ORGANISMS AND POPULATION

ECOLOGY:Branch of Science which deals with relationship between

organisms & their physical & biological environment.

LEVELS OF ORGANISATION:
• Organisms- every individual of a species
The organism is defined as the minimal functional unit of life. An Organism
can grow, reproduce, and respond to its environment. It is made up of cells
that work together to keep it alive. Organisms have specific structures and
organs that enable them to perform different functions necessary for their
survival. They interact with other organisms and their surroundings in
complex ecosystems, forming food chains and ecological relationships.
Organisms have the ability to adapt to their environment and evolve over
time to increase their chances of survival.
• Population- individuals of the same species at a given place
Groups of individuals from the same species that share or compete for similar
resources and live together in a defined geographical area constitute
a population.
The population also has the potential to interbreed. Populations are dynamic
and can change over time due to factors like birth, death, immigration
(individuals moving into the population), and emigration (individuals
moving out of the population). They can exhibit certain characteristics and
behaviors specific to their species, which may be influenced by genetic
variations and environmental factors. At the population level, evolutionary
changes take place through natural selection.

• Communities- assembly of population of all different species living in an

area and interacting.
• Biomes- large unit of flora and fauna in a specific climatic zone
ENVIRONMENT
Sum of all biotic and abiotic factors that surround and influence an organism
in it’s survival and reproduction.
Physiological ecology (Ecology at the organismic level) is the study of
adaptation of an organism to environments in terms of survival and
reproduction.
- The rotation of earth and the tilt of its axis cause annual variations in
temperature & seasons. Major biomes (desert,rain forest, tundra etc.) are
formed due to these variations & precipitation (rain & snow).
Factors affecting environment:
• Rotation of earth
• Seasonal and annual variation in temperature and precipitation
• Habitats

MAJOR BIOMES
1. Artic & Alpine Tundra
2. Coniferous Forest
3. Temperate Forests
4. Grassland
5. Tropical Forest
6. Desert

Life exists even in extreme & harsh habitats. E.g. Rajasthan desert, rain-soaked
Meghalaya forests, deep ocean trenches, torrential streams, permafrost (snow
laden) polar regions, high mountain tops, thermal springs & compost pits.
Our intestine is a habitat for many microbes.
- The physico-chemical (abiotic) components (water,light, temperature, soil
etc.) & biotic components
(pathogens, parasites, predators, competitors etc.) lead to variation of
different habitats.
- The distinct role and position of an organism in its environment is called its
niche. By this, each organism tolerates various conditions, utilises various
resources etc.

MAJOR ABIOTIC FACTORS

• Temperature
• Water
• Light
• Soil

Temperature
• Ecologically most imp. Factor
• Decreases progressively from equator towards pole and from plane to
mountain tops
• Polar Region and high altitudes- sub zero level Tropical deserts > 50°C
• Organisms survive only in suitable range of temperature
Average temperature in thermal springs & deep-sea hydrothermal vents is
above 1000C.
- Mango trees cannot grow in temperate countries (Canada, Germany etc.).
There is no Snow leopard in Kerala forests. Tuna fishes are rare beyond
tropical latitudes in the ocean.
- Temperature affects kinetics of enzymes, basal metabolism and other
physiological functions of the organism.
• Based on tolerance to temperature
- Eurythermal
Organisms that tolerate wide range of temperature
- Stenothermal
Organisms that tolerate only narrow range of temperature

Water
• Life on earth originated in water
It is the second most important factor.
- Desert organisms have special adaptationsto limited water.
- Productivity & distribution of plants is dependent on water.
- For aquatic organisms, water quality (pH, chemical composition) is
important. The salt concentration (salinity in parts per thousand) is less than
5 in inland waters, 30-35 in the sea and > 100 in some hypersaline lagoons.
- Based on the tolerance to salinity, organisms are 2 types:
▪ Euryhaline: Tolerate a wide range of salinities.
▪ Stenohaline: Tolerate only a narrow range of salinity.
Many freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea water and vice versa
because of the osmotic problems.
Light
• Small plants (canopied by tall plants) adapted to photosynthesize at
low light conditions.
• Flowering dependent on sunlight
• Foraging, Reproductive and migratory activities of animals depend on
seasonal variation in light intensity
• UV component – harmful to organisms
Plants need sunlight for photosynthesis.
- Small forest plants (herbs & shrubs) are adapted to photosynthesize
optimally under very low light because they are overshadowed by tall,
canopied trees.
- Many plants depend on sunlight for photoperiodism (e.g.flowering).
- Many animals use diurnal and seasonal variations in light intensity and
photoperiod for timing their foraging, reproductive & migratory activities.
- Sun is the ultimate source for light & temperature on land.
Deep (> 500m) in the oceans, the environment is dark and there is no energy
available from sun.
- The spectral quality of solar radiation is also important for life. The UV
spectrum is harmful to many organisms. Not all the colour components of the
visible spectrum are available for marine plants.
Depending upon requirement of light intensity, plants may be heliophytes
(requires high light intensity) or sciophytes (requires low intensity).

Light zones in aquatic habitats-

 Littoral zone- It is the shallow coastal region where light is able to pass
through shallow
water and reach the bottom.
 Limnetic zone- It is the open water zone where water is very deep.
 Photic – It is the upper part to which light can penetrate.
 Euphotic zone - receives light more than compensation point (light
intensity where rate of photosynthesis equals to rate of respiration) and
 Disphotic zone (lower) - receives light at or below compensation point.
 Aphotic or Profundal – It is zone of deep water below photic zone to which
light
does not penetrate. Only consumers are found here.
 Benthic – It is the bottom zone that includes sediment surface.
Soil
Nature of soil depends on
I. Climate
II. Weathering process
III. Sedimentary or transported
IV. Soil development
Characteristics of soil
a. Soil composition
b. Grain size
c. Aggregation- determine percolation and water holding capacity of soil
The characteristics and parameters like pH, mineral composition &
topography determine the vegetation and animals in an area.
In aquatic environment, the sediment-characteristics determine the type of
benthic animals.
RESPONSES TO ABIOTIC FACTORS
Homeostasis: The ability of an organism to maintain the constancy of its
internal environment despite varying external environmental conditions.
1. Regulate:
Process of maintaining homeostasis or constant body temperature and
osmotic concentration by organisms.
 Thermoregulation- The process of maintaining constant internal body
temperature irrespective of external environment.
 Osmoregulation- The process of maintaining constant internal osmotic
concentration and pressure irrespective of external environment.
For example, Shivering when cold and sweating during summer in humans.

2. Conform: internal environment of conformers changes with external

environment
Q:Why small animals are rarely found in polar regions?
A: Small animals have large surface area compared to volume so they lose
heat easily in cold and have to expend energy to generate body heat.
But, if stressful external conditions are localized or remain for short duration,
then alternatives are migrate / suspend.
3. Migrate:

Change of position by the organism from one place to another to escape from
stressful situation.
For example, every winter the famous Keolado NP (Bharatpur) in Rajasthan
host thousands of migratory birds coming from Siberia and other extremely
cold northern regions.

4. Suspend:

Stopping of metabolic activities and slower their rate to escape from the
unfavourable environment conditions.
E.g. Thick walled spores in bacteris, fungi and lower plants and seed
dormancy in higher plants.
 Hibernation- The phenomenon in which animals arrest their metabolism
during winter to escape from extreme of cold. E.g. polar bears.
 Aestivation-The phenomenon in which animals arrest their metabolism
during summer to escape from extreme of heat. E.g. snail and fish aestivation.
 Diapause- It is a state of suspended or arrested in development of an
organism. E.g. zooplankton in lakes and ponds.

Adaptation
Any attributes or qualities of an organism (morphological, physiological or
behavioural) that enables the organism to survive and reproduce in its own
habitat.
It may be -
a. Phenotypic (changes in morphology and physiology) that result in the
production of phenotype variants called ecads or ecophenes.
b. Genotypic (changes in the gene constituents) that results in the production
of genetic variants subpopulation called ecotypes.
Adaptations in Plant:
1. Light regime:
a. Sun plants (Heliophytes) requires high light intensity, have shorter and
thicker internodes and leaves are pale green with shiny surface and thicker
cuticle, while
b. Shade plants (Sciophytes) requires low light intensity, have soft, slender,
long internodes. Leaves are bright green colour with thinner cuticle.
2. Water and Heat:
Xerophytes (Ephemerals, Annuals, Succulents, Non-succulents) -
a. Leaves are modified into spines to minimize water loss during
transpiration.
b. Presence of thick cuticle and sunken stomata.
c. Stem becomes flattened, green (Phylloclades) to perform photosynthesis.
d. CAM pathway of photosynthesis.
e.g. Opuntia, Aloe, Agave, Asparagus, Euphorbia, Acacia, etc.
3. Aquatic environments:
Hydrophytes (Submerged, suspended, free floating, floating leaved anchored
and emergent) -
a. Mucilage covering to protect them from epiphytes, pathogens and animals.
b. Roots are not well developed and presence of root pockets for balancing.
c. Stem are long, slender, spongy and flexible.
d. Presence of special air storing organs and aerenchymatous tissues.
e. Emergent hydrophytes have heterophyllous leaves.
e.g. Hydrilla, Vallisneria, Ranunculus, Eichhornia, Pistia, Wolffia, etc.
3. Saline environments:
Halophytes –
a. Stem mostly succulent or fleshy.
b. Mangroves have specialized roots called pneumatophores for gaseous
exchange and show vivipary.
c. Stem has thick cuticle.
d. Sorbitol and Proline are often found for osmoregulation.
e.g. Rhizophora, Atriplex, Ceriops, etc.
Adaptations in Animal:
1. Migration:
2. Suspension:
3. Camouflage:
a. Ability to blend with the surroundings or background (to protect against
predators).
b. Leaf like grasshopper (Arantia rectifolia), Praying Mantis (Mantis religiosa).
c. Stick insect (Carausius), leaf insect (Phyllium) and dead leaf butterfly
(Phyllocrania).
4. Mimicry:
Resemblance of one species with another in order to escape against predation
(offence and defence).
a. Batesian mimicry – resemblance to a dangerous or unpalatable model. E.g.
Viceroy butterfly (Bosilarchia) mimics Monarch butterfly.
b. Mullerian mimicry – resemblance of two animal species to their mutual
benefits. E.g.Monarch butterfly and Queen butterfly.
5. Water Scarcity:
Kangaroo rat in North American deserts adapted to scarcity of external water
through internal fat oxidation (in which water is releases as by-product) and
concentrate its urine so that minimal volume of water is used to remove
excretory products. Feeds mainly on dry seeds.
Camel adapted by economical in water consumption, tolerance to temperatute
fluctuations, no sweating till body temperature rises to 55o - 66oC, drinking
large quantity of water, production of dry faeces and concentrated urine, store
fats in their humps to insulate heat.
6. Behavioural:
Desert lizards keeps their body temperature fairly constant by sun basking
when body temperature drops and moves into shades when surrounding
temperature starts increasing. Fossorial species are also observed.
7. Physiological:
1. Altitude sickness due to low atmospheric pressure of high altitudes and the
body does not get enough oxygen. Under these conditions, our body
acclimatized by increasing RBCs production, decreasing the binding capacity
of haemoglobin to oxygen and by increasing breathing rate.
That is why, many tribes living in high altitude normally have a higher count
of haemoglobin than people living in the plains.
 Adaptations of archae bacteria in hot springs-They have heat shock proteins
in their body and also have branched chain lipids in their cell membranes.
8. Excessive cold:
1. Allen’s rule- Mammals in colder climates possess shorter body extremities
such as ears, tail, snout and limbs.
2. Bergman’s rule- Temperature affects the absolute size of an animal i.e.
colder region have larger body size.
3. Jordan’s rule- Temperature affects the morphology of certain fishes i.e.
increasing scales, fin rays, vertebrae with decreasing temperature.
Adaptations of certain fishes in Antarctic water-
They have extra solutes like glycerol and antifreeze amino acids in their body
fluids and specialice nucleating proteins in the extracellular spaces that
prevent the blood and tissue fluid from being frozen.
POPULATION
Group of individuals living in a well defined area which share or compete for
similar resources and potentially interbreed

Example: Lotus plants in a pond

Bacteria in a culture plate

Population ecology is therefore, an imp. area of ecology because it links

ecology to population genetics and evolution

Some terms related to population:

1. Deme: Local population (population living in a specific area at a particular
time.
2. Metapopulation: Whole set of local populations connected by dispersing
activities.
3. Ecophene (Ecad): Phenotypically variant population.
4. Ecotype: Genetically adapted or variant population.
5. Ecoline: The intermediate form between two ecotype.
6. Ecotone: Transition or overlapping zone between two communities.
7. Edge effects: High diversity in the ecotone area.
8. Keystone Species: A species which though having a small population has a
major key role in maintaining the community structure.
POPULATION ATTRIBUTES

1. Natality (B) - It is the number of births in a population during a given period

(birth rate).
For example, if in a pond there are 20 lotus plants last year and through
reproduction 8
new plants are added, we calculate the birth rate as 8/20 = 0.4 offspring per
lotus per year.
2. Mortality (D) - It is the number of death in a population during a given
period (death rate).
3. Sex ratio- It is the ratio of male and female individuals in a population.
4. Population density (N) - It refers to the size of a population in a given period
of time. Population
density is the number of individuals of a species per unit area at a given time.
5. Age distribution- It refers to percent of individuals of a given age in a
population in a given period of time. It is represented graphically by age
pyramid.group)

It reflects whether growth is

(i) Expanding
(ii) Stable
(iii) Declining

1. Expanding or triangular - Individuals of pre-reproductive stage are more in

number than reproductive while post reproductive stages are least in number.
Growth rate ˃ death rate.
2. Stable or bell shaped– Individuals of pre-reproductive and reproductive
stages are almost equal in number. Post-reproduction are comparatively
fewer. Growth rate = death rate.
3. Declining or Urn shaped – Individuals in pre reproductive stage are less
than the reproductive stage. Growth rate < death rate.

POPULATION DENSITY:
Number of individuals present per unit area at a given time.

POPULATION GROWTH
Factors affecting change in population density

1. Food availability
2. Predation pressure
3. Weather

Density changes by change in four basic processes

(a) Natality - Increase population
(b) Immigration - Increase population
(c) Mortality - Decrease population
(d) Emigration - Decrease population

1.Natality (B) : Number of births during given period in the population that
are added to the initial density
2.Mortality (D) : Number of deaths in the population during a given period.
3.Emigration (E) : Number of individuals of the population who left the habitat
and went elsewhere during the given period
4. Immigration (I) : Number of individuals of the same species that have come
into the habitat from elsewhere during the time under consideration.

If N is the population density at time ‘t’, then its density at time ‘t+1’
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]

 Population density will increase if (B+I) > (D+E)

GROWTH MODELS

 EXPONENTIAL
 LOGISTIC

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH

• When resources are unlimited, each species realizes its innate potential
to grow in no. – population grows exponentially
• N – Population size
b – Birth rates( per capita births)
d – Death rates (per capita deaths)
dN/dt – increase/decrease in N during time t

Then, dN/dt = (b – d)*N

Let (b – d) = r, then
dN/dt = r*N
Where, r – intrinsic rate of natural increase
For human population in 1981, r = 0.0205

Integral form of exponential growth eq.

Nt = N0ert

Where Nt = Population density after t

N0 =Initial population density
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
e = base of natural logarithms

• Species growing exponentially under unlimited resources reaches

enormous population density in short time.

LOGISTIC GROWTH
• No population has unlimited resources-leads to competition for
resources
• Fittest individual survive and reproduce
• Carrying capacity (K)- Maximum population density a habitat’s
resources can support
• When a population has limited resources it shows

1. lag phase
2. phase of acceleration
3. asympote- population density = K

Verhulst Pearl Logistic Growth

dN/dt = rN [(K – N)/K]

Where N = Population density at time t

r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
K = Carrying capacity

• As resources for most organisms are finite logistic growth more

realistic
LIFE HISTORY VARIATIONS

• Darwinian fitness – Reproductive fitness

• Organisms adopt most efficient reproductive strategy suited to their
habitat
Examples:
1. Breed once in lifetime – pacific salmon fish ,Bamboo
2. Breed many times in life time – birds, mammals
3. Produce large no. of small sized offspring - Oysters, pelagic fishes
4. Produce small no. of large sized offspring - birds, mammals
Ecologists say life history traits depend on constraints of biotic and abiotic
parts
Population Interactions

Minimum requirement of species- one more species to feed on.

Interspecific interactions - Interactions of populations of two different species.

Types of Interactions:

Name of Interaction Species A Species B

Mutualism + +
Competition - -
Predation + -
Parasitism + -
Commensalism + 0
Ammensalism - 0

+ Positive effect - Detrimental effect 0 Neutral

effect

The interactive linkages between various biotic components of an ecosystem.

I. Intraspecific interaction- Interaction between members of the same species
in an ecosystem.
II. Interspecific interaction- Interaction between members of the different
species in an ecosystem.
Such interspecific interactions are of three types –
a. Beneficial (positive interaction)
b. Detrimental (negative interaction)
c. Neutral (neither harmed nor benefitted)
1. Predation:
Population interaction in which one species (predators) capture, kill and eat
up members of other species (prey).
Importance of predation –
i. Acts as conduits for energy transfer to higher trophic level.
ii. Keeps under check the prey population.
iii. Maintain species diversity by reducing the intensity of competition among
competing prey species.
Adaptation of prey to protect against predators
i. Camouflage (in some insects and frogs) and mimicry.
ii. Poisonous Monarch butterfly (acquired from poisonous weed during
caterpillar stage).
iii. Thorns develop in Acacia and cactus.
iv. Production of highly poisonous cardiac glycosides by Calotropis.
2. Competition:
Population interaction in which both interacting species are harmed. It is both
interspecific and intraspecific.
Intraspecific competition types-
i. Scramble or resource competition- Resources are subdivided into small
parts among competing individuals. Wastage of resources takes place.
ii. Contest or Interference competition- Resources are dominated by
successful individuals and denies the access of unsuccessful individuals.
Interspecific competition -
i. Gause’s competitive exclusion principle- Two closely related species while
competing for the same resource cannot indefinitely coexist together.
e.g extinction of Abingdon tortoise from Galapagos island due to introduction
of goat, Balanus barnacles dominates over smaller barnacle Chathamalus in
the intertidal area of Scotland.
i. Competitive release - A phenomenon in which species whose distribution
was restricted to a small area expands its distributional range over large area
due to presence of and competition with the superior species is removed.
ii. Competitive co-existence (Resource partition) - Mechanism adopted by
competitors to avoid competition by utilizing the same resource but differing
in foraging time and pattern.
e.g. Darwin finches.
 According to Darwin, the organic evolution is due to interspecific
competition.
3. Parasitism:
Population interaction in which one species is always benefited by spending a
part or whole of life to other which is always harmed.
 Depending upon their occurrence with the host body, parasites are of two
major types:
i. Ectoparasites: Live or feed on the surface of host’s body with aerobic
respiration. e.g. lice,
Cuscuta, ticks, copepods, etc.
ii. Endoparasites: Live or feed inside the host’s body with anaerobic
respiration. e.g. Ascaris, tapeworm, etc.
Adaptation of parasites-
i. Anaerobic respiration in internal parasites.
ii. Loss of unnecessary sense organs.
iii. Presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to the host.
iv. Loss of digestive system and high reproductive capacity.
v. Brood Parasitism – It is a type of parasitism in birds in which the parasitic
bird lays its eggs in the nest of its host and the host incubates them.
e.g cuckoo (parasitic) and crow (host).
4. Commensalism:
Population interaction in which one species is benefited while the other
remains unaffected.
 growing of orchids (epiphytes) on tree trunks,
 interaction of sea anemone and clownfish,
 cattle egrets moving along with grazing cattle,
 sucker fish and pilot fish with shark,
 barnacles growing on the back of whales, etc.
5. Amensalism:
Population interaction in which one species is harmed whereas the other
species is unaffected.
Examples –
• Growth of Penicillium inhibits the growth of Staphylococcus bacteria,
Bacterial culture, after few days fungus growth will be there on it like
Pencillium, and its secretions of chemical will kill bacteria, but no benefits to
fungi.
• Convonvulus arvensis inhibits the germination and growth of wheat seeds,
• black walnut (Juglans nigra) produces allochemic juglone that prevents the
growth of apple, tomato, alfalfa, etc.
6. Mutualism:
Population interaction in which both interacting species are benefited.
• Lichen (alga and fungus where alga depends upon the fungus for water,
minerals and protection and fungus receives carbohydrates prepared by the
alga).
• Mycorrhizae (fungi and roots of higher plant where fungi helps in absorption
of nutrients and provides carbohydrates to fungi), root nodules of legumes,
Azolla-Anabaena, etc.
• Pollination and seed dispersal between animals and plants (fig trees and
wasps, Mediterranean orchid Ophrys employs sexual deceit to get pollinated
by bees).