Sub-

kingdom-
Prot
ozoa

Sub-
kingdom-
Prot
ozoaar
ebel
ongi
ngt
oki
ngdom-pr
otoct
ist
a.Pr
oti
staar
ea
het
erogeneousgr
oupofl
i
vingt
hings,
compr
isi
ngt
hoseor
gani
smswi
thsi
ngl
e
cel
loracel
l
ular
.Somepr
oti
stansar
epl
ant
-l
ikei
.et
heyhav
echl
orophy
llor
someot
herpi
gmentf
orphot
osy
nthesi
s,andmayhav
eacel
l
ulosewal
l
,and
ar
e cal
l
ed Pr
otophy
ta.Ot
her
s ar
e ani
mal
-l
ike,hav
ing no chl
orophy
llor
cel
l
ulosewal
l
,andf
eedonor
gani
cmat
terandar
ecal
l
edPr
otozoa.
Pr
otozoa(
singul
ar,pr
otozoan)
,der
ivedf
rom t
woGr
eekwor
ds‘
prot
os’and
‘
zoon’meani
ng“
fi
rstani
mal
”.Theseor
gani
smsoccurgener
all
yasasi
ngl
e
cel
l
oracol
onyofnear
lyi
dent
icalcel
l
sinwhi
chi
ndi
vi
dualcel
l
sar
ejoi
nedby
cy
topl
asmi
cthr
eadsandf
orm aggr
egat
esofi
ndependentcel
l
s.Pr
otozoa
cont
aint
het
ypi
calst
ruct
uresf
oundi
nal
leucar
yot
iccel
l
s,i
ncont
rastt
othe
pr
ocar
yot
iccel
l
sofbact
eri
aandbl
ue-
greenal
gae,t
heyhav
eawel
l
-def
ined
nucl
euswi
thi
tssetofchr
omosomesandamassofcy
topl
asm.Theyar
e
excl
usi
vel
ydi
ver
sei
nter
msofhabi
tatast
heyl
i
vei
nfr
eshwat
eraswel
lasi
n
mar
ine habi
tat
s,i
nthe soi
land i
nthe bodi
es ofot
heror
gani
sms as
commensal
s,sy
mbi
ont
s oras par
asi
tes,i
.e.t
hey ar
e cosmopol
i
tan i
n
di
str
ibut
ion.
Appr
oxi
mat
ely66,
000speci
esofpr
otozoahav
ebeendescr
ibed,
about10,
000ofwhi
char
epar
asi
ti
c.

Gener
alChar
act
eri
sti
csofPr
otozoa
 Theyar
euni
cel
l
ular(
singl
e-cel
l
ed)or
gani
sms,most
lyexi
stassol
i
tar
y,i
.e,
asi
ndi
vi
dual
s,e.
g.amoeba,
Lei
shmani
a,et
c,whi
l
eagoodnumberexi
sti
ng
i
ncol
oni
es,
e.g,
Vol
vox,
Goni
um,
etc.
 Theyar
emost
lymi
croscopi
c,i
.e,notv
isi
blewi
thnakedey
es,v
ary
ingi
n
si
ze f
rom 1.
5µm t
o 50mm i
n di
amet
er.Howev
er,some speci
esl
i
ke
Par
ameci
um ar
elar
geenought
obeseenaswhi
tespecksi
nwat
er.
 Theypossessno ger
m l
ayer
s,no t
issuesoror
gans,butspeci
ali
zed
or
ganel
l
esar
epr
esent
.
 Mostpr
otozoan ar
e mononucl
eat
e hav
ing si
ngl
e nucl
eus,butsome
ci
l
iat
esandcy
sti
camoebaear
emul
ti
nucl
eat
e.
 Mostpr
otozoanar
efr
eeswi
mmi
ng;i
nfactal
loft
hem exhi
bitsomef
orm
ofmot
il
it
yand of
ten cl
assi
fi
ed based on l
ocomot
oryor
ganel
l
est
hey
possess,
butf
ewar
esessi
l
ee.
g.,
Stent
orandVor
ti
cel
l
aspeci
es.

1
  Mostoft
hepr
otozoan mov
eaboutbymeansofspeci
all
ocomot
ory
or
ganel
l
es,e.
g.,Pseudopodi
a,ci
l
ia,f
lagel
l
aandaf
ew donothav
eany
l
ocomot
oryor
ganel
l
es,
thus,
mov
eaboutbygener
albodygl
i
ding.
 Mostpr
otozoanar
enakedhav
ingnospeci
alcov
eri
ng,butaf
ew l
i
ke
r
adi
l
ari
ansandf
orami
nif
eransar
eshel
l
ed.
 Af
ew pr
otozoansar
eaut
otr
opi
c,capabl
eofmanuf
act
uri
ngt
hei
rown
f
oods,e.
g,Eugl
ena,Vol
vox,Chl
amy
domonasspp.
,whi
l
ethemaj
ori
tyar
e
het
erot
rophs;f
oundi
naquat
ichabi
tat
s,i
nfr
eshwat
er,mar
inehabi
tat
s,i
n
t
err
est
ri
alhabi
tat
s,ot
her
sinot
heror
gani
smsascommensal
s,sy
mbi
ont
s
andpar
asi
tescausesser
iousdi
seases,e.
g.,mal
ari
a,amoebi
cdy
sent
ery
,
Af
ri
cansl
eepi
ngsi
ckness,
andCocci
diosi
s(i
ndomest
icat
edani
mal
s).
 Theyar
etakeni
nthei
rfoodei
therbyabsor
pti
onofsol
ubl
ecompounds
t
hrough t
he cel
lmembr
ane orby bei
ng packaged as par
ti
cles or
macr
omol
ecul
esi
nvacuol
est
hatar
epi
nchedof
fthecel
lmembr
ane.
 Theycanr
epr
oducedsexual
l
yby
:
a) Conj
ugat
ion-
int
hispr
ocess,at
empor
aryuni
onoft
woi
ndi
vi
dual
soccur
s
dur
ingwhi
cht
imei
nter
changeofnucl
earmat
eri
alt
akespl
ace.Lat
eron,
t
het
woi
ndi
vi
dual
ssepar
ate.
b) orsy
ngamy
-int
hispr
ocess,
sexual
l
ydi
ff
erent
iat
edcel
l
s,cal
l
edgamet
es,
uni
teper
manent
lyandacompl
etef
usi
onoft
henucl
earmat
eri
alt
akes
pl
ace.Ther
esul
ti
ngpr
oducti
sthenknownasazy
got
e.
 Theycanr
epr
oduceasexual
l
yby
:
a) Si
mpl
ebi
nar
yfi
ssi
on-i
nthi
spr
ocess,af
terdi
vi
sionofal
lthest
ruct
ures,
t
hei
ndi
vi
dualor
gani
smsdi
vi
desei
therl
ongi
tudi
nal
l
yort
ransv
ersel
yint
o
t
womor
eorl
essequal
par
ts.
b) Buddi
ng-t
hispr
ocessdi
ff
ersf
rom bi
nar
yfi
ssi
oni
nthatt
wounequal
-si
zed
of
fspr
ingar
epr
oduced.Asmal
lbudmi
grat
est
oanewat
tachmentsi
te,
whi
l
ethel
argerof
fspr
ingr
etai
nst
hepar
ent
alst
alkandt
heor
igi
nal
sit
e.
Mult
ipl
efissi
onorschi zogony–inthi
sprocessmoret
hant
woi
ndi
vi
dual
sar
e
pr
oduced,e.g.asexualrepr
oduct
ioninPl
asmodia.
Cl
assif
icati
onofPr otozoa
Pr
otozoaar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntof
ourgr
oupsont
hebasi
sofl
ocomot
oryor
gans.

PHYLUM SARCOMASTI
GOPHORA(
Amoebaeandf
lagel
l
ates)

2
Thesepr
otozoapossessf
lagel
l
aorpseudopodi
aasl
ocomot
oryorf
eedi
ng
or
ganel
l
esandasi
ngl
ety
peofnucl
eus.Thephy
lum i
sfur
therdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo
sub-
phy
la,
Mast
igophor
aandSar
codi
na
1. Sub-
phy
lum Sar
codi
na(
Amoebae)
Adul
tsar
codi
napossesspseudopodi
awhi
char
eei
therusedf
orcapt
uri
ng
pr
eyorf
orl
ocomot
ion.Fl
agel
l
a,i
fpr
esentar
eonl
yindev
elopment
alst
ages.
Theyar
eei
thersy
mmet
ri
calorhav
easpher
icalsy
mmet
ry.Theypossess
r
elat
ivel
yfew or
ganel
l
es and t
her
efor
e,consi
der
ed t
o be t
he si
mpl
est
pr
otoz
oa.Member
sar
edi
sti
ngui
shedbydi
ff
erentt
ypesofpseudopods.Most
speci
esar
efr
ee-
li
vi
ng,commensal
s,butf
ew ar
epar
asi
tes.About10,
000
speci
es bel
ong t
othi
s phy
lum.The sub-
phy
lum i
s di
vi
ded i
ntot
wo
super
classes.
i
. Super
-cl
ass Rhi
zopoda:l
ocomot
ion i
s by pseudopodi
a,Lobopodi
a,
f
il
opodi
a,r
eti
cul
opodi
a orby pr
otopl
asmi
cfl
ow wi
th pr
oduct
ion of
di
scr
ete pseudopodi
a. Exampl
e i
ncl
ude Amoeba, Ent
amoeba,
Di
ent
amoeba,
Iodomoeba,
etc.
i
i
. Super
-cl
assAct
inopoda:t
heyar
espher
icali
nshape;pr
imar
il
yfl
oat
ingor
sessi
l
eSar
codi
nawi
thact
inopodi
aradi
ati
ngf
rom aspher
icalbody
.They
usedaxopodsf
orl
ocomot
ionandf
eedi
ng.Theyar
efoundi
nmar
ineand
f
reshwat
erhabi
tat
.Theynor
mal
l
ycov
ered wi
th si
l
iceous shel
l
s.E.
g.
Act
inophy
rs,
Radi
olar
ian
i
i
i.speci
eset
c.
2. Sub-
phy
lum Mast
igophor
a
Themast
igophor
ansar
ewhi
p-bear
ersort
hef
lagel
l
atesast
heyuse
Fl
agel
l
aforl
ocomot
ion.Somear
eaut
otr
ophi
candot
her
sar
ehet
erot
ropi
c,a
f
ew ar
efr
ee-
li
vi
ng,butmost
lypar
asi
ti
cfor
ms.Theyar
efur
therdi
vi
dedi
nto
t
wocl
asses’
phy
tomast
igophor
aandzoomast
igophor
a.
i
. Phy
tomast
igophor
a(Pl
antl
i
kef
lagel
l
ates)
 Theypossesschr
omat
ophor
esorchl
oropl
ast
s;t
hus,
canphot
osy
nthesi
se
t
omanuf
act
uret
hei
rownf
oodorcar
bohy
drat
es.
 Theyar
eaut
otr
ophi
cinnut
ri
ti
on.
 Theyar
efr
ee-
li
vi
ng(
non-
par
asi
ti
c)
 Theyr
epr
oducebyasexual
repr
oduct
ion
 Theyusual
l
yhav
eoneort
wof
lagel
l
a.

3
 Exampl
eincl
udeEugl
ena,
Vol
vox,
Chl
amy
domonas,
etc.

i
i
. Zoomast
igophor
a(Ani
mal
li
kef
lagel
l
ates)
 Theyl
ackchr
omot
ophor
es,t
her
efor
e,ar
eunabl
etomanuf
act
uret
hei
r
f
oods.
 Theyar
ehol
ozoi
c(f
oodi
singest
ed t
hrought
empor
aryorper
manent
openi
ng)
.
 Manyar
ecommensal
s,sy
mbi
ont
sandpar
asi
tesar
efoundi
nbl
oodand
t
issueandi
nthegutofhost
s(i
ntest
inal
flagel
l
ates)
.
 Somemember
srepr
oducesexual
l
y
 Theyhav
eonet
omanyf
lagel
l
a
Exampl
eincl
udeTr
ypanosoma,
Lei
shmani
a,Tr
ichomonas,
Giar
diaet
c.
3. Sub-
phy
lum Opal
i
nat
a
 Theyar
eal
lor
ali
nshape
 Bodi
escov
eredwi
thci
l
ia
 Theyhav
etwoormanymonomor
phi
cnucl
ei
 Theyar
eint
est
inal
par
asi
tesofamphi
bians
Exampl
eincl
ude;
Opal
i
na,
Zel
l
eri
ell
aet
c.

Phy
lum Api
compl
exa
Al
lmember
slackl
ocomot
oryor
ganel
l
es;
mov
ementi
sbygener
albodygl
i
ding.
Al
lmember
shav
easpeci
alst
ruct
ureatapi
calr
egi
oncal
ledapi
calcompl
ex
f
orpenet
rat
ion ofhostcel
l.Theapi
calcompl
exconsi
stsofpol
arr
ings,
r
hopt
ri
es,mi
cronemes,conoi
dandsub-
pel
l
icul
armi
crot
ubul
es.Theyar
eal
l
par
asi
tesofbot
hhumanandani
mal
s.Theyar
ethemostknowneconomi
c
and medi
cali
mpor
tance.
They compl
etet
hei
rli
fe cy
clei
nthr
ee phases;
spor
ogony
,schi
zogony(
asexual
phases)andgamet
ogony(
sexual
phase)
.
Thephy
lum hast
womaj
orcl
asses.
i
. Cl
ass Spor
ozoa (
spor
efor
ming pr
otozoans)
;Repr
oduce sexualand
asexual
.
I
thast
hreesubcl
asses
a)Sub-
classGr
egar
ini
a:
 They ar
e mai
nlyt
he par
asi
tes ofi
nver
tebr
ates l
i
ke ar
thr
opods and

4
 annel
i
ds.
 Theyar
eusual
l
yhy
per
par
asi
tes
 E.
g.Gr
egar
ina,
Monocy
sti
set
c.
b)Subcl
assCocci
dia:
 Theycompl
etet
hei
rli
fecy
clei
nthesamehost
 Theyar
eint
est
inal
par
asi
tesofv
ert
ebr
ates,
especi
all
ybi
rdsandr
abbi
ts.
 Repr
oduced asexual
l
ybyschi
zogony(
giv
ing r
ise t
o mer
ozoi
tes)and
sexual
l
ybygamet
ogony
;leadi
ngt
opr
oduct
ionofhi
ghl
yresi
stantspor
es.
 E.
g.Toxopl
asmaet
c.
c) Sub-
classHeamospor
ina
 Theycompl
etet
hei
rli
fecy
clei
ndi
ff
erenthost
s
 Theyar
ePar
asi
tesofv
ert
ebr
ater
edbl
oodcel
l
s
 Theycompl
etet
hei
rli
fecy
clei
nthr
eephases;spor
ogony
,schi
zogony
(
asexualphases)i
nver
tebr
atest
issuese.
g.l
iv
erandbl
oodt
issue,and
gamet
ogony(
sexualphase)i
nar
thr
opods.i
.e.f
usi
onofmi
crogamet
ocy
te
andmacr
ogamet
ocy
tet
ofor
m azy
got
e(Oocy
st)andt
hent
ransf
ormi
nto
ooki
net
e(mot
il
efor
m).
 Exampl
eincl
udePl
asmodi
um speci
es,Babesi
a(par
asi
teofcat
tl
eand
ant
elope)
.
Phy
lum Ci
li
ophor
a(Ci
li
ates)
Theci
l
iat
esconst
it
utet
hel
argestphy
lum ofpr
otozoa.Theyar
eal
sot
hemost
ani
mal
l
ike and exhi
bita v
eryhi
gh l
evelofor
ganel
l
e dev
elopment
.They
possessci
l
iaf
orl
ocomot
ionandi
nmanyspeci
esf
orsuspensi
onf
eedi
ng.
Theyar
ehet
erot
rophswi
thwel
l
-dev
elopedcy
tost
omes,t
heyhav
etwonucl
ei
(
micr
oandmeganucl
ei)
;mi
cro-
nucl
eusf
orr
epr
oduct
ionandmega-
nucl
eus
f
orv
eget
ati
vegr
owt
hfunct
ion.
Thebodyofci
l
iat
esi
scov
eredbyacompl
ex
l
i
vingpel
l
icl
e,cont
aini
ngal
veol
i
,tr
ichocy
stsandot
heror
ganel
l
es.Ci
l
iat
es
r
epr
oduceasexual
l
ybyt
ransv
ersef
issi
onandsexual
l
ybyconj
ugat
ion.
Exampl
eincl
udePar
ameci
um,
Ephi
dini
um,
Vor
ti
cel
l
a,suct
ori
aet
c.

5
Ki
ngdom Ani
mal
ia
Ther
ear
esev
eralway
sofgr
oupi
ngani
mal
sint
odi
ff
erentt
axa.Al
ltheway
s
ar
emost
lypr
ovi
dedf
ort
heconv
eni
encei
nident
if
yingsi
mil
art
axa.
I
.Oneoft
heear
li
estmet
hodofgr
oupi
ngani
mal
s,
div
idesAni
malki
ngdom i
nto
t
woassembl
agesbasedont
hepr
esenceorabsenceofbackbone:
1. I
nver
tebr
ataand
2. Ver
tebr
ata.Thi
smet
hoddoesnoti
ncl
udePr
otochor
dat
es.
I
I.Ani
mal
scanal
sobegr
oupedbasedont
henumberofcel
l
si.
e.si
ngl
ecel
l
ed
and mul
ti
cel
l
ularani
mal
s.The si
ngl
e cel
l
ed or
gani
sms ar
e cal
l
ed t
he
Pr
otozoans.Themul
ti
cel
l
ularcoul
dbecal
l
edt
heMet
azoans.
I
II
.Met
azoans ar
e al
so gr
ouped i
ntot
wo based on t
he gr
ade l
evelof
or
gani
sat
ion;
.
1.Par
azoa-Mul
ti
cel
l
ularor
gani
smswi
thoutt
issuegr
ade(
sponges)
.
2.Eumet
azoa-Mul
ti
cel
l
ularor
gani
smswi
tht
issuegr
ade.
I
V.Eumet
azoaar
esubdi
vi
dedf
urt
heri
ntot
wogr
oup’
sbaseont
hebodyl
ayer
s;
1.Di
plobl
ast
icani
mal
s-hav
ingect
oder
m andent
oder
m ast
wol
ayer
sint
hei
r
bodywal
l
.Ex:
Coel
ent
erat
a.
2.Tr
ipl
obl
ast
icani
mal
s-hav
ing ect
oder
m,mesoder
m andendoder
m as
t
hreel
ayer
sint
hei
rbodywal
l.TheTr
ipl
obl
ast
icani
mal
sar
efur
therdi
vi
ded
i
ntot
hreegr
oupsbasedont
hepr
esenceorabsenceofanembr
yoni
cbody
cav
itycal
l
edcoel
om.
1.Acoel
omat
a-nocoel
om Ex:
Plat
yhel
mint
hes
2.Pseudocoel
omat
a-wi
thaf
alsecoel
om Ex:Nemat
oda

6
3.Coel
omat
a-wi
that
ruecoel
om
Phy
lum Por
if
era(
der
ivedf
rom l
ati
n:por
us=por
e;f
err
e=t
obear
)
 Member
soft
hisphy
lum ar
ecommonl
yknownassponges
 Theyar
ethemostpr
imi
ti
veandsi
mpl
estmul
ti
cel
l
ularani
mal
s
 Thecel
lar
emor
eorl
essi
ndependentofoneanot
her
,duet
otheabsence
ofaner
voussy
stem andsenseor
gans.
 Thei
rcel
l
sar
enotor
gani
zedi
ntot
issuesandor
ganshencet
heyar
eat
cel
l
ularl
evel
ofor
gani
zat
ion.
 Adul
tspongesar
esessi
l
eat
tachedt
orocksandot
herhar
dobj
ect
sin
shal
l
owwat
er
 Spongesar
epr
edomi
nant
lymar
inebutsomemayoccuri
nfr
eshwat
er
 TheBodyconsi
stsofasacwi
thoneopeni
ng,
andwi
tht
hewal
lcomposed
oft
wocel
l
ularl
ayer
sandal
ayerofsecr
etedj
ell
ybet
weent
hem.Thei
nner
l
ayeri
stheendoder
m,t
heout
erl
ayeri
stheect
oder
m and t
hej
ell
y
subst
ancei
nbet
weeni
scal
l
edmesohy
l,i
nwhi
chcel
l
sofv
ari
oust
ypes
ar
escat
ter
ed.
 The cent
ralbodycav
ityofsponges ar
e known as spongocoel
e or
par
agast
er
 Thel
ayerl
i
ningt
hei
nter
nalbodycav
ityi
sknownasgast
rall
ayeror
choanoder
m;i
tcomposedofcol
l
arf
lagel
l
atecel
l
sknownaschoanocy
tes.
 Theskel
etonofspongesmaybemi
ner
ali
nnat
ure(
cal
car
eousCaCO3 or
si
l
iceousSi
O2)orcomposedofpr
otei
nandot
hercomponent
s(spongi
n)
 Numer
ousi
n-cur
rentpor
esknownasost
iaper
for
atet
hebodysur
faceofa
sponges,
thechoanocy
tes,
orcol
l
arcel
l
sar
efl
agel
l
atedcel
l
sthatcapt
ure
f
ood;
andt
heoscul
a,openi
ngst
hroughwhi
chwat
eri
sexpel
l
ed(
ex-
cur
rent
sy
stem)
..
 Thei
rbodywal
lcont
ainsspi
cul
eswhi
char
ecl
assi
fi
edasmegascl
eres,
whi
chf
unct
ioni
nsuppor
t,andmi
croscl
eres,whi
chf
unct
ioni
npr
otect
ion
andal
soai
dinsuppor
t.
 Theyr
epr
oducebybot
hsexual
andasexual
repr
oduct
ion
 Spongesar
egener
all
yher
maphr
odi
ti
c(mal
eandf
emal
eger
m cel
l
sinone
ani
mal
)
 Theyar
efi
l
terf
eeder
s;f
oodpar
ti
clesar
eengul
fedbyt
hecol
l
arcel
l
s
(
choanocy
tes)wher
edi
gest
iont
akepl
ace.

7
 Oneofdi
ff
erentl
arv
alf
ormsi
stheamphi
blast
ula
Phy
lum Por
if
erai
sdi
vi
dedi
ntof
ourcl
asses:
a) Cl
assCal
car
ea
 Thesear
espongeswi
thskel
etonconsi
stsol
elycal
car
eousspi
cul
es
 Theyhav
elar
gechoanocy
tes
 E.
gLeucosl
eni
a,Sy
conet
c.
b) Cl
ass=Hexact
inel
l
ida
 Theyar
espongeswi
thapur
elysi
l
iceousskel
etonscomposedofsi
x-
r
ayedspi
cul
es
 Theyhav
esmal
lchoanocy
tesandl
ackj
ell
y
 Theyar
efounddeepi
nthesea
 Eupl
ect
ell
a,Hy
alonemaet
c.
c) Cl
assDesmospongi
ae
 Theyl
ackskel
etonandi
fpr
esenti
tmaybesi
l
iceousanddoesnot
cont
ainedsi
x-r
ayedspi
cul
esofsi
l
ica
 Choanocy
tesar
esmal
landpossessj
ell
y
 E.
gspongi
l
la,
Oscar
ell
aet
c.
d) Cl
assScl
erospongi
ae
 Thi
sisav
erysmal
lcl
assofl
euconoi
dmar
inesponges
 Theyar
esi
mil
art
odesmospongi
ae
 Theyar
efoundi
nassoci
atedwi
thcor
alr
eef
s
 Thei
rskel
etoni
smadeupofsi
l
iceousspi
cles
PHYLUM COELENTERATA(
Cni
dar
ia)
Thenamecni
dar
iani
sder
ivedf
rom Gr
eeks“
pref
ix”andLat
in“
suf
fi
x”(
Greek-
Kni
de,net
tl
e=st
ingcel
l
;Lat
in-ar
ia)
.Thenamecni
dar
iasi
mpl
yder
ivedf
rom
t
hechar
act
eri
sti
cscni
dobl
astt
heypr
oducef
ordef
ence.Theysomet
imescal
l
coel
ent
rat
es;f
rom Gr
eekswor
dcoel
om=bodycav
ity
,hol
l
ow cav
ity(
hol
l
ow
i
ntest
ine)
.Manyoft
hem ar
epr
edat
orsofaquar
ti
cani
mal
sbypar
aly
singt
hei
r
pr
eyorpr
edat
orsusi
ngnemat
ocy
st.Manyoft
hem l
i
veascommensalor
sy
mbi
ont
s wi
th ot
her pl
ant
s and ani
mal
s.They ar
e Met
azoa,ei
ther
sedi
ment
aryoff
ree-
swi
mmi
ng,
wit
hpr
imar
yradi
alst
ruct
ure.
 Theyar
edi
plobl
ast
ic-bodywal
lcomposedoft
wol
ayer
sofcel
l
s,t
he
ect
oder
m andendoder
m,andasecr
etedmesogl
oeabet
weent
hesel
ayer
,
butaf
ewar
etr
ipl
obl
ast
ic-hav
ingami
ddl
elay
er(
mesoder
m)

8
 Theyhav
eti
ssuegr
adel
evel
ofor
gani
zat
ion
 Theypossessasi
ngl
ecav
ityi
nthebodyknownasent
rone,whi
chser
ve
f
ori
ngest
ionandegest
ion
 Thei
rmout
hissur
roundedbyt
ent
acl
es
 Theypr
oducenemat
ocy
stwhi
chser
vef
ordef
enceandf
oodcapt
ure
 Theyar
eradi
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
,butf
ewspeci
esar
ebi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
 Theyar
eei
thersedent
ary(
seat
ed)orf
ree-
swi
mmi
ng
 They exhi
bitpol
ymor
phi
sm,occur
ri
ng ei
ther as hy
droi
d(pol
yp) or
medusoi
dty
peofi
ndi
vi
dual
s.Themedusoi
dfor
msar
efr
eeswi
mmi
ng
andsol
i
tar
ywhi
l
ethepol
ypf
ormsar
esedent
aryandmaybesol
i
tar
yor
col
oni
al.
 Asexual
repr
oduct
ioni
sbybuddi
ngpr
oduci
ngcol
oni
alzooi
ds
 Sexual
repr
oduct
ionpr
oducesaci
l
iat
edl
arv
aknownast
hepl
anul
a.
Phy
lum Coel
ent
rat
a(Cni
dar
ia)i
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreecl
asses;
1. Cl
assHy
drozoa(
Hydr
a-l
ike)ani
mal
s
 Theyhav
ebot
hpol
ypandmedusaf
ormi
nthei
rli
fecy
cle
 Pol
ypi
sthepr
edomi
nantst
agewhi
l
ethemedusai
sthesi
mpl
est
age
 Theyr
epr
oducebyal
ter
nat
ionofsexualandasexualphasesi
nthei
r
l
i
fecy
cle
 E.
gHy
dra,
Obel
i
aet
c.
2. Cl
assScy
phozoa(
Greeks-sky
phos=cupl
ikeani
mal
s)
 Thepol
ypst
agemayei
therber
educedsmal
ll
arv
aori
tmaybeabsent
;
i
fpr
esent
,itgi
ver
iset
omedusaebyt
ransv
ersf
issi
on
 Medusast
agei
sthemai
nst
agei
nthel
i
fecy
cle
 Theyl
ackgul
l
et
 Nemat
ocy
stsar
epr
esenti
ntheect
oder
m
 Theyar
eexcl
usi
vel
ymar
ine
 E.
g.Aur
eli
a(j
ell
yfi
sh)
,Pel
agi
aet
c.
3. Cl
assAnt
hozoa
 Theyar
eexcl
usi
vel
ymar
ine
 Theyar
ethel
argestcl
ass
 Theyoccuronl
yaspol
yps
 Nemat
ocy
sti
spr
esenti
ntheendoder
m
 E.
g.Act
ini
a(seaanemone)
,ASt
rangi
a(cor
al)et
c.

9
Phy
lum Pl
aty
hel
mint
hes(
fl
atwor
ms)
Pl
aty
hel
mint
hesconsi
stsofsi
mpl
ewor
m-l
i
keani
mal
scal
l
edf
lat
wor
ms.
The name Pl
aty
hel
mint
hes i
s der
ived f
rom Gr dspl
eek wor aty
=
f
latandhel
mint
h=wor
m.Fl
atwor
msl
i
veonl
and,i
nfr
eshwat
er,i
ntheocean,
andi
noronot
herani
mal
saspar
asi
tes(
e.g.
,tapewor
ms)
.Par
asi
ti
cfl
atwor
ms
t
hatl
i
veonori
nsi
det
hebodyofot
herani
mal
s—i
ncl
udi
nghumanscani
njur
eor
ev
enki
l
lthehost
.Al
lfr
ee-
li
vi
ngf
lat
wor
msar
epr
edat
orst
hatact
ivel
yhuntf
or
f
ood.Some l
i
ve sy
mbi
oti
cal
l
y wi
th cr
abs,cl
ams,oy
ster
s,shr
imp,and
bar
nacl
es.
The Pl
aty
hel
mint
hes compr
ise about 13,
000 f
ree-
li
vi
ng and
par
asi
ti
cspeci
es.
 They ar
e el
ongat
ed,t
ape-
li
ke st
ruct
ure or ar
e shor
t and l
eaf
-l
ike,
measur
ingaf
ewcent
imet
rest
osev
eral
met
ers.
 Theyar
ebi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
 Theyar
etr
ipl
obl
ast
ic
 Theyar
eator
gansy
stem l
evel
ofor
gani
zat
ion
 Theyar
edor
so-
vent
ral
l
yfl
att
ened,
i.
e.t
opi
spl
atshar
pedgesatsi
des.
 Di
gest
ivesy
stem maybeabsenti
nsomespeci
es,orwhenpr
esenti
tis
r
udi
ment
aryorbl
i
ndandi
ncompl
etedf
orm,
wit
honl
yoneopeni
ngser
ving
asbot
hthemout
handanus.I
tobt
ainsi
tsnut
ri
entbyabsor
pti
ont
hrough
cut
icl
e.
 Al
lpl
aty
hel
mint
hesar
eacoel
omat
es(
donothav
ebodycav
ity
),t
heor
gans
ar
eembeddedi
nspeci
ali
zedconnect
ivet
issuesknownaspar
enchy
ma.
 Tapewor
msar
eher
maphr
odi
tesormonoci
ousexcepti
nShi
stosomee
t
hathav
ewel
ldev
elopedr
epr
oduct
ivesy
stem.
 Somespeci
esar
ehi
ghl
yst
robi
l
ized,i
.e.f
ull
ysegment
ede.
gtapewor
ms
whi
l
eot
her
sar
eunsegment
ede.
g.Shi
stosomes.
 Theyhav
enoci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem,i
nsomespeci
es,butt
heal
i
ment
ary
canalpr
esenti
sconsi
der
edas“
gast
ro-
vascul
ar”
,i.
e.ser
vingasdi
gest
ive
sy
stem aswel
lasci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem.
 Respi
rat
orysy
stem i
sabsent
,butr
espi
rat
ionoccur
sbysi
mpl
edi
ff
usi
on
acr
osst
het
egument
.
 Theypossessauni
queexcr
etor
yandosmor
egul
ator
ysy
stem ofbr
anched
pr
otonephr
idi
alf
orm consi
sti
ng oft
wo l
ater
alcanal
s,wi
th excr
etor
y
bl
adderandexcr
etor
ypor
es.

10
 Fl
atwor
mshav
eacent
ralner
voussy
stem consi
stsamassofner
vecel
l
s,
cal
l
edagangl
ion,(
inmor
ecompl
exor
gani
sms,t
hegangl
i
onev
olv
esi
nto
abr
ain)i
ntheant
eri
orpar
toft
hebody
,andaner
vecor
dext
endi
ngf
rom
t
hebr
aint
owar
dthepost
eri
orendoft
hebody
.
Gener
alCl
assi
fi
cat
ionofPhy
lum Pl
aty
hel
mint
hes;t
heyar
edi
vi
dedi
ntof
our
cl
asses;
a) Cl
assTur
bal
lar
ia
 Theyar
efr
ee-
li
vi
ngf
lat
wor
ms,f
oundi
naquat
ichabi
tat(
freshwat
er
andmar
ine)andt
err
est
ri
alhabi
tat
s.
 Few speci
es ar
efound as commensal
sin i
nver
tebr
ates l
i
ke
echi
noder
msandmol
l
uscs.
 Thei
rbodyi
scov
eredbycel
l
ularci
l
ia
 Theyl
ackcut
icl
e
 Sucker
s ar
erar
elypr
esentand t
heypossess r
habdi
tes (
mucous
pr
oduci
ngor
gan)
g.Pl
 E. anar
iamacul
ate,
Micr
ost
omum speci
eset
c.
b) Cl
assMonogenea
 Theyar
emost
lyect
opar
asi
tesoff
ishes,
amphi
biansandt
urt
les,
buta
f
ewar
eendopar
asi
tes.
 Theyhav
edi
rectl
i
fecy
clecompl
etedi
nasi
ngl
ehost
 Theypossesshookedat
tachmentst
ruct
ures
 E.
g.Ent
obdel
l
aspeci
es,
Dipl
ozoonspeci
es,
Pol
yst
omaet
c.
c) Cl
assTr
emat
oda
 Theyar
eendopar
asi
tesofv
ert
ebr
atesf
oundi
nthedi
gest
ivet
rack.
 Thei
rbodyi
scov
eredbyacompl
ext
egument
 Theyhav
eoneormor
esucker
sbywhi
cht
heyat
tacht
othei
rhost
 Some r
equi
re a si
ngl
e hostwhi
l
e maj
ori
tyr
equi
ret
wo ormor
e
i
nter
medi
atehostt
ocompl
etet
hei
rli
fecy
clewi
thf
ourt
ofi
vel
arv
al
st
ages.
 I
thast
wosub-
classes;
i
.Aspi
dogast
erea
 Theyl
ackanor
alsucker
s,buthav
elar
gev
ent
ralsuckercal
l
ed
hol
dfast
 Theyhav
eonehost(
mol
l
ucksoracol
d-bl
oodedv
ert
ebr
ate)

11
  Theyar
eendopar
asi
tesoff
ishes,
tut
tl
esandf
reshwat
ercl
ams
 E.
gApi
dogast
er,
Mul
ti
cot
ylet
c.

i
i.Di
genea
 Theyar
eendopar
asi
tesofal
lgr
oupsofv
ert
ebr
ates
 Theyusual
l
yhav
etwosucker
s;or
alandv
ant
ral
sucker
s
 Theyhav
etwoormor
ehosti
nthei
rli
fecy
cle
 E.
gFasci
olaspeci
es,Schi
st es,Cl
osomesspeci onor
chi
ssi
nensi
s
et
c.
d) Cl
assCest
oda(
Tapewor
ms)
 Theyar
eendopar
asi
teandadul
tsl
i
vesi
nthegutofv
ert
ebr
ates
 Thei
rbodyi
sty
pical
l
yel
ongat
ed,t
ape-
li
keandsegment
ed,eachsegment
i
scal
l
edapr
ogl
ott
is/
progl
ott
id.
 Thei
rbodyi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreemai
nbodyr
egi
ons;t
heHeadknownas
scol
ex;anor
ganf
orat
tachment
,whi
chmayhav
egr
oov
es,sucker
s,and
r
ost
ell
um.Neck:ant
eri
or pr
ogl
it
ti
ds cl
ose t
othe scol
ex wi
thout
compl
ementofr
epr
oduct
ivesy
stem.St
robi
la:v
ari
esi
nnumber
,shape,
si
ze,andcont
ainmi
ddl
emat
urepr
ogl
ott
idsandt
hepost
eri
orsegment
whi
char
egr
avi
dandcont
aineggs.
 Each pr
ogl
ott
ids cont
ains a compl
ete set of mal
e and f
emal
e
r
epr
oduct
iveor
gans
 Theyhav
enomout
handdi
gest
ivesy
stem
 Theyabsor
bdi
gest
edf
oodf
rom t
hei
ntest
ineoft
hei
rhostt
hrought
he
bodysur
face.
 Thei
rbodyar
ecov
eredbycut
icl
e
 Theyhav
eani
ndi
rectl
i
fecy
cle
 E.
g Taeni
a sol
i
um, Taeni
a sagi
nat
a, Echnococcus gr
anul
osi
s,
Hy
menol
epsi
snana,
Diphy
ll
obot
hir
ium l
atum,
etc.

Phy
lum Nemat
oda

Nemat
odader
ived f
rom Gr dnemameani
eek wor ngt
hreadand ar
e bet
ter
knownast
her
oundwor
ms.Ther
ear
eabout25,
000speci
esofnemat
odes
f
ormal
l
ydescr
ibedbysci
ent
ist
s.Nemat
odesar
efoundi
nal
mostev
eryhabi
tat

12
onEar
th.
 Theyar
enonsegment
ed
 Theyar
ecosmopol
i
tani
ndi
str
ibut
ion
 Theyt
ri
plobl
ast
ic,
pseudocoel
omat
esandbi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
 Thei
rbodypossessashi
nycut
icl
ewhi
chmaybesmoot
h,spi
ne,
orr
idged
 Theyhav
enoci
l
iai
nanypar
toft
hei
rbody
 Theyexhi
bitsexual
dimor
phi
sms,
themal
ebei
ngsmal
l
ert
hant
hef
emal
es
 Theyhav
eacompl
eteal
i
ment
arycanal
from mout
htot
heanus
 Somear
efr
ee-
li
vi
ngandmanyar
eimpor
tantpl
ant
sandani
mal
spar
asi
tes
 Theyhav
etwocl
asses
a) Cl
assAdenophor
ea(
Aphasmi
dia)
Adenophor
eaf
rom Gr
eekmeansgl
andbear
ing,whi
l
eAphasmi
dameans
wi
thoutphasmi
ds.
 Mostspeci
espossesscaudal
adhesi
vegl
andsandepi
der
mal
gland
 Theyl
ackpasmi
d(caudal
sensor
yor
gan)
 Excr
etor
ysy
stem i
sredument
aryorpoor
lydev
eloped
 Mal
ehav
eonespi
clesandusual
l
ywi
thoutcaudal
alae
 Mal
esusual
l
yhast
wot
est
es
 Theyar
emost
lymar
ineandi
ncl
udebot
hfr
ee-
li
vi
ngandpar
asi
ti
c
speci
es
gTr
 E. ichur
ist
ri
chur
a,et
c.
b) Cl
assSecer
nent
iea(
Phasmi
dia)
 Theyhav
ecaudal
phasmi
d
 Excr
etor
ysy
stem i
spr
esentandwel
ldev
eloped
 Donotpossesepi
der
mal
andcaudal
adhesi
vegl
ands
 Mal
eshav
etwospi
clesandasi
ngl
etest
es
 Mostspeci
esar
epar
asi
ti
candf
ree-
li
vi
ngar
elar
gel
yter
rest
ri
al.
 E.
grhabdi
ti
s,Wucher
eri
a,Onchocer
caspp.et
c.

Ecol
ogi
calCl
assi
fi
cat
ionofPhy
lum Nemat
oda
 Ti
ssue (
somat
ic)Nemat
odes; g Wucher
-e. eri
a bancr
uft
ii
,Dr
acuncul
os
medi
nensi
s,Onchocer
cav
ulv
olus,
Brugi
amal
ayi
,Loal
oa(
Eyewor
m)et
c.
 I
ntest
inal Nemat
odes; g. Ascar
- e. is l
umbr
icoi
des, St
rongy
loi
des
st
ercor
ali
s,Ent
robi
usv
ermi
cul
ari
s(Pi
nwor
m)Tr
, i
chur
ist
ri
chi
uraet
c.

13
 Ent
omopat
hogeni
c Nemat
odes; g Mer
- e. mit
hid sp, St
ener
nemat
o
cor
pocapsaeet
c
 Phy
tonemat
odes; gMel
-e. oidogy
nesp,
Longi
dor
us,
Xiphi
nemaspet
c.

Phy
lum Annel
ida(
segment
edwor
ms)
Annel
i
da der
ived f
romLat
i dannel
n wor usmeani
ngr
ing, t
ypi
cal
l
y hav
e
compl
exsegment
edbodi
es.
 Theyar
etr
ipl
obl
ast
ic,
coel
omat
emet
azoans.
 Theyar
emet
amer
ical
l
ysegment
edandi
nter
nalsegment
sar
esepar
ated
bysept
a.
 Theyhav
ener
voussy
stem wi
thanant
eri
orner
ver
ing,gangl
i
aanda
v
ent
ral
ner
vechor
d.
 Theyar
ebi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
 Thei
rbodywal
li
scov
eredbyat
hincut
icl
e.
 Theyhav
ecl
osedci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem.
 Excr
eti
onandosmor
egul
ati
onar
eachi
evedbysegment
edandci
li
ated
t
ubul
escal
lednephr
idi
a.
 Theyhav
eacompl
etedi
gest
ivesy
stem (
truegutwi
thmout
handanus)
.
 Thei
rbodyi
sdi
vi
dedi
nto3;
apr
ost
omi
um,
atr
unkandapy
gidi
um
 Theypossesschi
ti
nouschaet
aear
rangedsegment
all
y
 Theyhav
eat
ypi
cal
trochophor
elar
va.
 Theyhasnot
ruer
espi
rat
oryor
gan
 Theyhav
evar
yingdegr
eeofcephal
i
zat
ion.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofPhy
lum Annel
ida:ar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hreemai
ncl
asses:
a) Cl
assPol
ychaet
a
Der
ivef
rom t
heGr
eekwor
dspol
y=manyandchaet
ae=br
ist
les.Thesebr
ist
les
canpenet
rat
ehumanski
n,causi
ngi
rr
it
ati
on,
pai
nandswel
l
ing.
 Theyar
ecommonl
ycal
l
edmar
inebr
ist
les.
 They usual
l
y hav
e a di
sti
nct head whi
ch bear
s a number of
appendages(
tent
acl
es,
pal
ps,
eyesandj
aws)
.
 Theyar
edi
oeci
ous(
Separ
atesexes)
.
 Theyhav
enumer
ouschaet
aear
rangedsegment
all
y
 Fer
ti
li
zat
ioni
sext
ernalandt
hef
ert
il
izedegggi
vesr
iset
oaf
ree-
swi
mmi
ngl
arv
a,cal
l
edt
rochophor
e.

14
  Theyusual
l
yhav
esegment
edpar
apodi
a(par
a=nearandpodi
a=f
eet
)
ont
hei
rsi
des.
 Theyl
acksucker
s
 Ty
pical
exampl
esar
eAr
eni
col
a,Sabel
l
a,Ner
eiset
c.
b) Cl
assOl
igochaet
a
 Thesear
etheear
thwor
ms
 Theheadi
snotv
erydi
sti
nctandl
acksensor
yappendages
 Theypossessf
ewerchaet
aet
hant
hepol
ychaet
es.
 Theyl
acksucker
s
 Theyar
eher
maphr
odi
tes,
themal
egonadal
way
sbei
ngant
eri
ort
othe
f
emal
egonad.
 Theyar
ebot
hfoundi
nter
rest
ri
alsandf
reshwat
erhabi
tat
 Thei
rchaet
aeoccursi
ngl
yori
npai
rsandt
heyl
ackpar
apodi
a.
 Repr
oduct
ioni
sbycopul
ati
onandcr
oss-
fer
ti
li
zat
ion.
 Ty
pical
exampl
esar
eAl
l
olobophor
a,Tubi
f Lubr
ex, icust
err
est
ri
set
c.
c) Cl
assHi
rudi
na(
leeches)
 Manyar
eect
opar
asi
tesofv
ert
ebr
ates,whi
l
esomear
efr
ee-
li
vi
ng
pr
edat
orsorscav
enger
s
 Theyar
efoundmost
lyi
nfr
eshwat
erwi
thaf
ewspeci
esonl
andandi
n
t
hesea.
 Theyhav
eant
eri
orandpost
eri
orsucker
s
 Theyl
ackadi
sti
ncthead
 Theyar
eher
maphr
odi
tesanddev
elopacl
i
tel
l
um atsexual
mat
uri
ty.
 Repr
oduct
ioni
sby
copul
ati
onandcr
oss-
fer
ti
li
zat
ion.
 Theyl
ackchaet
aeorpar
apodi
a
 Ty
pical
exampl
esar
eHi
rudo,
Glossi
phoni
aet
c.
Phy
lum Mol
lusca
Mol
l
uscsar
ever
ysuccessf
ulanddi
ver
segr
oupofani
mal
s.Despi
tet
he
di
ver
sit
ythatexi
stswi
thi
nthi
sphy
lum,t
hebasi
cbodypl
anofal
lmol
l
uscsi
s
r
elat
ivel
ysi
mil
ar.Theyar
econsi
der
edt
obet
hesecondl
argestgr
oupof
ani
mal
swi
thr
egar
dtospeci
esnumber
.
 Theyar
ebi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
calani
mal
s,butsomet
imesbodycanbe
asy
mmet
ri
cal
.
 Theyar
eunsegment
ed,
coel
omat
eani
mal
s,

15
 Theyar
esof
t-
bodi
edandt
ri
plobl
ast
icani
mal
s
 Bodyi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntoheadwi
tht
ent
acl
es,av
ent
ralmuscul
arf
ootanda
dor
sal
viscer
alhumpandcov
eredbyamant
lewhi
chsecr
eteshel
l
.
 Ci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem consi
sti
ng ofa hear
t,v
ent
ri
cle and t
wo aur
icl
es,
ar
ter
ialsy
stem andv
enousof
tenexpandi
ngi
ntoamor
eorl
essext
ensi
ve
haemocoel
e,wi
thhaemocy
ani
nasr
espi
rat
orypi
gment
;
 Theyhav
eapai
rofct
eni
diausedf
orr
espi
rat
ionandnephr
idi
ausef
or
excr
eti
on
 Al
i
ment
arycanali
scompl
eted,
usual
l
yhasabuccalmass,
radul
a,sal
i
var
y
gl
ands,
andast
omach.
 Theyhav
ener
voussy
stem
 Zy
got
esdev
elopi
ntot
rochopher
elar
vae
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofMol
lusca
Mol
l
uscsar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntosev
encl
assesbasedont
hechar
act
eri
sti
csof
f
oot
,mant
le,
shel
l
,radul
aandr
espi
rat
oryor
gans:
 Cl
assApl
acophor
a(wi
thoutpl
ates)
 Commonl
yKnownassol
enogast
ers.
 Theyhav
eanel
ongat
edbody
 Theyl
ackf
oot
,mant
leandshel
l(buthasspi
cul
esi
npl
aceofashel
l
)
 Headi
spoor
lydev
eloped
 Theyhav
ear
adul
a(t
oot
hedbel
torr
ibbon)usef
orf
eedi
ng
 E.
g.Neomeni
asp.
,Chaet
oder
maspet
c.
 Cl
assMonopl
acophor
a(si
ngl
epl
ate)
 Theyar
eci
rcul
ari
nshapeandbi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
 Theyhav
eani
nter
nal
met
amer
ism
 Thei
rner
voussy
stem l
ackgangl
i
a
 Thei
rfooti
swel
ldev
eloped,
broad,
flatanddi
scshaped
 Theyhav
eat
ipped f
orwar
d shel
lmadeofoneuni
twi
thdef
ini
te
gr
owt
hri
ng
 E.
g.Neopi
l
ina
 Cl
assPol
ypl
acophor
a(bear
erofmanypl
ates)
 Thei
rbodyi
sov
al,
 Theyar
ebi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
anddor
so-
vent
ral
flat
tened
 Thef
ooti
sfl
atandoccupi
esmostoft
hev
ent
ral
sur
faceoft
hebody

16
  Theyhav
ect
eni
diai
ntwor
ows,
oneonei
thersi
deoft
hebody
 Theheadi
sreducedwi
thoutey
esandt
ent
acl
es
 Sexesar
esepar
ateandf
ert
il
izat
ioni
sext
ernal
.
 E.
g.Chi
ton
 Cl
assScaphopoda(
toot
h-shel
l;
tusk-
shel
ls)
 Thei
rbodyi
sel
ongat
ednear
lycy
li
ndr
ical
andbi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
 Thei
rshel
li
stubul
aropeni
ngatbot
hends
 Theyhav
eashor
tfoot
 Theyl
ackhear
t
 Theheadi
sreducedwi
thnoey
esbuthasbundl
eofci
l
iat
edpr
ehensi
l
e
t
ent
acl
escal
l
edcapt
acul
ausedf
orf
eedi
ng
 E.
gCadul
ussp,
Dent
ali
um spet
c.
 Cl
assVi
val
vi
a(l
amel
li
branchi
ata)
 Theyar
eal
laquat
ic,
foundi
nfr
eshwat
erandmar
inehabi
tat
 Theyar
ebi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
 Theheadi
srudi
ment
ary
 Thei
rbodyi
slat
eral
l
ycompr
essandencl
osedi
nashel
lthatdev
eloped
ast
wol
argepl
ates-
li
kev
alv
e,hencet
henamev
ival
vi
a.
 Theyl
ackt
ent
acl
es,
eyesandr
adul
a
 Thef
ooti
stongue-
shapedandcanbepr
otr
udedf
orpl
oughi
ngi
ntosof
t
deposi
ts.
 Theyar
emai
nlyf
il
terf
eeder
s
 Fer
ti
li
zat
ioni
sext
ernal
 My
til
us(
Mussel
),Ost
erea(
Oyst
er)
,Pect
en,Anodont
aet
c.
 Cl
assGast
ropoda
 Ar
ethel
argestcl
assofmol
l
uscs
 Theyar
emai
nlymar
inebutsomeoccuri
nfr
eshwat
erandt
err
est
ri
al
habi
tat
 Theypossessdi
sti
nctandwel
l
-dev
elopedheadbear
ingt
ent
acl
esand
ey
es.
 Theyhav
eawel
l
-dev
elopedr
adul
a
 Theyhav
eaf
latmuscul
arv
ent
ral
footusef
orcr
eepi
ng
 Theymayormaynotpossessshel
landi
fpr
esenti
tisonl
yonepi
ece
 Fer
ti
li
zat
ioni
sint
ernal

17
  E.
g.Gi
antWestAf
ri
canl
andsnai
l
,Achachat
ina,
Pat
ell
a(l
i
mpet
)et
c.
 Cl
assCephal
opoda
 Theyar
emar
ineani
mal
s
 Theyar
ebi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
 Theyhav
eador
so-
vent
ral
body
 Theyhav
eawel
l
-dev
elopedheadandsur
roundedbyt
ent
acl
es
 Theyar
ethel
argesti
nsi
zeandmostadv
ancedgr
oupofi
nver
tebr
ates
 Theyhav
ewel
ldev
elopedey
es.
 Theyhav
ecl
osedbl
oodci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem
 Theyhav
ewel
ldev
elopedner
voussy
stem wi
thal
argeandcompl
ex
br
ain,
encl
osedi
nacar
ti
lagi
nousbr
aincase.
 Thei
rshel
lmaybemassi
veandext
ernal
,reducedandi
nter
nalor
compl
etel
yabsent
.
 E.
gOct
opus,
Argonaut
a,Sepi
a(Cut
tl
efi
sh)et
c.

Phy
lum Ar
thr
opoda
Ar
thr
opodader
ivedf
rom t
wowor
ds“
Art
hro=j
oint
edandPoda=f
oot
ed”
.
Thi
sist
hel
argestandmostsuccessf
uldi
ver
sgr
oupofani
malphy
la,
cont
ains
about78% ofal
lani
mal
sknown,andov
eronemi
l
li
onspeci
eshav
ebeen
i
dent
if
ied.
 They ar
e bi
l
ater
alsy
mmet
ri
cal
,met
amer
ical
l
y segment
ed coel
omat
e
ani
mal
s,somesegment
sfusedt
ofor
mtagmat
a.
 Thei
rbodyi
susual
l
ydi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreebodyr
egi
ons:head,t
hor
ax,and
abdomen buti
n some speci
es head and t
hor
ax ar
efused t
oget
her
(
cephal
othor
ax)
.
 They hav
e Compl
ex di
gest
ive sy
stem,wi
th mout
h-par
tmodi
fi
ed f
or
di
ff
erentmodesoff
eedi
ng.
 Theyhav
eanopenCi
rcul
ator
ysy
stem
 Respi
rat
ioni
sthr
oughbodysur
face,
spi
racl
es,
gil
l
s,t
rachea,
orbook-
lungs.
 Theyhav
eanexoskel
eton(
cut
icl
e)madeofchi
ti
n;somepr
otei
nsand
l
i
pidsal
so
 Excr
etor
ysy
stem bygr
een orant
ennar
ygl
and i
n aquat
iconesand
Mal
pighi
ant
ubul
esi
nter
rest
ri
alsones.
 Theyhav
ewel
ldev
elopedv
ent
ral
ner
voussy
stem

18
 Sexesusual
l
ysepar
ate,met
amor
phosi
sin some,i
nter
nalf
ert
il
izat
ion,
gr
owt
hwi
thecdy
sis(
mol
ti
ng)
.
 Theyhav
ejoi
ntedappendageswhi
chmaybemodi
fi
edt
ofor
m mout
h
par
ts,
ant
ennaeandr
epr
oduct
iveor
gans.
 Theypossesscompoundandsi
mpl
eey
es
 Thecoel
om i
sgener
all
yreducedt
opor
ti
onsoft
her
epr
oduct
ive,
excr
etor
y
sy
stemsandf
il
ledwi
thbl
oodt
ofor
m haemocoel
.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofAr
thr
opods
Ar
thr
opodsar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
hef
oll
owi
ngcl
asses:
1) Tr
il
obi
tae.
gTr
il
obi
tes
 Ver
ynumer
ous,
nowext
inctandt
heymar
inear
thr
opods
2) Ony
chophor
ae.
gPer
ipat
us
 Theyt
err
est
ri
alscat
erpi
l
lar
-l
ikeani
mal
s
 Theypossessa combi
nat
ion ofar
thr
opod such aschi
ti
nous cut
icl
e,
moul
ti
ng,t
racheaet
c.andannel
i
dsuchasnon-
segment
edappendages,
segment
ednephr
idi
aet
c.char
act
ers.
 Theyar
elar
gel
ynoct
urnal
andav
oidl
i
ght
3) Cr
ust
aceae.
gcr
ayf
ish,
lobst
ers,
shr
imp,
crabs
 Near
lyal
laquat
ic,
occur
ri
ngi
ntheseaandi
nfr
eshwat
er.
 Thei
rbodyconsi
stofhead,t
hor
axandabdomen,butheadandt
hor
ax
f
usedt
ofor
m cephal
othr
ax.
 Theypossessapai
rofcompoundey
es
 Gaseousexchangei
sthr
oughgi
l
lsandexcr
eti
onbymeansofgr
eengl
and
4) Sub-
phy
lum (
Class)My
riapoda
 Theyar
eter
rest
ri
alswi
thonepai
rofant
ennaeandmanypai
rsofwal
ki
ng
l
egs
 Thei
rbodyconsi
stofheadandal
ongt
runk
 Theyhav
esi
mpl
eey
esandl
ackt
ruecompoundey
es.
 Respi
rat
ioni
sbymeansoft
racheaandexcr
eti
onbymeansofMal
phi
gian
t
ubul
es
 Sexesar
esepar
ate.
 My
riapodadi
vi
dedi
nto2cl
asses
I
. Cl
assDi
plopoda
 Theycommonl
ycal
l
edMi
l
li
pedes

19
  Eacht
runksegmentbear
s2pai
rsofl
egs,
hencet
henamedi
plopoda.
 Thef
ir
stf
oursegmentr
epr
esentt
het
hor
ax,whi
chbear
sonepai
rof
l
egseach.
 Thi
rdt
hor
aci
csegmentcont
aint
hegeni
tal
por
e
 Theyar
esl
uggi
shandsensi
ti
ve,
oft
encoi
l
ingupwhendi
stur
bed.
 Theyar
eher
biv
ores
 E.
gJul
us,
Pol
ydesmus,
Ophy
il
uset
c.
I
I. Cl
assChi
lopoda
 Theycommonl
ycal
l
edcent
ipeds
 Thei
rbodyi
sdor
do-
vent
ral
l
yfl
att
ened.
 Eacht
runksegmentexceptt
hel
astt
wobear
sasi
ngl
epai
rsofl
egs.
 Thef
ir
stt
runksegmentbear
spoi
soncl
aws,whi
chcov
ert
heot
her
mout
hpar
ts.
 Thegeni
tal
por
eisl
ocat
edatt
hepost
eri
orendoft
hebody
.
 Theyar
efastmov
inganddonotcoi
lwhendi
stur
bed
 Theyar
ecar
niv
ores.
 E.
gLi
thobi
us,
Scol
opendr
a,Scut
iger
aet
c.
5)
. Cl
assAr
achni
da
 Theyar
eter
rest
ri
als
 Thei
rbodyi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo,anant
eri
orpr
osomaandt
hepost
eri
or
opi
sthosoma.
 Fi
rstsegmentbear
sapai
rofpr
ehensi
l
eappendagescal
l
edchel
i
cer
ae.
 Secondsegmentbear
sapai
rofsensor
yorpr
ehensi
l
epedi
pal
ps.
 Theyl
ackant
ennaeandcompoundey
esbutpossesssi
mpl
eey
es.
 Theyhav
eapai
rofwal
ki
ngl
egsoneachsegment
s.
 Respi
rat
ioni
sbyi
nter
nal
airspaces,
whi
chmaybel
ungbooksort
racheae.
 E.
gScor
pions,
Spi
der
s,Ti
cks,
Mit
eset
c.
6)
. Cl
assI
nsect
a(Hexapoda)
 Theyar
eter
rest
ri
alsbutaconsi
der
abl
enumberar
eaquat
ic.
 Thei
rbodyi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntohead,
thor
axandabdomen.
 Headbear
sapai
rofant
ennaeandcompoundey
es.
 Thet
hor
axi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntoPr
othar
x,Mesot
hor
axandMet
athor
ax,
eachhas
apai
rofwal
ki
ngl
egsv
ent
ral
l
y.
 The mesot
hor
ax bear
s a pai
rs ofwi
ngs dor
sal
l
y,whi
ch ar
e non-

20
 membr
aneousandnotusef
orf
li
ght
.
 Themet
athor
axhasapai
rofmembr
anouswi
ngsdor
sal
l
ythatar
eused
f
orf
li
ght
.
 Theabdomenconsi
stofel
evensegmentandnowal
ki
ngl
egs.
 Respi
rat
ioni
sbymeansoft
racheaandexcr
eti
onbymeansofmal
phi
gian
t
ubul
es.
 Theyunder
gomet
amor
phosi
s
I
nsectar
egr
oupedi
ntot
wosub-
class
I
.Apt
ery
got
a(wi
ngl
ess i
nsectand do notunder
go met
amor
phosi
s)and
Pt
ery
got
a(wi
ngedi
nsectandshowsi
mpl
emet
amor
phosi
s).
Phy
lum Echi
noder
mat
a
Der
ivedf
rom Gr
eek:echi
nos=hedgehog;
der
ma=ski
n,i
.e.spi
nyski
nned.They
ar
emar
ineani
mal
s.
 Bi
l
ater
alsy
mmet
ryi
nthel
arv
a,butadul
tsar
emor
eorl
essr
adi
all
yor
pent
aradi
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
coel
omat
eani
mal
s.
 Thel
arv
aear
esegment
edandadul
tsar
enotsegment
ed.
 Adul
tshav
etwomai
nbodyf
orms:
radi
ateandgl
obul
ar.
 Theyhav
ecompl
etedi
gest
ivet
ract(
mout
hatoneendandanusatt
he
ot
her
).
 Theyhav
e si
mpl
e ci
rcul
ator
yorheamalsy
stem t
hatr
uns t
hrough a
sy
stem ofcoel
omi
ccompar
tment
s.
 Theypossess der
malskel
eton whi
ch consi
stofcal
car
eous ossi
cles
(
bones)t
hatmaydev
elopshor
torl
ongspi
ne.
 Theyhav
eawat
er-
vascul
arsy
stem f
rom oneoft
hecompar
tment
soft
he
coel
om.
 Thei
rner
voussy
stem i
sdi
ff
useandr
emai
nsat
tachedt
otheepi
der
mis.
 Nonephr
idi
aoranyot
herspeci
alexcr
etor
yor
gan.
 Theyhav
esepar
atesexes.
Theyar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
hreesub-
phy
la
I
. Cr
inozoae.
gAnt
edon,
Pent
acr
inuset
c.
I
I. Ast
erozoae.
g.St
arf
ish,
Ophi
othr
ix,
Gor
gonocephal
uset
c.
I
II
. Echi
nozoae.
gEchi
nus,
Spat
angus,
Hol
othur
ia,
Cucumar
iaet
c.

Phy
lum Chor
dat
a

21
 Thi
sphy
lum der
ivesi
tsnamef
rom oneoft
hecommonchar
act
eri
sti
csof
t
hisgr
oupnamel
ythenot
ochor
d(Gr
.not
on,back+L.chor
da,cor
d).The
ani
mal
sbel
ongi
ngt
oal
lot
herphy
laoft
heAni
malKi
ngdom ar
eof
tent
ermed
‘
thenon-
chor
dat
es’or‘
thei
nver
tebr
ates’si
ncet
heyhav
enei
thernot
ochor
d
norbackbonei
nthei
rbody
.Thebackbonedani
mal
s(v
ert
ebr
ates)
,toget
her
wi
thaf
ew cl
osel
yrel
atedani
mal
swhi
chdonotpossessabackbone,ar
e
i
ncl
udedi
nthi
sphy
lum.Mostoft
hel
i
vingchor
dat
esar
efami
l
iarv
ert
ebr
ate
ani
mal
s.
Chor
dat
esr
efer
redt
oanani
mal
sthatpossessanot
ochor
d,dor
salhol
l
ow
ner
vecor
d,phar
yngealgi
l
lsl
i
tsandapost
-analt
ailatonest
ageoft
hei
rli
fe
cy
cle.
Gener
alchar
act
eri
sti
csofchor
dat
es
 Theyhav
enot
ochor
dwhi
cht
ransf
ormedi
ntov
ert
ebr
alcol
umni
nhi
gher
chor
dat
es.
 Thedor
salner
vecor
dtr
ansf
ormedi
ntoner
voussy
stem i
nthepr
imi
ti
ve
chor
dat
esandspi
nal
cor
dint
hev
ert
ebr
ates.
 Gi
l
lsl
i
tsorphar
yngealcl
eft
sar
emodi
fi
edt
ofor
m gi
l
lsi
nfi
shes,buti
n
f
rogsf
oundonl
yint
hel
arv
alst
agef
orf
il
terf
eedi
ngandi
nver
tebr
ates
f
ounddur
ingembr
yoni
cst
ageandar
enon-
funct
ional
.
 Post
-analt
ailf
oundi
nfi
shes,amphi
bianse.
g.sal
amanderet
c.Rept
il
es,
bi
rdsandi
nal
lmammal
sexcepti
nhumant
hathav
elosti
tear
lyi
nthe
embr
yoni
cst
age.
 Theyar
ebi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
.
 Thei
rbodyi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntohead,
trunkandpost
-anal
tai
lregi
on.
 Theyhav
event
ral
hear
tdi
vi
dedi
ntor
ightat
ri
um andl
eftv
ent
ri
cle.
 Theyhav
ecl
osedci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofchor
dat
es
Theyar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntot
wosub-
phy
labasedont
hepr
esenceorabsenceof
skul
l
:
a) Sub-
phy
lum Acr
ani
ata(
Prot
ochor
dat
es)
Theyar
eal
sogr
oupi
nto3baseont
heposi
ti
onofnot
ochor
d:
i
. Hemi
chor
dat
es(
hal
f-
not
ochor
d):
-thenot
ochor
dext
endf
rom t
hephar
ynx
t
otheheadr
egi
on.E.
g.Bal
anogl
osssusspp,
Etc.
i
i
. Ur
ochor
dat
e(t
ail
-not
ochor
ds)
:-t
heyar
eal
socal
l
edt
uni
cat
esandpossess

22
 not
ochor
dint
het
ail
regi
ondur
ingt
hel
arv
alst
age.E.
g.Seasqui
rt
set
c.
i
i
i.Cephal
ochor
dat
es(
headnot
ochor
d):
-not
ochor
dext
endf
rom headr
egi
on
t
othet
ail
.Eg.Lancel
et,
etc.
b) Sub-
phy
lum Cr
ani
ata(
Ver
tebr
ata)ort
het
ruechor
dat
es
Gener
alchar
act
eri
sti
csofv
ert
ebr
ates
 Theyar
emul
ti
cel
l
ularani
mal
shav
ingt
hreeger
msl
ayer
.
 Thebodycav
ityorcoel
om hassepar
ateopeni
ngf
ormout
handanus.
 Theheadbear
smout
handor
ganf
orspeci
alsenses(
olf
act
oryor
gan,
pai
redey
esandear
s).
 Theyhav
ecompl
exbr
ainassoci
atedwi
thsenseor
gans.
 Thebr
aini
spr
otect
edbycr
ani
um,
skul
lorbr
aincase.
 Respi
rat
ionbyl
ungs,
buccal
cav
ity
,gi
l
ls,
andmoi
stski
n.
Theyar
e cl
assi
fi
ed i
nto 2 gr
oups base on t
he pr
esence orabsence of
t
etr
apods.
Supercl
assPi
sces(
Fishes)
Fi
shesar
ethef
ir
stv
ert
ebr
ateswi
thJaws.Theyar
ecol
d-bl
oodedani
mal
sthat
br
eat
hbymeansofgi
l
ls,l
i
vei
nwat
erandmov
ewi
tht
hehel
poff
ins.The
st
udyoff
ishesi
sknownasI
cht
hyol
ogy
.
Gener
alchar
act
ersofFi
shes
1.Fi
shesar
eaquat
ic,
foundi
nal
lty
pesofwat
ers.
2.Fi
shar
ebi
l
ater
all
ysy
mmet
ri
cal
3.Theyar
etr
ipl
obl
ast
icani
mal
s
4.Theyar
eint
ernal
lysegment
edcal
ledmy
omer
s.
5.Thei
rbodyi
scov
eredwi
thscal
esandbonypl
ates.
6.Theypossessf
inswhi
char
eusef
ulf
orswi
mmi
ngandbal
anci
ng.
7.Fi
shbodycanbedi
vi
dedi
ntohead,abdomenandt
ailusef
ulf
orchangi
ng
t
hedi
rect
iondur
ingswi
mmi
ng.
8.Fi
sheshav
eendoskel
eton
9.Theyhav
ecompl
etedi
gest
ivesy
stem;st
artf
rom t
hemout
handendi
n
anus.
10.Respi
rat
orysy
stem:
Branchi
alr
espi
rat
ionbygi
l
ls.
11.Theyhav
ecl
osedci
rcul
ator
ysy
stem wi
tht
wochamber
edhear
t.
12.Theypossess ner
vous sy
stem butcer
ebr
um i
s notmuch dev
eloped
whi
l
eol
fact
oryl
obesar
ewel
ldev
eloped,
especi
all
yinshar
ks.

23
13.Theypossessl
ater
all
i
nesy
stem whi
char
eusef
ult
odet
ectwat
ercur
rent
s.
14.Theyhav
emesonephr
icki
dney
s.
15.Repr
oduct
ivesy
stem v
ari
esamongt
hespeci
es,Ov
ipar
ous,
vi
vi
par
ousand
ov
ovi
vi
par
ous.
16.Fer
ti
li
zat
ioni
sext
ernal
;thesper
msandt
heeggsdev
elopi
nsepar
ate
gonadsexcepti
nsomespeci
es,
whi
char
etr
ueher
mophr
odi
tes.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofFi
shes
Thesupercl
asspi
scesi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreecl
assesasf
oll
ows;
1. Cl
assPl
acoder
mi(
placoder
ms)
:Pl
aco-meanspl
ateandder
m means
ski
n,knownaspl
ateski
nnedf
ishes.
2. Cl
assChondr
ihct
hyesorEl
asmobr
onchi
i:Chondr
os=Car
ti
lage;i
cthy
os
=f
ishExampl
eScol
i
odon,
Trpi
doet
c.
3. Cl
assOst
eicht
hyes(
Bonyf
ishes)
:Ost
eos=bone;i
cht
hiy
es=f
ish.e.
g.
Gambusi
a,Labest
is.
Supercl
assTet
rapoda
Theyar
eani
mal
swi
tht
wopai
rsofappendages(
tet
rapod)
,endi
ngi
nfi
ve
di
git
s(pent
adacct
yl)andhav
esal
i
var
ygl
and.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionoft
etr
apod
Theyar
ecl
assi
fi
edi
ntof
ourcl
asses:

Cl
assAmphi
bians
Amphi
biansder
ivedt
hei
rnamef
rom Gr dAmpus=doubl
eekwor eli
fe.Mostof
t
heseani
mal
sspendt
hef
ir
stpar
toft
hei
rli
vesi
nwat
erori
nver
ydamppl
aces.
Mostamphi
bianeggsar
elai
ddi
rect
lyi
nwat
er,andt
hel
arv
alf
orms,suchas
t
adpol
es,
dev
elopi
nwat
er.
 Theyar
eani
mal
sthatspendpar
toft
hei
rli
vei
nwat
erandonl
and.
 Respi
rat
iont
hroughgi
ll
sinl
arv
alf
ormsandl
ungs,
moi
stski
nandbuccal
cav
ityi
nadul
ts.
 Theyhav
epent
adact
yll
i
mbswi
thoutnai
l
sorcl
awsondi
git
s.
 Theyhav
ethr
eechamber
edhear
t
 Thei
rbodyi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntohead,
neckandt
runk.
 Theyhav
ewebbedf
inger
sforaquat
icadapt
ati
on
 Fer
ti
li
zat
ioni
sint
ernalorext
ernal
.Eggsar
esur
roundedbygel
ati
nous
env
elopr
athert
hanat
oughshel
landar
elai
dinwat
er.

24
 Theyhav
esepar
atesexes.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofAmphi
bians
Theyar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreeor
der
s:
a) Or
derAnur
ae.
g.f
rogsandt
oads
b) Or
derApodaorGy
mnosphi
onacommonl
yknownascaeci
l
ians.
c) Or
derUr
odel
ae.
g.Newt
sandSal
amander
.
Cl
assRept
il
ia
Rept
il
esar
ethef
ir
stsuccessf
ulcol
oni
zer
sofdr
yland.Thenamer
ept
il
es
der
ivedf
rom Lat
inr
eper
e=cr
eepi
ng.Theyar
eadapt
edt
oli
feondr
ylandas
adul
tandembr
yosbutsomegr
oupar
eaquat
icandar
eact
iveswi
mmer
s.
 Theyar
ecol
d-bl
oodedani
mal
s:get
sit
sbodyheatf
rom out
sidesour
ces.
Bymov
ingt
ocool
erorwar
merenv
ironment
sar
ept
il
eisabl
etoal
teri
ts
bodyt
emper
atur
e.
 Theyhav
eat
hick,t
ough,dr
y,wat
erpr
oofski
nwhi
chbear
sepi
der
mal
scal
es
 Lungsusef
orr
espi
rat
ion
 Al
lrept
il
eshav
eint
ernalf
ert
il
izat
ion.Eggsar
esur
roundedbyt
oughshel
l
andext
raembr
yoni
cmembr
aneandcanbel
aidonl
and.
 Al
lrept
il
esar
eov
ipar
ousexceptaf
ewspeci keLacer
esl
i tav
ivapar
ous.
 Theyhav
ethr
eechamber
edhear
twi
tht
woaur
icl
eand1v
ent
ri
cle.
 Li
mbsendi
n5di
git
swi
thcl
aws
 Eggshav
elar
gey
olkandar
eencl
osedi
nshel
lort
oughmembr
ane.
 Theyhav
efl
exi
blel
ongv
ert
ebr
alcol
umnwi
thadi
sti
nctneck.
Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofRept
il
ia
Theyar
edi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreesubcl
asses:
a) Subcl
assAnapsi
dae.
gtur
tl
es
b) Subcl
assAr
chosaur
iae.
g.cr
ocodi
l
es
c) Subcl
assLepi
dosaur
ia(
Scal
yrept
il
es)e.
g.Agamaagama,
tuat
ara,
snakes
et
c.
Cl
assAv
es(
Bir
ds)
Bi
rdspossess di
sti
nctchar
act
eri
sti
cs t
hatmake t
hem one oft
he most
di
sti
ngui
shabl
egr
oupsofv
ert
ebr
ates.
 Bi
rdsar
etheonl
ygr
oupofani
mal
sthatpossessf
eat
her
sforf
li
ghtand
ot
herbenef
it
.