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Study on various properties of reinforced concrete – A review

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Study on various properties of reinforced concrete – A review

Arun Singh Chahar, Priyaranjan Pal
Department of Civil Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj 211004, Uttar Pradesh, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: One of the world’s most common building materials is reinforced concrete (RC). Various shapes and sizes
Available online xxxx of components made of RC are mostly used in civil engineering structures. In general, reinforced concrete
combines the materials, i.e., concrete resisting compression and reinforcing steel resisting tension; how-
Keywords: ever, the reinforcing bar resists the shear, tensile and compressive stresses. The RC structures are often
Reinforced concrete subject to various dynamic loads, i.e., man-made, traffic, wind, earthquakes, waves, etc. The utilization
Mechanical properties of substances with convenient parameters is requisite for RC structures, so it will be helpful in studying
Physical properties
the mechanical and physical properties of reinforced concrete. The compressive strength is the most
Vibration energy absorption
Modulus of elasticity
important property that decides the acceptance and rejection of concrete in building structures. Shear
Damping coefficient reinforcement had been shown better properties than longitudinal reinforcement in increasing the per-
formance of RC under the high loading rate. The load–deflection curves and the experimental results
show that the increment of compressive strength of RC members had an articulate impact on the member
load capacity and deflections. There are many materials available to enhance the performance of RC
members, such as rice husk ash, fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, metakaolin, silica fume,
etc. Several parameters have been reviewed and discussed in the study those influence the performance
of the loaded RC structures. The key parameters are dynamic modulus of elasticity, energy absorption in
vibration, coefficient of damping, and fatigue resistance.
Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Advances in Construction Materials and Structures.

1. Introduction strength, which results in cracks. The cracking of the concrete sur-
face creates aesthetic issues (high bends of beams.
Reinforced concrete is a type of concrete that has reinforcing or slabs) in the case of the supply chain and problems with the
steel injected into it, allowing the two components of the structure integrity of the structure at the end. Strengthening the steel has a
to work together to bear the stresses. The reinforcing steel in con- much stronger force as well as a corresponding law of rigidity and
crete structures like bars, rods, or mesh bears the shear and tensile pressure [4]. On the other hand, rebar exposed to pressure alone
stresses [1]. Plain concrete is inappropriate for most structural pur- fails early due to piercing. For this reason, applying reinforcement
poses because it cannot sustain shear and tensile stresses produced to the RC section leads to good structural behavior because steel
by live load, wind, earthquake, vibration, and other forces. Rein- reinforcement and concrete both perform well under pressure.
forced concrete transformed the construction industry in the nine- Fig. 1 depicts a continuous flow of the bending of the beam under
teenth century, and now, concrete is one of the most widely vertical pressure.
utilized construction materials on the planet. The design of a build- It’s worth remarking that the cooperation between concrete
ing structure usually necessitates calculating both static and and reinforcing steel is aided by the fact that both materials
dynamic loads. G. L. Golewski et al. [2] discussed that the getting have the same coefficient of thermal expansion, preventing extra
concrete with uniform properties throughout its mass was more internal stresses at the concrete-rebar contact [5]. Some of the
vital than its high strength. Steel reinforcements, commonly RC members, vertical components such as piers and columns,
referred to as rebars, are often used in reinforced concrete. Rein- have relative cross-sections, as they must provide approximately
forcements reduce the stresses that the building structure con- equal resistance in all horizontal directions [6]. Furthermore,
stantly bears due to natural climatic conditions [3]. One of the these arrangements result in lower formwork costs. Building
most notable concrete feature is the extremely low tensile beam cross-sections are typically rectangular, whereas bridge

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.03.193
2214-7853/Copyright Ó 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Advances in Construction Materials and Structures.

Please cite this article as: Arun Singh Chahar and P. Pal, Study on various properties of reinforced concrete – A review, Materials Today: Proceedings,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.03.193
Arun Singh Chahar and P. Pal Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

 Three fundamental phases of using RC are mixing, casting, and

curing. All phases influence the ultimate strength.
 The formworks used to cast RC are costlier.
 For multi-story structures, RC column sections are larger than
steel column sections.

2. Literature review and discussion

Concrete is assumed to be homogeneous with no visible surface

defects like honeycombs or porous regions, shrinkage fractures,
and so on. Concrete used in constructing RC structures must have
suitable properties, like physical and mechanical. Both the proper-
ties of concrete are essential and responsible for reducing and min-
imizing the multi-distribution of movement, which leads to crack
formation in the object. The present study discusses the most crit-
ical factors that affect RC structures’ performance.

2.1. Mechanical properties of RC

Concrete and the distribution of pores are directly related to

mechanical properties [7]. Because the concrete is meant to carry
the compressive load, its compressive strength is an indexing fea-
ture. As a result, while working with any form of concrete, identi-
fying this critical characteristic comes first [8]. Almusallam [9]
investigated the properties of hardened concrete by replacing the
20% cement content with fly ash (FA), concluding FA enhances
greater compressive strength later. The compressive concrete
strength at 7- and 28-days curing period was studied when 30%
Fig. 1. Bending of beam under vertical pressure. of the cement is replaced with FA. Further, when FA and SF were
combined as 50:50, the compressive strength was lower than that
of the ordinary concrete at 7 days, but at 28 days, the strength was
higher. Pala et al. [10] confirmed that fly ash concrete had a lower
girder cross-sections are primarily I-shaped to minimize weight initial compressive strength but a greater long-term compressive
and enable the insertion of post-tensioning tendons. Damages strength. The influence of class C and class F fly ash on the mechan-
in concrete structures functioning under complicated stresses ical properties of the concrete was studied by Naik et al. [11]. Three
are comparable to structural fractures in the material induced different mixes using class C, class F, and both were prepared,
by dynamic stresses. However, it should be emphasized that although all three mixes had the same total amount of cementi-
the negative effects of vibrations may be avoided entirely with tious materials. It was found that the making of concrete with both
proper structural analysis and building materials selection. The class C and class F fly ash performs better than concrete with either
materials with adequate strength, endurance, external influence class C fly ash or class F fly ash.
resistance, and homogeneity with similar characteristics in The concrete compressive strength [12] is the essential
accordance with their mass are employed in building subjected mechanical characteristic to consider for dynamically loaded RC
to dynamic stresses that generate vibrations. Reinforced concrete buildings. C12/15 is the minimum concrete compressive strength
is such material that satisfies all of these standards (RC). Thus, it class necessary for RC constructions that are dynamically loaded
is an important and frequently utilized building material for [13]. C16/20 is the concrete strength class mostly used for the
dynamic load-bearing structures. Some of the advantages of RC smaller structural elements, and C20/25 & C25/30 are the concrete
structures are: strength class used for larger structural elements. When selecting
the concrete strength class for dynamically loaded structures,
 It possesses a high compressive strength when compared to one may note that the longitudinal elasticity coefficient should
other materials. be lower, resulting in a lower strength class. Lower-strength con-
 Because of reinforcing, it is capable of withstanding a lot of ten- crete is more resistant to vibrations, which decreases its compres-
sile stresses. sive strength to a lesser extent. Additionally, compared to
 It is resistant to fire and weather. conventional concrete, high-strength concrete has a higher brittle-
 The reinforced concrete building method outlasts all other types ness. For these reasons, high material strength is never the primary
of construction. consideration for selecting the concrete specifications for dynami-
 As a fluid material, reinforced concrete may be inexpensively cally loaded structures.
moulded into a virtually infinite number of shapes at first. The modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio are the valuable
 Reinforced concrete is the most cost-effective building material parameters used to analyze and design the RC structures [14,15].
for construction, such as footings, dams, and piers. The Poisson’s ratio influences the reflection of stress waves and
 It is widely used in precast structural members as it can be propagation speed. In RC structures stimulation, the concrete elas-
moulded into any shape. Furthermore, it creates rigid compo- ticity coefficient is commonly used for calculating structural stiff-
nents with the least amount of apparent deflection. ness [16]. It is calculated empirically based on the intrinsic
 When compared to steel used in buildings, it requires less- amplitudes and frequencies of vibrations forced in the test sample.
skilled workers. The elasticity coefficient is determined using a short-term static
load. One may use it in calculations because the difference
A few disadvantages of RC structures are: between dynamic and static structural stiffness is minor and<6%.
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Arun Singh Chahar and P. Pal Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

L. R. Laila et al. [17] conducted the experimental study to deter- Table 2

mine the effects of granite pulver by using super absorbent poly- Specified compressive strength of RC construction.

mer on mechanical properties and microstructure of concrete. Concrete construction Compressive strength
For the study, the Portland cement was replaced with various per- (MPa)
centages of granite pulver as 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%, and super Concrete fill < 13.79
absorbent polymer used as the volume fraction of 0.1% to 1%, fly Foundation walls & basement walls, slabs, steps & 17.27 – 24.13
ash was also used as the filler material to enhance the workability. stairs
Garage, driveways and industrial floor slabs 20.68 – 27.56
The compressive strength at 15% replacement level of cement with Reinforced concrete beams, columns, slabs & 20.68 – 48.26
granite pulver along with super absorbent polymer (0.4%) was walls
more than the control mix. G. B. Gnana Ananthi et al. [18] dis- Prestressed & precast concrete 27.56 – 48.26
cussed the applications of biopolymers. In this study, extract of tur- High rise buildings (columns) 68.95 – 103.42
meric and neem was used as a corrosion inhibitor in various
proportions. These extracts are economical, user-friendly, no-
toxic, and eco-friendly. The tensile strength and compressive workability of concrete. Incorporation of the SAP leads to lower
strength of biopolymer concrete were 44 % more than the normal the filling ability and flowability of granite pulver mix. The test
concrete on the inclusion of 0.25 % of the extract. data demonstrated that the inclusion of SAP beyond 0.4% will influ-
In practice, elasticity coefficients are assumed to be the same as ence the rheological characteristics.
for concrete in compression when determining amplitudes and fre- In the study, yield load and ultimate load results are discussed
quencies of forced vibrations under typical structures, disregarding because these loads influence the compressive strength of con-
the impact of reinforcement. Before concreting, it is critical to eval- crete. A study was conducted to check the performance of RC slab
uate the concrete strength and determine the elasticity coefficient. with respect to flexural strength, yield load, and deflection under
These investigations should produce results similar to those the central point load by using Glass fibre reinforced polymer
obtained by static computations. The modulus of elasticity values (GFRP) and Carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets as the
for various concrete strength classes are given in Table 1. The val- strengthening materials [24]. The results of yield load, ultimate
ues of concrete strength class and modulus of elasticity are pre- load, bending moment, and deflection are reproduced and shown
sented according to EN 1992–1-1 [19]. The strength class is in Figs. 2–5 [25] for comparison. The results showed that these
denoted as C12/15, where 12 indicates the cylindrical compressive strengthening elements are beneficial in increasing the strength
strength (N/mm2) and 15 indicates the cubical compressive criteria of the RC slab. IS: 516–1959 [25] suggests cylindrical spec-
strength (N/mm2) at 28 days curing period. The American concrete imens for estimating the splitting tensile strength of concrete and
institute (ACI) 318 [20] standard and the International building beam specimens for flexural strength of concrete. X. Zheng et al.
code (IBC) [21] indicate a minimum specified compressive strength [26] investigated the experimental study of the usage and effect
for structural concrete to decide the quality of structural concrete. of superabsorbent polymer on the microstructure & mechanical
Following is the list of specified compressive strength to be main- characteristics of concrete, the author prepared the hybrid con-
tained for RC constructions (Table 2) [20]. M. Surendar et al. [22] crete by using the superabsorbent polymer. The mechanical char-
studied the mechanical and durability properties of concrete by acteristics, like modulus of elasticity, compressive strength,
using the M sand and recycled aggregate. In this study, various flexural strength, and split tensile strength of hybrid concrete
percentage (0%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 50%, 75%) of recycled aggregate was determined by experiments. There was seen through micro-
was used and seven concrete mixes were casted as compared to scope that superabsorbent polymer can enhance the microstruc-
conventional concrete. The split tensile strength and compressive ture of concrete and rectify the pore structure. G. B. G. Ananthi
strength of RAC was slightly lower than conventional concrete at et al. [27] investigated the experimental study on the shear behav-
10% of replacement level, but the strength was decreased drasti- ior of fibre reinforced concrete specimens using various percent-
cally at 75% of replacement. RAC was also less feasible in terms ages of crimped and hooked steel fibres. The incorporation of 1%
of corrosion resistance. L. R. Laila et al. [23] evaluated the impact of steel fibre was significant. The workability of the concrete mix
of super absorbent polymer (SAP) on rheological, microstructural, was decreased on the incorporation of steel fibres in excess. The
mechanical, and durability properties by using the granite pulver shear strength, compressive strength, and tensile strength can be
i.e. environmental waste. The cement was replaced with various increased with the inclusion of steel fibre.
dosages of granite pulver as 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% by weight.
Superplasticizer was also used along with fly ash to enhance the

Table 1
Dynamic modulus of elasticity of RC structures.
200 181.44

Strength class (C) of concrete Elastic modulus, Ed (GPa) 151.89

150
12/15 27 128.64
16/20 29
Yield load (kN)

20/25 30
25/30 31 100
30/37 32
35/45 34
40/50 35 50
45/55 36
50/60 37
55/67 38 0
60/75 39 Normal RC Slab GFRP Slab CFRP Slab
70/85 41
80/95 42
90/105 44
Fig. 2. Comparison of yield load.

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Arun Singh Chahar and P. Pal Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Micro-cracks and fractures also aid reinforcement corrosion in

concrete.
Concrete and concrete-based structures are differentiated by
their capability to absorb energy which causes strain-induced
deformations. This property allows the development of micro-
cracks in the structural materials to be limited. The type and mag-
nitude of vibration frequency, temperature, the ratio of dynamic to
static loads, and the structure’s age all have an impact on the
absorption coefficient. The coefficient values for plain concrete
and reinforced concrete are presented in Table 3 [19]. The incre-
ment in energy absorption [28] during the loaded structure com-
pared to data collected for building materials used to create
similar structures is a significant result from the study of both val-
ues in the table.
It is worth mentioning that, compared to other building materi-
Fig. 3. Comparison of ultimate load. als like steel or wood, plain concrete and RC structures have signif-
icantly higher values for both parameters. Furthermore,
dampening is closely linked to structural movement and permits
energy from external pressures to be absorbed [29]. As proven by
Ahn et al. [30], durability prevents fatigue fractures for plain con-
crete and RC. As a result, fatigue strength must be considered when
dimensioning the dynamically loaded RC structures if stresses in
the components of the structure change throughout its service life
or if variable loads account for at least 60% of the total load. In the
ultimate state, design fatigue strength (ffat) may be calculated
using the partial load factor (q) and the coefficient of fatigue
strength (a0) of the material, recommended by EN 1992–1–1
(2004) [19] based on the type of material and structure. The values
of coefficients are presented in Table 4 [19].
Workable concrete achieves maximum density with an ade-
quate amount of compaction effort. If the concrete is not workable,
the mix will not get the desired density, resulting in less strength
and porosity. The utilization of a higher water-cement ratio and
Fig. 4. Comparison of bending moment. coarse aggregate will reduce the viscosity of the concrete mixture
and increase the segregation and result in a decrease of the degree
of elasticity of concrete, which affects the strength of concrete.
When bleeding occurs in concrete, free water in the mix rises to
the surface. The water obtains accumulated beneath the aggre-
gates, forms water voids, and lowers the bond between the paste
and aggregate. Bleeding is responsible for losing its homogeneity
and for causing permeability in concrete. Permeability and porosity
play a vital role in long-term concrete durability. The void spaces
interconnection is the main factor that rules the permeability.
Antonio Bossio et al. [31] performed an experimental study to
assess the change in structural capacity of reinforced concrete ele-
ments influenced by corrosion. Experiments were performed under
the axial load, and results demonstrated that the reinforcements
have an insignificant effect on ultimate axial load capacity com-
pared to not corroded concrete elements. C. Shi et al. [32] discussed
the rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT). The chlorides ion can
Fig. 5. Comparison of deflection.
penetrate the crack-free surface of concrete through a mechanism:
capillary absorption, hydrostatic pressure, diffusion, and evapora-
tive transport. Out of these, diffusion was predominant. When
2.2. Physical properties of RC the chloride ions concentration on the outside of the concrete ele-
ment was greater than the inside, diffusion occurs. RCPT is a widely
Physical properties such as vibration damping (energy absorp- used test for quality control purposes and specifications. The inter-
tion), workability, durability, segregation, bleeding of concrete, nal pore structure is the most crucial factor that affects RC mem-
permeability, porosity, etc., are significant to any structure. These
are the essential parameters used to consider while designing the Table 3
loaded RC structures. According to both laboratory and practical Coefficient of energy absorption (w) for concretes.
tests, vibration-induced destruction begins in places already dam-
Material used Coefficient (w)
aged before the application. The concentration of damaging pres-
Reinforced Concrete 0.30
sures in weaker places reduces the durability of the material as
Plain Concrete 0.26
well as its resistance with respect to the harsh environment.

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Arun Singh Chahar and P. Pal Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 4 5. The GFRP sheet slab has the highest flexural strength than the
Coefficient of fatigue strength (a0) & Coefficient of partial factor load (q). normal RC slab and slab with a CFRP sheet. When there is an
Structural material Coefficient (w) increase in the percentage of steel reinforcement, the ultimate
a0 q load increases.
6. Vibration is an inextricable component of buildings and other
Plain Concrete 3.0 1.0
Reinforcement 3.5 1.7
technical structures.
7. The physical characteristics of concrete are crucial for con-
structing fracture-resistant, dynamically stressed RC structures.
The key physical parameters influencing the behavior of RC
Table 5 structures with respect to dynamic stresses are energy absorp-
Rating of chloride permeability of concrete according to the RCPT. tion in vibration, coefficient of damping, and fatigue resistance.
Chloride Charge passing Type of Concrete 8. Corrosion of steel bars exhibits the key source of failure of rein-
Permeability (Coulombs) forced concrete members. Corrosion leads to the decrease of the
High >4000 High w/c ratio (>0.6) conventional plain cross-section of reinforcement bars, concrete cover cracking,
concrete bonding loss, and scarcity in structural capacity and safety of
Moderate 2000 – 4000 Moderate w/c ratio (0.40 – 0.50) RC members.
conventional plain concrete
Low 1000 – 2000 Low w/c ratio (<0.40) conventional
plain concrete CRediT authorship contribution statement
Very Low 100 – 1000 Latex-modified concrete, internally
sealed concrete Arun Singh Chahar: conceptualization, data curation, formal
Negligible < 100 Polymer-impregnated concrete,
analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology,
polymer concrete
resources, writing – original draft, validation. Priyaranjan Pal:
writing- review & editing, supervision.

bers’ permeability. The utilization of supplementary cementitious

Declaration of Competing Interest
materials (silica fume, fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag,
etc.) will notably reduce the chloride permeability at 28 days of
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
concrete ages. The values of charge passing in different types of
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
concretes are presented in Table 5 [33], and these values are
to influence the work reported in this paper.
according to the level of chloride permeability.
The durability is the vital feature of concrete, which impacts the
reliability of the RC structure [34]. After years of operation, the References
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