Nuclear power plants are suitable only for
base load operation at load factors
exceeding 0.8.
 Gas turbine power plants are suitable for
supplying peak loads.

 diesel power plants play a very little role

in bulk power generation because of their
uneconomical operation costs.
 The maximum demand on a power station is 100 MW. If the
annual load factor is 40% , calculate the total energy
generated in a year.
 A generating station has a connected load of 43MW and a
maximum demand of 20 MW; the units generated being 61·5
× 106 per annum. Calculate (i) the demand factor and (ii) load
factor.
 A 100 MW power station delivers 100 MW for 2 hours, 50 MW
for 6 hours and is shut down for the rest of each day. It is also
shut down for maintenance for 45 days each year. Calculate
its annual load factor.
 A generating station has a maximum demand of 25MW, a load
factor of 60%, a plant capacity factor of 50% and a plant use
factor of 72%. Find (i) the reserve capacity of the plant (ii) the
daily energy produced and (iii) maximum energy that could be
produced daily if the plant while running as per schedule,
were fully loaded
A diesel station supplies the following loads to various
consumers :
Industrial consumer = 1500 kW ; Commercial establishment =
750 kW
Domestic power = 100 kW; Domestic light = 450 kW
If the maximum demand on the station is 2500 kW and the
number of kWh generated per year is 45 × 105, determine
(i) the diversity factor
(ii) annual load factor.
 A power station has a maximum demand of 15000
kW. The annual load factor is 50% and plant capacity
factor is 40%. Determine the reserve capacity of the
plant.
 A power supplyMax.
Type of load is demand
having the following
Diversity of loads factor
Demand :
(kW) group
Domestic 1500 1.2 0.8
Commercial 2000 1.1 0.9
industrial 10000 1.25 1

If the overall system diversity factor is 1.35, determine

(i) the maximum demand and (ii) connected load of each
type.
At the end of a power distribution system, a certain feeder supplies three
distribution
transformers, each one supplying a group of customers whose connected
loads are as under:
Transformer Load Demand factor Diversity of groups
Transformer No. 1 10 kW 0·65 1·5
Transformer No. 2 12 kW 0·6 3·5
Transformer No. 3 15 kW 0·7 1·5
If the diversity factor among the transformers is 1·3, find the maximum
load on the feeder.
It has been desired to install a diesel power station to supply power in a
suburban
area having the following particulars :
(i) 1000 houses with average connected load of 1·5 kW in each house.
The demand factor and
diversity factor being 0·4 and 2·5 respectively.
(ii) 10 factories having overall maximum demand of 90 kW.
(iii) 7 tubewells of 7 kW each and operating together in the morning.
The diversity factor among above three types of consumers is 1·2. What
should be the minimum capacity of power station ?
A power station has to meet the following demand :
Group A : 200 kW between 8 A.M. and 6 P.M.
Group B : 100 kW between 6 A.M. and 10 A.M.
Group C : 50 kW between 6 A.M. and 10 A.M.
Group D : 100 kW between 10 A.M. and 6 P.M. and then between 6 P.M.
and 6 A.M.
Plot the daily load curve and determine (i) diversity factor (ii) units
generated per day (iii) load factor.

The daily demands of three consumers are given below :

Time Consumer 1 Consumer 2 Consumer 3
12 midnight to 8 A.M. No load 200 W No load
8 A.M. to 2 P.M. 600 W No load 200 W
2 P.M. to 4 P.M. 200 W 1000 W 1200 W
4 P.M. to 10 P.M. 800 W No load No load
10 P.M. to midnight No load 200 W 200 W
A power station has a daily load cycle as under :
260 MW for 6 hours ; 200 MW for 8 hours : 160 MW for 4 hours, 100 MW
for 6 hours.
If the power station is equipped with 4 sets of 75 MW each, calculate (i)
daily load factor (ii) plant capacity factor and (iii) daily requirement if the
calorific value of oil used were 10,000 kcal/kg and the average heat rate
of station were 2860 kcal/kWh.
COURSE TEACHER: Dr.umbrin
The art Of determining the per unit (i.e. one kWh) cost
of production of electrical energy is known as
economics of power generation
 Theeconomics of power generation has assumed a great
importance in this fast developing power plant engineering.

 A consumer will use electric power only if it is supplied at

reasonable rate.

 Therefore,power engineers have to find convenient methods

to produce electric power as cheap as possible so that
consumers are tempted to use electrical methods
 Interest.
 The Cost Of Use of money is known as interest

 A power station is constructed by investing a. huge capital.

This money is generally borrowed from banks or other
financial institutions and the supply company has to pay the
annual interest
 Depreciation:The decrease in the value of the power plant
equipment and building due to constant use is known as
depreciation.
 In actual practice, every power station has a useful life
ranging from fifty to sixty years.

 From the time the power station is installed, its equipment

steadily deteriorates due to wear and tear.

 so that there is a gradual reduction in the value of the plant.

This reduction in the value of plant every year is known as
annual depreciation.
 Dueto depreciation, the plant has to be replaced by the new
one after its useful life.

 Therefore, suitable amount must be set aside every year so

that by the time the plant retires, the collected amount by way
of depreciation equals the cost of replacement.
The total cost of electrical energy generated can be
divided into three parts, namely;

(i) Fixed cost;

(ii) Semi-fixed cost;
(iii) Running or operating cost.
It is the cost which is independent of maximum demand and
units generated.
Following cost/amount is included in the fixed
Cost
 Capital cost
 The annual cost of central organization
 The interest on capital cost of land
 The salaries of high officials
*The annual expenditure on the central organization and
salaries of high officials is fixed since it has to be met whether
the plant has high or low maximum demand or it generates less
or more units.
 It is the cost which depends upon maximum
demand, but is independent of units generated
Following cost/amount is included in the
semi fixed cost
 Annual interest on capital investment of building and
equipment
 Depreciation of building and equipment
 Taxes, salaries of management and clerical staff
It is the cost which depends only upon the number
of units generated.
The running cost is on account of
 Annual cost of fuel
 Lubricating oil
 Maintenance cost
 Repairs
 Salaries of operating staff
 Cost of water
 Cost of consumable stores and materials
 Since these charges depend upon the energy output, the
running cost is directly proportional to the number of units
generated by the station. In other words, if the power
station generates more units, it will have higher running
cost
 Fixed cost
 Running cost
 Distribution cost
 Theoverall annual cost of electrical energy generated
by a power station can be expressed in

 Two part forms

 Three part form
The overall annual cost of electrical energy generated is
divided into three parts; fixed cost, semi-fixed cost and running
cost

Total annual cost of energy = Fixed cost + Semi-fixed cost

+ Running cost
= Constant + Proportional to max. demand
+ Proportional to kWh generated
= Rs (a + b kW + c kWh)
Where
a = annual fixed cost independent of maximum demand and
energy output.
b= constant which when multiplied by maximum kw demand
on the station gives the annual semi fixed cost
c= constant which when multiplied by kWh output per annum
gives the annual running cost
The annual cost of energy is divided into two parts;
a fixed sum per kW of maximum demand plus a
running charge per unit of energy.

The expression for the annual cost of energy then

becomes :
Total annual cost of energy = Rs. (A kW + B kWh)
Where,
A= a constant which when multiplied by maximum
kW demand on the station gives the annual cost of
the first part
B= a constant which when multiplied by the annual
kWh generated gives the annual running cost
 The annual working cost of a power station is represented by the
formula Rs ( a+ b kW +c kWh), where the various terms have their
usual meaning. Determine the values of a, b and c for a 60 MW
station operating at annual load factor of 50% from the following
data:
i. Capital cost of building and equipment is Rs. 5x10 6
ii. The annual cost for fuel, oil, taxation and wages of operating staff
is Rs. 9,00,000
iii. The interest and depreciation of building and equipment are 10%
per annum
iv. Annual cost of organization and interest on cost of site etc. is
Rs.5,00,000.
 A power station having a maximum demand of 100 MW has a
load factor 30% and is to be supplied by one f the following
schemes
c
c
 The total costs, both fixed and operating are thus chargeable
to all the energy produced during the year, when finding the
total cost per kilowatt-hour generated.

 The fixed costs are distributed over the maximum amount of

energy produced during the year, and thus the cost per
kilowatt-hour is a minimum in this case.
 The fixed costs of a thermal station are Rs. 26,280.00 per
kW of installed capacity per year. The fuel and operating
costs are Rs. 3.00 per kWh generated. Find the cost of the
electrical energy generated per kilowatt-hour at station load
factors of 100%, 75%, 50% and 25%.

 Plot the curve showing the variation of the cost of energy

per kilowatt-hour generated.
 Fixed costs per year per kilowatt = Rs. 26,280.00
 Fixed costs per hour per kilowatt = Rs. 26,280 / 8760= Rs. 3.00
 1-kWcapacity of the plant is available at a cost of Rs. 3.00 per
hour whether the plant is in use or not; this charge is
compulsory.
 The fuel and operating costs depend on the number of kilowatt-
hour produced; the rate given is Rs. 3.00 per kWh.
 The energy produced is, however, dependent on the load factor
 Fixed costs per year per kilowatt = Rs. 26,280.00
 Fixed costs per hour per kilowatt = Rs. 26,280 / 8760= Rs. 3.00
 1-kWcapacity of the plant is available at a cost of Rs. 3.00 per
hour whether the plant is in use or not; this charge is
compulsory.
 The fuel and operating costs depend on the number of kilowatt-
hour produced; the rate given is Rs. 3.00 per kWh.
 The energy produced is, however, dependent on the load factor
COURSE TEACHER: Dr.Umbrin
 There is reduction in the value of the equipment and
other property of the plant every year due to
depreciation.
 Therefore, a suitable amount (known as depreciation
charge) must be set aside annually so that by the time
the life span of the plant is over, the collected amount
equals the cost of replacement of the plant.
The following are the commonly used methods for
determining the annual depreciation charge :

 Straightline method ;
 Diminishing value method ;
 Sinking fund method.
 The straight line method is based on the assumption that
depreciation occurs uniformly every year according to a
straight line law.
or
 In this method, a constant depreciation charge is made
every year on the basis of total depreciation and the
useful life of the property.
 Obviously, annual depreciation charge will be
equal to the total depreciation divided by the
useful life of the property.

 Thetotal amount saved during the life of the plant

should be equal to the cost of the plant minus its
salvage value at the end of life, if it has any.
 Obviously, annual depreciation charge will be
equal to the total depreciation divided by the
useful life of the property.

 Thetotal amount saved during the life of the plant

should be equal to the cost of the plant minus its
salvage value at the end of life, if it has any.
 The straight line method is extremely simple and is easy to
apply as the annual depreciation charge can be readily
calculated from the total depreciation and useful life of the
equipment.
*The interest rate is not
considered.
 Read details in book “ Elements of electrical power station design” chapter
number 2, page number 39.
 Value of equipment after n years= P- annual depreciation* years
 if the initial cost of equipment is Rs 1,00,000 and its scrap value is Rs
10,000 after a useful life of 20 years, then,
 In this method, depreciation charge is made every year at a fixed rate on
the diminished value of the equipment.

 In other words, depreciation charge is first applied to the initial cost of

equipment and then to its diminished value.

 As an example, suppose the initial cost of equipment is Rs 10,000 and its

scrap value after the useful life is zero. If the annual rate of depreciation is
10%,
 then depreciation charge for the first year will be 0·1 × 10,000 = Rs 1,000.
The value of the equipment is diminished by Rs 1,000 and becomes Rs
9,000.

 For the second year, the depreciation

 charge will be made on the diminished value (i.e. Rs 9,000) and becomes
0·1 × 9,000 = Rs 900. The value of the equipment now becomes 9000 −
900 = Rs 8100.
 For the third year,
 the depreciation charge will be 0·1 × 8100 = Rs 810 and so on.
Suppose the annual unit* depreciation is x. It is desired to find the value of x
in terms of P, n and S.
 Value of equipment after one year

 Value of equipment after 2 years

 Value of equipment after n years

= P(1 − x)n
 But the value of equipment after n years (i.e., useful life) is equal to the
scrap value S.

 ∴ S = P(1 − x)n
 or (1 − x)n = S/P
 or 1 − x = (S/P)1/n
 or x = 1 − (S/P)1/n ...(i)

 From exp. (i), the annual depreciation can be easily found.

 Value of equipment after n years
= P(1 − x)n
 This method has two drawbacks.

 Firstly,
low depreciation charges are made in the late
years when the maintenance and repair charges are quite
heavy.

 Secondly, the depreciation charge is independent of the

rate of interest which it may draw during accumulation.
 Inthis method, a fixed depreciation charge is made
every year and interest compounded on it annually.

 The constant depreciation charge is such that total of

annual instalments plus the interest accumulations equal
to the cost of replacement of equipment after its useful
life.
 The curve OGC shows the sinking fund accumulating at a certain
rate of compound interest.

 Final sum consists of the annual instalments plus the compound

interest on all instalments at the end of whole period.
 Annual payment/deposit to sinking-fund=
*q is set aside as depreciation charge
 Sinking fund at the end of n years=

 Value of plant after n years= P-sinking fund at the end of n years

 P = Initial value of equipment
 n = Useful life of equipment in years
 S = Scrap value after useful life
 r = Annual rate of interest expressed as a decimal
 A transformer costing Rs 90,000 has a useful life of 20 years. Determine
the annual depreciation charge using straight line method. Assume the
salvage value of the equipment to be Rs 10,000.
(Rs. 4000)

 A distribution transformer costs Rs 2,00,000 and has a useful life of 20

years. If the salvage value is Rs 10,000 and rate of annual compound
interest is 8%, calculate the amount to be saved annually for replacement
of the transformer after the end of 20 years by sinking fund method.
 (Rs. 4153)
 The equipment in a power station costs Rs 15,60,000 and has a
salvage value of Rs 60,000 at the end of 25 years. Determine
the depreciated value of the equipment at the end of 20 years on
the following methods :

(i) Straight line method ;

(ii) Diminishing value method ;
(iii) Sinking fund method at 5% compound interest annually.
 A generating station has a maximum demand of 50,000
kW. Calculate the cost per unit generated from the
following data :
Capital cost = Rs 95 × 106 ; Annual load factor = 40%
Annual cost of fuel and oil = Rs 9 × 106 ; Taxes, wages
and salaries etc. = Rs 7·5 × 106 ;Interest and
depreciation = 12%
Estimate the generating cost per kWh delivered from a generating station
from the following data :

 Plant capacity = 50 MW ;
 Annual load factor = 40%
 Capital cost = 1·2 crores ;
 annual cost of wages, taxation etc. = Rs 4 lakhs ;
 cost of fuel, lubrication, maintenance etc. = 1·0 paise/kWh generated.
 Interest 5% per annum,
 depreciation 6% per annum of initial value.
The capital cost of a hydro-power station of 50 MW capacity is
Rs 1,000 per kW. The annual depreciation charges are 10% of the
capital cost. A royalty of Re 1 per kW per year and Re 0·01 per
kWh generated is to be paid for using the river water for
generation of power. The maximum demand on the power station
is 40 MW and annual load factor is 60%. Annual cost of salaries,
maintenance charges etc. is Rs 7,00,000. If 20% of this expense
is also chargeable as fixed charges, calculate the generation cost
in two part form.
A hydro-electric plant costs Rs 3000 per kW of installed capacity.
The total annual charges consist of 5% as interest ; depreciation
at 2%, operation and maintenance at 2% and insurance, rent etc.
1·5%. Determine a suitable two-part tariff if the losses in
transmission and distribution are 12·5% and diversity of load is
1·25. Assume that maximum demand on the station is 80% of the
capacity and annual load factor is 40%. What is the overall cost
of generation per kWh?
A load having a maximum value of 150 MW can be supplied either by a
hydroelectric station or steam power plant. The costs are as follows :

Plant Capital cost/kW installed Operating cost/kWh Interest

Steam Rs 1600 Re 0·06 7%
Hydro Rs 3000 Re 0·03 7%

Calculate the minimum load factor above which the hydro-electric plant will
be more economical.
A load having a maximum value of 150 MW can be supplied either by a
hydroelectric station or steam power plant. The costs are as follows :

Plant Capital cost/kW installed Operating cost/kWh Interest

Steam Rs 1600 Re 0·06 7%
Hydro Rs 3000 Re 0·03 7%

Calculate the minimum load factor above which the hydro-electric plant will
be more economical.
A particular area can be supplied either by hydro station or steam station. The
following data is available :
Hydro Steam
 Capital costkW Rs 2100 Rs 1200
 Running costkWh 3·2 paise 5 paise
 Interest and depreciation 7·5% 9%
 Reserve capacity 33% 25%

(i) At what load factor would the overall cost be the same in both cases ?
(ii) What would be the cost of generating 40 × 106 units at this load factor ?
POWER GENERATION
COURSE TEACHER: DR. UMBRIN
 LECTURE OUTLINE

• Cost of Production
• Type of Cost
• Load Curve
• Load duration Curve
BONUS PROBLEMS

1. The maximum demand on a power station is 100 MW. If the annual load factor is 40% ,
calculate the total energy generated in a year.
2. A generating station has a connected load of 120 MW and a maximum demand of 60
MW; the units generated being 48 × 10^7 per annum. Calculate (i) the demand factor and
(ii) load factor.
BONUS PROBLEMS

3. A power supply agency, supplies the following load to different consumers, its details given
below:
Domestic Load: Maximum Demand= 20000 kW, Diversity Factor = 1.5, Demand Factor = 0.7
Commercial Load: Maximum Demand = 20000 kW, Diversity Factor = 1.4, Demand Factor = 0.8
Industrial Load: Maximum Demand = 50000kW, Diversity Factor = 1.2, Demand Factor = 0.9
If overall diversity factor is 1.6, determine:
1. Maximum Demand
2. Connected Load of each type of Consumer.
4. A 200 MW power station delivers loads as detailed below:
180 MW for 3 Hours during a day.
100 MW for 6 Hours during a day.
20 MW for 3 Hours during a day.
5 MW for Remaining Hours during a day
The Plant is shut down for repair or maintenance work for a period of 30 days in a year.
Calculate the annual load factor of the plant.
BONUS PROBLEMS

• 5. A power station has a maximum demand of 600 kW. The annual load factor is 60% and
plant capacity factor is 30%. Determine the reserve capacity of the plant.
• 6. A generating station has a maximum demand of 40000kW and a connected load of
70000kW. The number of units supplied annually is 28 x 10^7 Calculate load & Demand
Factor.
 BONUS PROBLEMS

A 100 MW power station delivers 100 MW for 2 hours, 50 MW for 6 hours and is shut
down for the rest of each day. It is also shut down for maintenance for 45 days each year.
Calculate its annual load factor.
A generating station has a maximum demand of 25MW, a load factor of 60%, a plant
capacity factor of 50% and a plant use factor of 72%. Find (i) the reserve capacity of the
plant (ii) the daily energy produced and (iii) maximum energy that could be produced daily
if the plant while running as per schedule, were fully loaded
BONUS PROBLEMS

7. A generating station supplies the following loads:

Domestic Load 2000kW, Maximum Demand
Industrial Load 10000kW, Maximum Demand
Commercial Load 6000kW, Maximum Demand
Irrigation Load 3000kW, Maximum Demand
The diversity factor of these loads at the generating station is 1.5 & average annual load
factor is 55%. Calculate the maximum demand on the station & total energy supplied by the
plant in year
BONUS PROBLEMS

• 8. The peak load on a power station is 30MW. The loads having maximum demands of 25,
10, 5 & 7 MW are connected to the power station. Capacity of the power station is
40MW & annual load factor is 50%. Calculate: average load, energy supplied per year,
demand factor & diversity factor.
 BONUS QUESTION

A diesel station supplies the following loads to various consumers :

Industrial consumer = 1500 kW ; Commercial establishment = 750 kW
Domestic power = 100 kW; Domestic light = 450 kW
If the maximum demand on the station is 2500 kW and the number of kWh generated per
year is 45 × 105, determine
(i) the diversity factor
(ii) annual load factor.
 BONUS QUESTION
A power supply is having the following loads :
Type of load Max. demand Diversity of group Demand factor
(kW)
Domestic 1500 1.2 0.8
Commercial 2000 1.1 0.9
industrial 10000 1.25 1
If the overall system diversity factor is 1.35, determine (i) the maximum demand and (ii)
connected load of each type.
 bonus problems

The daily demands of three consumers are given below :

Time Consumer 1 Consumer 2 Consumer 3
12 midnight to 8 A.M. No load 200 W No load
8 A.M. to 2 P.M. 600 W No load 200 W
2 P.M. to 4 P.M. 200 W 1000 W 1200 W
4 P.M. to 10 P.M. 800 W No load No load
10 P.M. to midnight No load 200 W 200 W

Draw the daily load curve and load duration curve.

BONUS PROBLEMS

A power station has to meet the following demand :

• Group A : 200 kW between 8 A.M. and 6 P.M.
• Group B : 100 kW between 6 A.M. and 10 A.M.
• Group C : 50 kW between 6 A.M. and 10 A.M.
• Group D : 100 kW between 10 A.M. and 6 P.M. and then between 6 P.M. and 6 A.M.
Plot the daily load curve and determine (i) diversity factor (ii) units generated per day (iii)
load factor.
A generating station has a maximum demand of 50,000 kW. Calculate the cost per unit
generated from the following data :
Capital cost = Rs 95 × 106 ; Annual load factor = 40%
Annual cost of fuel and oil = Rs 9 × 106 ; Taxes, wages and salaries etc. = Rs 7·5 × 106
Interest and depreciation = 12%
• Solution :
• Units generated/annum = Max. demand × L.F. × Hours in a year
• = (50,000) × (0·4) × (8760) kWh = 17·52 × 107 kWh
• Annual fixed charges
• Annual interest and depreciation = 12% of capital cost
• = Rs 0·12 × 95 × 106 = Rs 11·4 × 10^6
• Annual Running Charges
• Total annual running charges = Annual cost of fuel and oil + Taxes, wages etc.
• = Rs (9 × 106 + 7·5 × 106) = Rs 16·5 × 106
• Total annual charges = Rs (11·4 × 106 + 16·5 × 106) = Rs 27·9 × 106
• ∴ Cost per unit = Rs 27. 9* 106 /17. 52* 107
• = Re 0·16 = 16 paise
BONUS PROBLEMS

The capital cost of a hydro-power station of 50 MW capacity is Rs 1,000 per kW. The
annual depreciation charges are 10% of the capital cost. A royalty of Re 1 per kW per year
and Re 0·01 per kWh generated is to be paid for using the river water for generation of
power. The maximum demand on the power station is 40 MW and annual load factor is
60%. Annual cost of salaries, maintenance charges etc. is Rs 7,00,000. If 20% of this expense
is also chargeable as fixed charges, calculate the generation cost in two part form.
• Solution :
• Units generated/annum = (40 × 103) × (0·6) × 8760 = 210·24 × 106 kWh
• Capital cost of plant = Rs 50 × 103 × 1000 = Rs 50 × 106
• Annual fixed charges
• Depreciation = Rs 0·1 × 50 × 106 = Rs 5 × 106
• Salaries, maintenance etc. = Rs 0·2 × 7,00,000 = Rs 1·4 × 105
• Total annual fixed charges = Rs (5 × 106 + 1·4 × 105) = Rs 51·4 × 105
• Cost per kW = Cost per kW due to fixed charges + Royalty = Rs 51.4x105 / 40x 103
• + Re 1 = Rs 128·5 + Re 1 = Rs 129·5
• Annual running charges
• Salaries, maintenance etc. = Rs 0·8 × 7,00,000 = Rs 5·6 × 105
• Cost per kWh = Cost/kWh due to running charges + Royalty
• = Rs 5.6x 105/210. 24x 106 + Re 0⋅01
• = Re 0·0027 + Re 0·01 = Re 0·0127
• ∴ Total generation cost in two part form is given by ;
• Rs (129· 5 × kW + 0·0127 × kWh)
10. The annual working cost of a power station is represented by the formula Rs (a + b kW + c
kWh) where the various terms have their usual meaning. Determine the values of a, b and c for a
60 MW station operating at annual load factor of 50% from the following data :
(i) capital cost of building and equipment is Rs 5 × 106
(ii) the annual cost of fuel, oil, taxation and wages of operating staff is Rs 9,00,000
(iii) the interest and depreciation on building and equipment are 10% per annum
(iv) annual cost of organization and interest on cost of site etc. is Rs 5,00,000.
A hydro-electric plant costs Rs 3000 per kW of installed capacity. The total annual charges consist of 5% as
interest ; depreciation at 2%, operation and maintenance at 2% and insurance, rent etc. 1·5%. Determine a
suitable two-part tariff if the losses in transmission and distribution are 12·5% and diversity of load is 1·25.
Assume that maximum demand on the station is 80% of the capacity and annual load factor is 40%. What is
the overall cost of generation per kWh?
A load having a maximum value of 150 MW can be supplied either by a hydroelectric station or
steam power plant. The costs are as follows :

Plant Capital cost per kW installed Operating cost per kWh Interest
Steam Plant Rs 1600 Re 0·06 7%
Hydro Plant Rs 3000 Re 0·03 7%

Calculate the minimum load factor above which the hydro-electric plant will be more economical.
A particular area can be supplied either by hydro station or steam station. The following data is
available :
Hydro Steam
Capital cost kW Rs 2100 Rs 1200
Running cost kWh 3·2 paise 5 paise
Interest and depreciation 7·5% 9%
Reserve capacity 33% 25%

(i) At what load factor would the overall cost be the same in both cases ?
(ii) What would be the cost of generating 40 × 106 units at this load factor ?
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS
(1) on 1" march 2003, a machinery was purchased by govind for rs. 1,00,000 and
installation expenses of rs. 10,000. On 1" june 2003 a new machine was purchased for a
sum of rs. 40,000. Assuming that rate of depreciation is @ 15% premium.You are required
to prepare machinery account for 5 years under (1) straight line method and (2)
diminishing balance method.

(2) on 1" jan. 2003 A ltd. Company purchased a lease for three years for rs. 80,000. It is
decided to provide write off depreciation on annuity method. Assuming that rate of
depreciation is @ 5% P.A. Annuity table shows that re. 367208 at 5% rate of interest is
required for an annuity of re.L in three years.
[Ans : balance fo rs. 27,978.40]

(3) you are asked to calculate the depreciation for the first three years under sum of
years digit method. Mrs. Govind & co. Purchased an asset for rs. 2,10,000. Estimated life of
the asset is 6 years. The scrap value of an asset is estimated for rs. 10,000.
[Ans: balance at the end of third years rs. 28571.41]
BONUS PROBLEMS

• At the end of a power distribution system, a certain feeder supplies three distribution
• transformers, each one supplying a group of customers whose connected loads are as under:
• Transformer Load Demand factor Diversity of groups
• Transformer No. 1 10 kW 0·65 1·5
• Transformer No. 2 12 kW 0·6 3·5
• Transformer No. 3 15 kW 0·7 1·5
• If the diversity factor among the transformers is 1·3, find the maximum load on the feeder.
BONUS PROBLEMS

• It has been desired to install a diesel power station to supply power in a suburban area having
the following particulars :
(i) 1000 houses with average connected load of 1·5 kW in each house.The demand factor and
diversity factor being 0·4 and 2·5 respectively.
(ii) 10 factories having overall maximum demand of 90 kW.
(iii) 7 tubewells of 7 kW each and operating together in the morning.
The diversity factor among above three types of consumers is 1·2.What should be the minimum
capacity of power station ?
BONUS PROBLEMS

A power station has a daily load cycle as under :

260 MW for 6 hours ; 200 MW for 8 hours : 160 MW for 4 hours, 100 MW for 6 hours.
If the power station is equipped with 4 sets of 75 MW each, calculate
(i) daily load factor
(ii) plant capacity factor
BONUS PROBLEMS

• A plant has a connected load of 40 MW and a maximum demand of 20 MW. 73.8 × 106
kWh energy is generated in a year. Calculate: [i] demand factor, [ii] average load, [iii] load
factor
BONUS PROBLEMS

A consumer has the following load-schedule for a day:

• From midnight to 6.00a.m. = 200W
• From 6.00a.m to 12.00 noon = 3000W
• From 12.00 noon to 1.00p.m = 100W
• From 1.00p.m to 4.00p.m = 4000W
• From 4.00p.m to 9.00p.m = 2000W
• From 9.00p.m to midnight = 1000W
Find the load factor.
BONUS PROBLEMS

• A generating station has a connected load of 43 MW and a maximum

demand of 20 MW.The total annual energy generated by the station is
61,500,000 kWh (Units). Calculate the load factor, demand factor and
connected load factor.
BONUS PROBLEMS

• A power station has a load cycle as under:

260MW for 6hr; 200MW for 8hr; 160MW for 4hr; 100MW for 6hr. If the power
station is equipped with 4 generating sets of 75MW each, calculate the load
factor and the capacity factor from the above data.
 EE-411
Jump to slide(s) No.2: page NO. 21
Jump to slide(s) No.3: page NO. 90
Jump to slide(s) No.4: page NO. 129
EE-411
 Nuclear Power Stations - Introduction, Nuclear Reaction, Main Parts of
Nuclear Power Stations, Plant Layouts, Principle of Nuclear Energy,
Nuclear reactor and reactor control, Types of Power Reactor,
Comparison of various types of reactor, Economics of Nuclear Power
Stations.
 Thepower engineers must be concerns with the three
“Es” – Energy, Economy, and Ecology.

 Thus the modern power engineers must try to develop

systems that produce large quantities of energy at low
cost with minimal impact on environment.

 Thepower proper balancing of these three ‘Es” is a

major technological challenge.
 Itis interesting to examine the consequence of a quantity that
is constantly increasing, whether it is energy consumption,
population, gross national product, or personal income, etc.

 Ifa quantity such as power P increases at the same fractional

rate I each year then the rate of change of the quantity with
time becomes
dP
= iP
dt
 When t=o, power= Po
 
p t
dP
 = idt When t=t, power =P
po P o

P
ln = it
Po
P
= eit
Po
P = Po eit (1)
 If td is the time required for the power to increase by a factor of
2. This time td is called the “Doubling Time”.
 i.e. at t=td, P=2Po and we have

2 Po = Po eitd

ln 2 = itd
ln 2
td =
i
0.693 Where i=growth rate
td =
i
Example: The increase in electrical power consumption
in the United States has been averaged about 7% per year.
Hence,
0.693
td = = 9.9 10 years
0.07

Therefore, we can say that electrical energy consumption

is doubled after energy 10 year (or one decade)
 The total energy consumed during a given period of time can be found
by integrating equation (1), over the time interval. Let E1 be the total
energy consumed between t=t1 and t=t2, then
t = t2

 
t2
E1 = Pdt = Po eit dt
t = t1 t1
Po  it2 it1 
E1 = e − e
i  
Po it1  i ( t2 − t1 ) 
E1 = e e − 1
i  
 This equation gives the expression for the total energy consumed
between the time interval t1 to t2.
 Using the 1970 value of U.S. energy consumption rate of
70.8*1018 J / year and assuming a 4% growth rate per year.

a) Find the doubling time and estimate the energy consumption

rate in the year 2000.
21
b) If the U.S. coal reserves are of 70.8*10 J , estimate how
long the coal would last as the energy source, if it supplies
all the fuel energy.
 Given that i=0.04 per year, , t=30 years
 Doubling time=td= Po = 70.8*10 J / year
18

ln 2
td =
i
0.693
td = = 17.33 years
0.04
 Power at year 2000= P = Po e it

P = 70.8 *1018 e0.04*30

P = 235.1*10 J / Year
18
 18
 In this case i=0.04 per year, P0= 70.8*10 J / year
t1=0, E1= 70 *10 J , t2=?
21


Po it1  i ( t2 −t1 ) 
E1 = e e − 1
i  
70.8 *1018  0.04 ( t2 − 0 )
E1 = *1 e − 1
0.04  
70.8 *1018  0.04 ( t2 − 0 )
*1 e − 1 = 70 *1021 J
0.04  
 t2=92.56 years
Working Principle:
 A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into
electrical is known as a nuclear power station

OR

 A nuclear power plant works in a similar way as a thermal

power plant. The difference between the two is in the fuel they
use to heat the water in the boiler(steam generator).
 Inside a nuclear power station, energy is released by nuclear
fission in the core of the reactor.

 1 kg of Uranium U235 can produce as much energy as the

burning of 4500 tones of high grade variety of coal or 2000
tones of oil.
 The amount of fuel required is quite small. Therefore,
there is a considerable saving cost of fuel transportation.

 A nuclearpower plant requires less space as compared to

any other type of the same size.

 It
has low running charges as a small amount of fuel is
used for producing bulk electrical energy.
 Thistype of plant is very economical for producing
bulk electrical power.

 It
can be located near the load centers because it does
not require large quantities of water and need not be
near coal mine.

 Therefore, the cost of primary distribution is reduced.

 There are large deposits of nuclear fuel available all
over the world.

 Therefore, such plants can ensure continued supply

of electrical energy for thousands of years.

 It ensures reliability of operation

 The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to recover
 The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very high as
compared to other types of plants
 The erection and commissioning of the plant requires
greater technical know-how
 The fission by-products are generally radioactive and
may cause a dangerous amount of radioactive pollution.
 Maintenancecharges are high due to lack of standardization.
Moreover, high salaries of specially trained personnel
employed to handle the plant further raise the cost.

 Nuclear power plants are not well suited for varying loads as
the reactor does not respond to the fluctuations efficiently.

 The disposal of the by-product, which are radioactive, is a big

problem. They have either to be disposed off in a deep trench
or in a sea away from sea-shore.
EE-411
 Nuclear technology takes advantage of the power locked in
structure of atoms, the basic particle of matter.
 The nucleus of an atom contains all of its
 positively-charged protons
and non-charged neutrons
 Negatively-charged electrons
orbit the nucleus.
 Atoms always contain equal numbers
of protons and electrons, , making them electrically neutral.
 Atoms can have different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei. Nuclei from the same element with different
numbers of neutrons are called isotopes
.
 Most isotopes are stable, but some can spontaneously
break apart, emitting energy and particles. This is
radiation.
 A
Z X
Where X = Elements
Z = atomic number
A = mass number
Z = number of protons = number of electrons
A= number of protons + number of neutrons
 1400 nuclei_ different types of nuclei including isotopes.

 1/5th nuclei are stable and other are unstable ( excited state nuclei, having large no
of orbit)
 The above curve shows that as the atomic mass number
increase the no. of Neutron is more than proton which
is true.

 Thisis infect to increase the binding force/nuclear

force to overcome repulsive coulomb forces between
the protons
 The above curve shows that the binding energy per nucleon is
relatively low for nuclei of small mass number

 but
increases with increasing mass number to a broad
maximum of 8 to 9 MeV per nucleon for intermediate mass
nuclei.

 Thisindicates that these intermediate mass nuclei are the most

stable nuclei.
 Thus excess binding energy is released in any nuclear
reaction in which heavy mass nucleus is broken into
intermediate mass nuclei, as in fission reaction.
 Also,excess binding energy is released in any nuclear
reaction in which two light mass nuclei are combined to
form a heavier nuclei, as in fusion reaction.
 The
direct determination of nuclear (or isotopes )masses, by
means of mass spectrograph.

 Theactual mass is always less than the sum of masses of the

constituent nucleons.

 The difference, called the Mass Defect, which is related to

the energy binding the particles in the nucleons. On the other
side, minimum mass is required to sustain chain reaction is
called critical mass.
 Forelectrical neutrality, an atom must contain Z electrons
outside the nucleus, Z protons and A-Z neutrons in the
nucleus.

 If
mp, mn and me represents the masses of the proton,
neutron, and electrons respectively

 The sum of the masses of constituents of an atom is

= Z*mp + Z*me+(A-Z)*mn
Suppose the observed isotopic mass of the atom is M, then

Mass Defect = [Z*mp +Z*me+(A-Z)*mn ] - M

 According to the concept of the mass and energy equivalence, based

on special theory of relativity.

 The mass defect is a measure of the energy, which would be released

if the Z protons and (A-Z) neutrons combine to form nucleus.
 Conversely it is numerically equal to the energy which would have to
be supplied to breakup the nucleus into its constituent nucleons.

 Thus, the energy equivalent of the mass defect is called the binding
energy of nucleons.

 If m is the decrease in mass in any process, then the equivalent

amount of energy E released is given by the Einstein Equation

 E = mc 2
 Where,
E=Energy (Joules)
m= Mass (kilograms)
c=Speed of light ( c = 3*10 m / sec )
8

The atomic mass unit (amu) is approximately equal to

the mass of one neutron or one proton
 −27
1 amu = 1.66 *10 kg
−27 8
Energy corresponding to 1 amu = 1.66*10 kg * 3*10 m / sec
−10
= 1.494 *10 J

 In the nuclear energy and related fields energies are usually expressed in terms of electron
volts (eV)unit .
 One electron-volt is the energy gained by an electron in “falling” through a potential
difference of one volt.

1ev= 1.602*10−19 (coulomb) *1(volt )

 −13
1MeV = 10 eV = 1.602 *10
6
J
 1
1J = −13
MeV
1.602 *10

1
1J = −10
amu
1.494

1.494−10
1amu = −13
MeV = 931MeV
1.602
 Thus, the binding energy in MeV can be obtained as
 B.E = 931.5 [ Z*(mp+me)+(A-Z)*mn - M ]
 B.E = 931.5 [ Z*(mH)+(A-Z)*mn - M ] of hydrogen atom

 Where mp +me= mH =mass of Hydrogen atom

 =1.007825 amu
 and mn =1.008665 amu
 Average binding energy per nucleon
B.E. 931.5
=  ZmH + ( A − Z )mn − M 
A A
 B.E. 931.5
=  ZmH + ( A − Z )mn − M 
A A

Consequently, the B.E. per nucleon in any nucleus

can be determined if the isotopic (Atomic) mass M
is Known.
B.E. 931.5
= 1.007825Z + 1.008665( A − Z ) − M 
A A
Determine the binding energy per nucleon in
tin-120 for which M is 119.9022 amu, Z= 50.

Solution:
B.E. 931.5
= 1.007825Z + 1.008665( A − Z ) − M 
A A
B.E. 931.5
= 1.007825(50) + 1.008665(70) − 119.9022
A 120
B.E.
= 8.5MeV
per nucleon
A
Determine the binding energy per nucleon in
Uranium 235 for which M is 235.0439 amu and
Z=92

Solution: B.E. 931.5

= 1.007825Z + 1.008665( A − Z ) − M 
A A
B.E. 931.5
= 1.007825(92) + 1.008665(143) − 235.0439
A 235
B.E.
= 7.591MeV per nucleon
A
 236
0 n + 92U
1 235 U
92 55 CS 140
+ 37 Rb 93
+ 3( 1
0 )
n

1.008665 139.90910 3(1.008665)/5MeV k.E

235.043924 92.91699
165MeV K.E.
∆m = 0.200509amux 931 MeV/amu
Efission = 186.8 MeV
 A
 How much power is produced from fissioning of 1 gm of U 235
per day?

 Solusion: 1eV= 1.602 X 10−19 J

1J
10
 3.12 X 10 fission
 1MJ 3.12 X 1016 fission
1J=1 watt-sec= fission/atoms used
10
 3.12 X 10
1J=1 watt-day= 3.12 X 10 ( 24 * 3600 ) fission
10

 1 watt-day= 2.69 X 1015 fission
 235g 6.02 X 1023
 1g 2.56 X 1021 atoms


2.56 *1021
 15
= 951672.86 watt-day ≊ 10 watt-day
6
2.69 *10

 So; 1 gm of U-235 = 1M watt-day

 Nuclear Reaction Spontaneous Radioactivity ( α,β,ϒ )

Induced Fission

Fusion
 Alpha decay

A A− 4 + 4

ZX α
Z −2 X 2 He

 Beta decay

A

ZX β- A + 0
Z +1 X −1 e

 Gamma Rays
A A
 Z X Z X +ϒ
 The rate at which a radioactive isotope decays is
measured in half-life. The term half-life is defined as
the time it takes for one-half of the atoms of a radio
active material to disintegrate. Half-lives for
various radio isotopes can range from a few
microseconds to billions of years.
 How does a half-life work? Carbon-14 has a half-
life of 5,730 years. That means that after 5,730
years, half of that sample decays. After another
5,730 years, a quarter of the original sample
decays (and the cycle goes on and on, and
one could use virtually any radioactive isotope).
 The radioactive decay law states that the probability per unit time
that a nucleus will decay is a constant, independent of time. This
constant is called the decay constant and is denoted by λ, “lambda”.
This constant probability may vary greatly between different types of
nuclei, leading to the many different observed decay rates. The
radioactive decay of certain number of atoms (mass) is exponential
in time.
Radioactive decay law: N = N.e-λt
where N (number of particles) is the total number of particles in the
sample.
Uranium-235 has a half-life of 703.8 million years.
 Nuclear weapons harness a specific type of decay called
nuclear fission.

 This is the splitting of the nucleus into two smaller fragments.

 Thefuel used by the first nuclear weapons was Uranium-235, a
naturally occurring isotope.
 Uranium-235 has an extremely large nucleus that can be split
when it is hit with a high-speed neutron.
 Ina nuclear bomb, a large amount of uranium-235 is
clustered together, so that when fission is initiated in one of
the atoms, it splits and released more neutrons, which then
cause fission in other atoms. This creates a fission chain
reaction.

 Each time a nucleus splits, a large amount of energy is

released. Multiplied across the entire chain reaction…
 Uranium exists as an isotope in the form of U235 which is
unstable.

 When the nucleus of an atom of Uranium is split, the

neutrons released energy, hit other atoms and split them in
turn.

 More energy is released each time another atom splits. This

is called a chain reaction.
 When U 235 undergoes fission reaction then 2-3
neutrons ( on the average 2.5 neutrons) are emitted
.

 These product neutrons have very high speed and

thus possess high kinetic energy such neutrons are
called fast neutrons.
 The elements which can undergo fission reaction with
neutrons of all kinetic energies, from thermal value to
233 235 239
millions of eV, are 92 U , 92 U , and 94 .
Pu

 Outof these only 92 U 235 is occurring naturally and has a

very small percentage of 0.72% by weight of natural
uranium metal.
 235
 Thenatural uranium contains 0.72% 92U and
238
99.28% of 92U .

238
 Unfortunately, 92U absorbs fairly fast neutrons
released by the fission process of 92U 238 .

235
 And Thus they do not reach other atoms of 92 U
resulting into stopping of chain reaction.
 Therefore, a reactor which utilizes fast neutrons
for fission reaction must use 100% fissile isotope,
i.e.

 Theseparation of U 235 isotope from natural

uranium is much more costly process.
 However, U238 has low absorption property for slow
or thermal neutrons.
 Hence, a sustained chain reaction is possible with slow
neutrons.
 A reactor which utilizes slow or thermal neutrons for
production of fission is called thermal reactor.
 The equivalent energy of thermal neutron is 0.025 eV (
at a neutron velocity of 2200m/sec).
 Itis a process of splitting up of nucleus of fissionable material
like uranium into two or more fragments with release of
enormous amount of energy.

 The nucleus of U235 is bombarded with slow energy neutrons

 U235 splits into two fragments (Ba141 & K92) of approximately
equal size.

 About 2.5 neutrons are released. 1 neutron is used to sustain the

chain reaction. 0.9 neutrons is absorbed by U238 and becomes
Pu239.

 The remaining 0.6 neutrons escapes from the reactor.

 The neutrons produced move at a very high velocity of

1.5 x 107 m/sec and fission other nucleus of U235.
 fission
process and release of neutrons take place
continuously throughout the remaining material.

 A large
amount of energy(200 Million electron volts,
MeV) is produced.
 239
 U
92 and 94Pu (plutonium) are produced when neutrons
233
232 238
are captured by the fertile material like 90 Th and U
92

in a reactor
 The nuclear reaction for the production of
 + n1 → Th233 + ϒ
0 90

 0 ( -ve β decay ) +
233 ( protactinium)
 Pa
91
→
-1


 +
 238
 92
U + 0 n1
→ 92 U 239
+ ϒ
239
 -+ 91 + 93 Np ( Nepotium)
239
 + 94 Pu
light nuclei fuse together to form a heavier
nucleus
 2 2 3 1
 1 H + 1H 2 He + on + 3.26 MeV energy

The masses of different particles are

2
mass of 1H = 2.01410 amu

3
mass of 2 He = 3.01603 amu

mass of neutron = 1.008665 amu

This Mass Defect= 2x2.01410 - (3.01603+1.008665)
= 0.003505 amu

Equivalent energy released=931.5x0.003505=3.26 MeV

This energy is released in the form of heat, which could be

utilised.
 The five most probable, high temperature
(thermonuclear), fusion reaction along with
the energy released in the reaction and the
ignition energy or corresponding temperature,
are given in Table
 fissilematerial is material capable of sustaining
a nuclear fission chain reaction. By definition, fissile
material can sustain a chain reaction with neutrons of
any energy. The predominant neutron energy may be
typified by either slow neutrons (i.e., a thermal system)
or fast neutrons. Fissile material can be used to
fuel thermal-neutron reactors, fast-neutron
reactors and nuclear explosives
 Fissile nuclides in nuclear fuels include:
 Uranium-235 which occurs in natural uranium and enriched
uranium.
 Plutonium-239 bred from uranium-238 by neutron capture.
 Plutonium-241 bred from plutonium-240 by neutron capture.
The 240 Pu. comes from 239 Pu. ...
 Uranium-233 bred from thorium-232 by neutron capture.
 A fertile material, not itself capable of
undergoing fission with low-energy neutrons, is
one that decays into fissile material after neutron
absorption within a reactor. Thorium-232 and
uranium-238 are the only two naturally
occurring fertile materials.
 Uranium 238 is not fissionable by thermal
neutrons, but it can undergo fission from fast or
high energy neutrons. Hence it is not fissile, but it
is fissionable. ... ForU-235, if it absorbs a thermal
neutron, the binding energy released is greater than
the critical energy required for fission and so it
is fissile.
EE-411
 Reactor/ Nuclear Reactor: In nuclear power station,
heavy elements such as Uranium ( U 235 ) or Thorium
( Th 235 ) are subjected to nuclear fission in a special
apparatus known as a Reactor / Nuclear Reactor.

 HeatExchanger. The coolant gives up heat to the heat

exchanger which is utilised in raising the steam. After
giving up heat, the coolant is again fed to the reactor.
 Steam Turbine. The steam produced in the heat exchanger is
led to the steam turbine through a valve. After doing a useful
work in the turbine, the steam is exhausted to condenser.

 Condenser: The condenser condenses the steam which is fed

to the heat exchanger through feed water pump.

 Alternator: The steam turbine drives the alternator which

converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The output
from the alternator is delivered to the bus-bars through
transformer, circuit breakers and isolators.
 Reactor/ Nuclear Reactor: In nuclear power station, heavy
elements such as Uranium ( U 235 ) or Thorium ( Th 235 ) are
subjected to nuclear fission in a special apparatus known as a
Reactor / Nuclear Reactor.
 A nuclear reactor is a cylindrical stout pressure vessel and
houses:
 Control Rods
 Moderator
 Fuel rods of Uranium
 Uranium dioxide or uranium(IV) oxide (UO2), also
known as urania or uranous oxide, is
an oxide of uranium, and is a black, radioactive,
crystalline powder that naturally occurs in the mineral
uraninite.
 It is used in nuclear fuel rods in nuclear reactors. A
mixture of uranium and plutonium dioxides is used
as MOX fuel
 The most salient difference is in how each isotope
can be induced to undergo fission. U-235 is fissile,
which means that slow-moving neutrons can cause
fission.U-238 is fissionable, which means that only
fast, energetic neutrons can cause fission
 For example, a 1100 MWe pressurized water
reactor may contain 193 fuel assemblies composed
of over 50,000 fuel rods and some 18 million fuel
pellets. Typical reactor refueling intervals vary
from 12 to 24 months, after which the reactor is
shutdown for a few weeks to a month for refueling
and maintenance operations
 As little as 15 lb (7 kg) of uranium-235 can
be used to make an atomic bomb. The
first nuclear bomb used in war, Little Boy, relied
on uranium fission, but the very
first nuclear explosive (the Gadget used at
Trinity) and the bomb that destroyed Nagasaki
(Fat Man) were both plutonium bombs
 Thefuel rods constitute the fission material
and release huge amount of energy when
bombarded with slow/fast moving neutrons.

 Fuel: The fuel used for

nuclear fission is 235
U
isotope.
 The control rods are of cadmium and are inserted into the reactor.
Cadmium is strong neutron absorber and thus regulates the supply of
neutrons for fission.

 When the control rods are pushed in deep enough, they absorb most
of fission neutrons and hence few are available for chain reaction
which, therefore, stops.

 In actual practice, the lowering or raising of control rods is

accomplished automatically according to the requirement of load.
 They must have high absorption cross-section
 They must be adequately strong
 They must have low atomic mass number in order to
allow rapid movement with slight inertia effects.
 They must be able to shutdown the reactor almost
instantly under all conditions
 They must be able to provide adequate control of power
during operation
 They must provide good resistance to corrosion
 They must be stable under heat and radiation
 They must have reasonable heat transfer properties
 They must be economical
 The moderator consists of graphite rods which
enclose the fuel rods. The moderator slows
down the neutrons before they bombard the
fuel rods. Most moderators are graphite, water
or heavy water.
 The heat produced in the reactor

 is
removed by the coolant, generally a sodium
metal. The coolant carries the generated heat
to the heat exchanger. Water is used as a
coolant, some reactors use liquid sodium as a
coolant.
 Thisremoves heat from the core produced by
nuclear reaction, the heat being used to
generate steam in other apparatus.

 The types of coolants used are carbon dioxide,

air, hydrogen, helium, water, sodium or
sodium potassium
 The coolant used must be fluid at operating
temperature of the reactor.
 Having high thermal conductivity
 Low neutron absorption property
 Coolant must be stable from the stand point of
view of dissociation by neutron bombardment
or by heat
 Here the nuclear fission process takes
place.

 This contains a number of fuel rods made

of fissile materials
 To protect the people working from radiation and
(thermal shielding) radiation fragments.
OR
 Shielding helps in giving protection from the
deadly alpha- and beta- particle radiations and
Gama rays as well as neutrons given off by the
process of fission within the reactor
Reactor control
 The multiplication factor K for a reactor is defined as
the ratio of the number of the neutrons produced in one
generation divided by the no. of neutrons produced in
the preceding generation.

 Since the fission process is initiated by neutrons, the

fission rate or power is directly proportional to the
neutrons level in the reactor.

Thus, the following three conditions may arise,
 If K>1, the neutron population is increasing with time
and reactor power is increasing with time and the
reactor is said to supercritical.
 If K=1, The neutron population and reactor power is
constant. The reactor is said to be critical
 If K<1, the neutron population and reactor power are
decreasing with time and the reactor is said to be sub-
critical.
 Another term which is closely related to the
multiplication factor is the reactivity of the reactor
designated by the symbol ρ, and defined in terms of
multiplication factor K as follows:

K −1
=
K
 K −1
=
K
Thus for
I. Supercritical ρ is positive
II. Critical ρ is zero
III. Subcritical ρ is negative
EE-411
There are many ways to classify nuclear reactor systems. Some
of the common ways of classification are;
 Classification with respect to the average K.E. of the neutron
causing fission/Type of fission
 Classification w.r.t. the purpose of the reactor
 Classification w.r.t Fuel used
 Classification w.r.t the core geometry and composition
 Classification w.r.t the type of coolant used
 Thermal Reactor (below 0.1 eV)
 Intermediate Reactor ( between 0.1eV to
0.1 MeV)
 Fast Reactor ( above 0.1 MeV or so.)
1. Research Reactor
2. Experimental Reactor
3. Production Reactor
4. Compact Power Reactor
5. Commercial Power Reactors
 Research Reactor: These reactors operate at a
power ranging from a few microwatts to
hundreds of megawatts.
 These reactors are used essentially as a source
of neutron and the thermal energy generated
is commonly dissipated to the environment.
 To test new reactor designs and for research
1. Experimental Reactors: These reactors are low
powered ( upto 10 MWth) reactor prototypes to
check the feasibility and solve the operational
problems of the proposed system.

2. Production Reactors: These reactors were originally

constructed to produce Pu 239 fuel for the nations
weapons program
 To convert fertile materials into fissile materials
Compact Power Reactors: These are mobile
reactors and are fueled with fully enriched
uranium to keep the size and weight to a
minimum. These types of reactors are
employed in submarines and ships
Commercial Power Reactors: In the
commercial power reactors excess
neutrons are used to produce new fuel ( in
a converter or breeder reactor) and the
thermal energy is used to generate
electricity
The fuel used in the reactor may be:
 Natural uranium
 Enriched uranium, or
 Plutonium

Classification w.r.t state of Fuel

The fuel may be a:
 Solid
 liquid
1. Homogeneous Reactor
2. Heterogeneous Reactors
 Homogeneous Reactor: In these reactors, the
fuel used is in the fluid form, including gases,
liquid. In these reactors, the fluid is normally
circulated from the reactor to an external heat
exchanger through a pump and back to the
reactor.
 Fuel and moderator are mixed
 Heterogeneous Reactor: In the heterogeneous
reactors, the fuel is in solid from and fission
energy is transferred from the solid fuel
assembly (called fuel elements) to a coolant
circulating through the reactor core.
 Most of the reactors presently in operation
are heterogeneous type.
 Fuel is discrete and lump in moderator
1. Heavy water
2. Graphite
3. Ordinary water
4. Beryllium water, and
5. Organic
 One region: Fissile and fertile material are mixed
 Two regions: Fissile and fertile materials are separate.

Classification w.r.t Cooling system:

Direct: The liquid fuel is circulated from the reactor to the heat
exchanger, where steam is generated.

Indirect: Coolant is passed through the reactor and then

through the heat exchanger for the generation of steam
1. Gas
2. Water
3. Heavy water
4. Liquid metal
 The materials which can undergo neutron
fission are known as fissile materials (U 235,
U233, Pu 239).

U 235 only occurs in nature. While Pu 239 is

obtained by converting U 238, and U 233 can
be obtained by converting Th 232.
U 238 and Th 232 are fertile material,
Thus fertile material in non fissionable
material which can be converted into a
fissile material.

 Eachfission process of U 235 produces

about 2.5 neutrons per fission.
 Ofthese only one neutron is required to
sustain the chain reaction

 The excess fission neutrons can used to

activate the isotopes of fertile materials
to produce new fuel atoms
 X
r=
Y
Where X= No. of fertile atoms consumed( i.e.
no. of new fuel atoms formed)

Y= (no. of original fuel atoms consumed in

the fission and radioactive capture process)
 If
r >= 1, the reactor is called a breeder
reactor and r is called the breeding ratio.

 If
0<r<1, the reactor is called a converter
reactor and r is called the conversion
ratio.
 Burner ( thermal): Designed for producing only heat.
There is no recovery of converted fertile material.
 Converter: Converts fertile material into fissile
material. The converted material is not the same as
the one initially fed into the reactor. (r<1) is the
conversion ration.
 Breeder: Converts fertile material into fissile
material. The converted fissile material is the same
as that initially fed into the reactor. (r>1) is the
breeding ratio.
1. Light water cooled
2. Heavy water cooled
3. Organic cooled
4. Gas cooled
5. Liquid metal cooled
Light water Reactors:
 Light water (H2O) as a coolant, has a good
thermal properties.
 It is inexpensive and the water technology is
well developed. Since, water has a high
hydrogen concentration.
 Water also commonly serves as the
moderator in a thermal reactor to slow down
the neutrons.
 Unfortunately, hot water is quite corrosive
and it must be highly Pressurised in order
to operate at moderate temperatures.
 The main disadvantage with light water is
that the absorption cross-section of
ordinary hydrogen is high. Hence, these
systems must employ slightly enriched
fuels ( normally 2 to 3%) in order to
achieve criticality.
Basically light water reactors are of two
types:
a. Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR)
b. Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
1
1
Some commercial types of reactor are described below:

 Calder Hall Reactor

 Magnox Reactor
 Advanced Gas-Cooled Reactor (AGR)
 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
 Canadian Deuterium Uranium (CANDU )Power Reactor
 Sodium-Graphite Reactor
 Fast Breeder Reactor
 The United Kingdom’s first nuclear power station, Calder
Hall (opened 1956; decommissioned 2003)

 This type of reactor uses natural uranium as fuel

 Graphite as moderator
 Gas as coolant
 Magnox is short for Magnesium non-oxidising.
 It is basically an alloy mainly of magnesium with small
amounts of aluminum and other metals
 It is used to clad the fuel rods inside the reactor.
 This type of reactor uses natural uranium as fuel
 Graphite as moderator
 CO2 as coolant
 AGR is the developed form of GR and uses the same
technology.
 This enable generation at higher temperature and
pressure
 This type of reactor uses uranium oxide (UO2) as fuel
material enriched by a small percentage of U 235.
 Graphite as moderator
 CO2 as coolant
 Required to be taken to cool the graphite moderator in
order to limit the rate at which it reacts with CO2.
 PWR is the most common of all the reactor
types in use throughout the world, both for
commercial power stations and for military
applications.

 PWRs use light water (H2O) as coolant and

moderator, and because of the neutron
absorption property of light water enriched
uranium (2 to 3%) is required as fuel.
 In this type of reactor, the core coolant ( primary
coolant) is highly pressurized ( about 2250
psia(pound per square inch))and no bulk boiling is
permitted in the reactor during normal operation.

 The turbine steam is generated at lower pressure in

a secondary water loop. This prevents
contamination of steam turbine with radioactive
material from the primary coolant as shown in the
schematic diagram.
 Heat is produced in the reactor due to nuclear fission and there is a
chain reaction.
 The heat generated in the reactor is carried away by the coolant (water
or heavy water) circulated through the core.
 The purpose of the pressure equalizer is to maintain a constant
pressure of 14 MN/m2(meganeuton per square meter). This enables
water to carry more heat from the reactor.
 The purpose of the coolant pump is to pump coolant water under
pressure into the reactor core.
 The steam generator is a heat exchanger where the
heat from the coolant is transferred in to the water
that circulates through the steam generator.

 Asthe water passes through the steam generator it

gets converted into steam.

 The steam produced in the steam generator is sent

to the turbine. The turbine blades rotate.
 The turbine shaft is coupled to a generator and
electricity is produced.

 After
the steam performing the work on the turbine
blades by expansion, it comes out of the turbine as wet
steam.
 This
is converted back into water by circulating cold
water around the condenser tubes.

 The feed pump pumps back the condensed water into

the steam generator.
 The BWR have a primary cooling system in which the
turbine steam is generated in the reactor core
directly.
 This system is some what less complicated than the
PWR primary system because it does not require the
large and expensive secondary steam generator
instead the steam is generated in the reactor itself.
 In this type of reactor the control rod is inserted
from the bottom.
 Thewater is circulated through the reactor where it
converts to water steam mixture.

 The steam gets collected above the steam separator.

 Thissteam is expanded in the turbine which turns the

turbine shaft.
 The expanded steam coming out of the turbine is
condensed and is pumped back as feed water by
the feed water pump into the reactor core.

 Alsothe down coming recirculation water from the

steam separator is fed back to the reactor core.
 Heat exchanger circuit is eliminated &
consequently there is gain in thermal
efficiency & gain in cost.

 2.Thereis use of a lower pressure vessel for

the reactor as compare to PWR which further
reduces Cost.
 Themetal temperature remains low for given
output condition.

 The cycle for BWR is more efficient than PWR

for given pressure.

 Operates at a lower nuclear fuel temperature

 Possibilityof radioactive contamination in
the turbine mechanism, should there be
any failure of element
 More elaborate safety precautions needed
Which are costly
 Boiling limits power density: onil 3 to5%
by mass can be converted to steam per
pass thro
 Heavywater (D2O) is used to moderate and cool
some power and research rectors.

 The Canadians have exported a number of reactors

of this type in CANDU series.
 ordinary water has a high enough absorption
cross-section that it cannot be used to moderate a
natural uranium thermal reactor,

 while the heavy water has a very low absorption

cross-section and it can be used to moderate a
natural uranium thermal reactor

 Thismakes the heavy water reactor systems
popular for those countries which do not have
uranium enrichment facility
 Sodium graphite reactor is liquid metal reactor
 Sodium (liquid metal) works as a coolant
 Graphite works as moderator
 Uranium, thorium, or alloy of uranium
 Sodium boils at 880 deg. C, sodium is first melted by electric
heating system and be pressurized to 7 bars.
 Liquid sodium is then circulated by the pump
 Primary circuit: primary circuit has liquid
sodium which circulates through the fuel
core and gets heated by the fissioning of
the fuel.
 This liquid sodium gets cooled in the
intermediate heat exchanger and goes
back to the reactor vessel.
 Secondary circuit: Secondary circuit has an
alloys of sodium and potassium in liquid form.
 This coolant takes heat from the intermediate
heat exchanger which gets heat from liquid
sodium of primary circuit.
 The liquid sodium potassium then passes
through a boiler which is once through type
having tubes only.
 Secondary circuit: Secondary circuit has an
alloys of sodium and potassium in liquid form.
 This coolant takes heat from the intermediate
heat exchanger which gets heat from liquid
sodium of primary circuit.
 The liquid sodium potassium then passes
through a boiler which is once through type
having tubes only.
NaK

Na
 Produce more fissile material than is consumed

 Technology first developed in the 1950’s

 Utilize uranium 60 times as efficienctly as PWRs

 Cooled by liquid metal

 A graphite reactor is a nuclear
reactor that uses carbon as a neutron moderator,
which allows un-enriched uranium to
be used as nuclear fuel. The very first artificial
nuclear reactor, the Chicago Pile-1, used
graphite as a moderator.
Following factors should be considered in deciding the location of a
nuclear reactor and power station:

 Location near load Centre

 Availability of water supply
 Safety
 Accessibility
 Radioactive waste disposal
 Note: details read in “ Elements of power
station design” on page no.160
 Note:details read in “ Elements of power
station design” on page no.164
 Note:details read in “ Elements of power
station design” on page no.167
Cooling water pipes, radiation Suits,
etc.
stored in storage facilities
radioactivity will fall to a safe level
after 10 to 50 years.