LOAD CHARACTERISTICS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
From the very outsct energy has played a vital role in the developnent of civilization. There has been
a universal basic drive towards better living through expanded utilization of cncrgy. The history of
civilization shows a close relationship betwecn the utilization of energy and the progress of mankind.
The degree of energy used in the symbol of thc progressof a country. Energy consciousness in the people
has created interests in them to tap new sources of encrgy from time to time. Of the various forms so
far discovered the clectrical energy has contributed a lot to the world's energy requirements.
1.2 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Electrical energy is the most refined form of encrgy. The advantages derived from the clectrical cncrgy
are many in number. Some of its important advantages over other forms of energy arc :
1. It can be generated in large quantities at comparable cost with other types of cnergy.
2. It can be conveniently transmitted over long distances.
3. It can be utilized cfticiently in a number of processes requiring encrgy.
4. It has got maximum flexibility and has most sensitive susceptibility control.
1.3 LOAD
A device which uses clectrical cncrgy is said to impose aload on the system. The tem load is uscd in
a number of ways.
" To indicate a device or collection of devices which consume clcctrical encrgy.
To indicate power requircd from a given supply circuit.
" To indicate the current or power passing through a linc or machine.
The load may be resistive, inductive, capacitive, or some combination of them.
14 CONNECTED LOAD
Connected load is the sum of continuousratings of all loads connccted to the system or any part thercof.
1.5 DEMAND
The demand of an installation of a system is the load that is drawn from thc sourçc of-supply at the
recciving terminals averagcd over asuitable and specificd iterval of time.
The load may be given in kilowatts (kW). kilovars (kVAr), kiloyoltamperes (kVA), or ampercs (A).
 1.6 DEMAND INTERVAL

Donand interval is the period over which the load is averaged. There are two
(a) Instantaneous demand denaids
(b) Sustained demand
The former isnot very important because all the machines are designed for overloads. The sustained
intervals are generally taken as 15 min, 30 min, or even longer. But 30 min is the basis time in India.
1.7 MAXIMUM DEMAND (MD) OR PEAK LOAD
e heaxmum demand of an installation or system is the øreatest of all demands which have
during the specific period of time. ocCurred
I ne maximum demand statement should also
express the demand interval used TO neasSu
CAnpie,
annual.
the specified demand might be maximum of all demands such as daily, weekly, monthly, or
Knowledge of maximum demand helps in determining the installed capacity of a
Ine generating station must be capable of meeting generating Station.
the maximum demand. Hence the cost of plant
equipmnent increases with the increase in maximum demand. and
1.8 DEMAND FACTOR DF
The demand factor is the ratio of the actual
of the system. Therefore, the maximum demand of the system to the total connected load
demand factor (DF) is
DR 4 maximum demand
total connected load
The demand factor can also be found for a
consumer. instead of for the whole system. part of the system. For example, an industrial or commercial
In practice, consumers do not
of each consumer is, therefore, lessuse all the devices at full load simultaneously. The maximum demand
of than his connected load. The demand
load. Lighting loads have higher demand
than 1.0. factors than power loads. Thefactor depends upon the nature
demand factor is usually less
1.9 AVERAGE LOAD OR AVERAGE DEMAND
It is the ratio of energy consumcd in a given period of the time in
hours.
Averageload = Chergy consumned in a given period
hours in that timc pcriod
1.10 LOAD FACTOR
Load factor of a system is the
demand (peak load) occurring inratio of the average load over
that period.
a given period of time to the maximum
Load factor averagc load
pcak load
Multiplying thc numerator and denominator by timc 7,
Load faCtOr = average xT Cncrgy COÓsumcd during atime of Thours
Jcak load x 7
This rol:ation shows that the load pcak lo:ad x 7 hours
factor
during a given period to the cnergy whichcanwould
also he denhed as the ratio OT
have been uscd it the maxthe actual cncryy consumed
had been continuously maintaincd throughout that pcriod. imum demand (pcak load)
 Depending upon the number of hours in days, wecks, months, or ycars we define different load factors.
For daily load factor, the period of time T is taken as 24 hours and for annual load factor T = 8760
hours.
Mathematically,
Daily load factor =
total kWh during 24 h of the day
(pcak load in kW) x 24 h
total kWh during the month
Monthly load factor (pcak load in kW) x (number of hours in the month)

Annual load factor total kWh during the year

(pcak load in kW) x (8760 hours)
Load factor plays an important role on the cost of generation per unit (kWh). The higher the load
factor, the lesser will be the cost of generation per unit for the same maximum demand.

1.11 DIVERSITY FACTOR Fp

The maximum demands of the individual consumers of a group are not likely to occur simultaneously.
Thus, there is a diversity in the occurrence of the loads. Due to this diverse nature of the load, power
is never required to supply all connected loads to their full capacity at the same time.
Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various subdivisions
of a system to the maximum demand of the whole system. Thus,
(sum of individual maximum demands)
Diversity factor =
(coincident maximum demand of the whole system)
DË + D+ ... + Dn
Fp
Dg

or Fp = i=1
Dg
where D; = maximum demand of the load i, irrespective of the time of occuence.
D, = Då +2+ ...*n) = coincident maximum demand of group of n loads
Diversity factor can be defined for loads, substations, feeders, and generating stations. Usually the
maximum demand of various consumers do not occur at the same time and the simultancous (coincident)
maximum demand is less than their total maximum demand. Thc diversity factor can be equal to or
grcater than 1.0. The value of the divcrsily factor is generally grcater than 1.0 with a high value
representing a good diversity and 1.0 represents a poor diversiy.
A large diversity factor has the cffect of reducing the maximum demand.
capacity is required. Thus. the capital investment on the plant is rcduccd andConsequcntly, lcsser plant
the cost of generation is
also reduced.

1.12 LOAD DIVERSITY

It is the differcnce between thc sum of the pcaks of two or

combined load. norc_individual loads and the pcak of the
|
Load divcrsity
SD-D
i=l
1.13 UTILIZATION FACTOR Fu
capacity of the system.
It is the ratio of maximum demand of a system to the rated
F.
maximum demand
rated system capacity
The utilization factor can also be found for a part of the system.

1.14 PLANT FACTOR OR CAPACITY FACTOR energy

specified period of time to the
maximum
It is the ratio of the total actual energy produced or Supplied over a operated continuously at
that would have been produced or supplied if the plant (or unit) had the reserve capacity.
including
rating. The maximum plant rating in the total installed plant capacity
Plant factor A (actual energy
produced or supplied in time 1)
maximum plant rating x ?
Plant factor is mostly used in generation studies. For example.
annual plant factor =
actual annual energy generation
maximum plant rating x 8760
station. If the plant is always run
The capacity factor indicates the extent of the use of the generating
It is different from load factor because of the fact
at its rated capacity, the capacity factor is 1.0 (100%).than
that the rated capacity of each plant is always greater the maximum demand. The power plants have
in load and maintenance.
always some reserve capacity to take into account the future expansion, increase
II is to be noted that
peak load x load factor
capacity factor =
plant capacity
Thus, if the rate plant capacity equals peak load, the capacity factor and load factor become identical.
That is, in absence of reverse capacity.
capacity factor = load factor

1.15 LOSS FACTOR FLs

t is the ratio of the average power loss to the peak-load power loss during the specified period of time.
average power loss
FLS =
power loss at peak load
This relationship is applicable for the copper losses of the system but not for the iron losses.
I.16 LOAD CURVE

Lod cuve (or chronological load curve) is a graphical representation between load in kW (or MW, in
roner time scquence and time in hours.daily
It shows the variation of load on the power station. When i i
load cunve. IfIf the
plotted for 24 hours a day, it is called time considered is one year (8760 hours)
then it is called the annual load curve.
It js to be noted that the daily load Curve of a System is not the same for all davs t diffavs E
dav-t0-day and season-to-season. n practice, two types of curves are drawn one for summer and the
other for winter.

FROM LOAD CURVES

L17 NFORMATIONS OBTAINED
obtained from load curves
The following informations are
1. Load variation during different hours of the day.
by the load curve gives the maximum
2. The peak load indicatcd demand on the power station.
 generated in the period under consideration.
3. The area under the load curve gives the total energy
number of hours gives the average load.
4. The area under the load curve divided by the total
5. The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total arca
of the rectangle in which it is contained
gives the load factor.
curved are far from flat. For aflat
It would be ideal to have a flat load curve. But in practice, load uniform load pattern with less
load curve, the load factor will be higher. Higher load factor means more associated equipment
variations in load. This is desirable from the point of view of maximum utilization of
which are selccted on the basis of maximum demand.

1,18 UTILITY OF LOAD CURVES

On the basis of above informations load curves are useful as follows :
(a) Todecide the installed capacity of a power station.
(b) To choose the most economical sizes of various generating units.
(c) To estimate the generating cost.
different
(d) To decide the operating schedule of the power station, that is, the sequence in which
generating units should run.

1.19 LOAD-DURATION CURVE

A load duration curve is also a graph between load and time in which the ordinates representing the load
are plotted in the order of descending magnitude, that is, with the greatest load at the left, lesser loads
towards the right and the lowest load at the time extreme right. The load duration curve is derived from
the load curve and therefore, represents the same data as that of the load curve. The load duration curve
is constructed by selecting the maximum peak points and connecting them by a curve.
1.20 PROoCEDURE FOR PLOTTING THE LOAD-DURATION CURVE
(a) From the data available from the load curve, determine the maximum load on the system and
the duration for which it occurs.
(b) Take the next lower load anddetermine the total time, during which this and the previous greater
load occurs.
(c) Plot the load against time during which it occurs.
The load-duration curve can be ploted for any duration of time, for example, a day or, a week, or
a month, or a year. The abscissa of such a curve can also be chosen as per unit or percentage of time
for which it occurs. The whole duration is taken as 1.0 pu or 100%.
The load duration curve plotted for 24 hours of day is called the daily load duration curve. Similarly.
the load duration curve plotted for 8760 hours of a year is called the annual load- duration curve.

1.21 INFORMATIONS AVAILABLE FROM LOAD DURATION CURVE

(a) It gives the minimum load present throughout the given period.
(b) It enables the selection of base load and peak load power plants.
(c) Any point on the load duration curve gives the total duration in hours for the corresponding load
and all loads of greater value.
(d) The areas under load curve and corresponding load duration curve are equal. Both these areas
represent the same associated energy during the period under consideration.
(e) The average demand during some specifiedas time period such as a day. or month. or ycar can
be obtained from the load duration curve follows :
 6 Electrical Power Systems
and- kWh (or MWh)consumed in a given time period
Average demand
hours in the time period
areaunder the load duration curve
base of the load duration curve
Example 1.1 A consumer has the following connected load:
10 lamps each of 60 W
2heaters each of 1000 W
Maximum demand 1500 W
On the average he uses 8 lamps for 5
load, (b) monthly energy consumption, hours per day, each heater 3 hours per day. Find (a)
(c) load factor. average