AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT -I

HEAVY BUSINESS JETS

A PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED BY

MAHESHKANNAN.M 712220101026
MOHAMMED ASKAR.S 712220101031
VINOTHKUMAR.R 712220101045
THIRUPATHI.M 712220101051

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINERRING
IN

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

PARK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

COIMBATORE-641 659

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

I
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that the AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT – I report titled “DESIGN OF HEAVY

BUSINESS JET " is the Bonafide work of M.MAHESHKANNAN (712220101026), MOHAMMED

ASKAR.S (712220101031), VINOTHKUMAR.R (712220101045), THIRUPATHI.M (712220101051),

who carried out the work under my supervision. Certified further that to the best of my knowledge

the work reported here is not a part of any other project work.

SINGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr.BABURAJ Mr.P.KARTHIKEYAN M.E(Ph.D)

(Head of Department) Assistant Professor

Department of Department of

Aeronautical Engineering Aeronautical Engineering

Park College of Engineering Park College of Engineering

and Technology and Technology

The Aircraft Design Project – I viva voice Examination held on_____________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINAR

II
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We owe a debt of gratitude to Dr.BABURAJ.E, Head of the Department, Department

of Aeronautical Engineering, for being a source of constant encouragement and a pillar of

support in all that we do, be it academic or extracurricular.

We would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to Mr. KARTHIKEYAN.P for his constant

help, erudite guidance and immense passion which enthused us to do the project better.

A warm token of appreciation to the management at Park College of Engineering and

Technology, Coimbatore for providing us with the amenities and a congenial atmosphere to

work in

III
 ABSTRACT

The aim of this project is to design and conceptualize a heavy

corporate/business jet that can cater to a wide range of clientele ranging from

business conglomerates to private organizations and individual parties. Business

jet, private jet or, colloquially bizjet is a term describing a jet aircraft, usually of

smaller size, designed for transporting groups of business people or wealthy

individuals. The project involves the design of a heavy business jet that can

accommodate about 40 passengers at full seating layout, providing the

amenities and level of comfort that a business jet is expected to provide while

incorporating the design specifications and performance parameters of a long

range commercial airliner. The aircraft allows for long range transport with

better efficiency and reduced fuel consumption and noise levels owing to a state

of the art engine and design features.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS III

ABSTRACT IV

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS X

DESCRIPTION PAGE .NO

1 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN 3
1.1.1 AERODYNAMICS 3
1.1.2 PROPULSION 3
1.1.3 STRUCTURES AND MATERIALS 4
1.1.4 STABILITY AND CONTROL 4
1.2 DEFINING A NEW DESIGN 5
1.3 AIRCRAFT PURPOSE 6
1.4 DESIGN MOTIVATION 7
1.5 DESIGN PROCESS 8
1.6 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 10
1.7 DESIGN PROCESS BREAKDOWN 11
2 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS JETS 12
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF BUSINESS JETS 12
2.1.1 MID-SIZED JETS 12
2.1.2 LARGE-CABIN JETS 12
2.1.3 LIGHT JETS 12
2.1.4 VIP BUSINESS JETS / HEAVY AIRLINERS 13
2.2 NEED FOR BUSINESS JETS 14
3 COMMON COMPARATIVE STUDY 16
4 COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET (BUSINESS JETS) 17
5 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS 19
5.1 CRUISE SPEED VS RANGE 19
5.2 CRUISE SPEED VS ALTITUDE 19
5.3 CRUISE SPEED VS WING LOAD 20
5.4 CRUISE SPEED VS GROSS WEIGHT 20
5.5 CRUISE SPEED VS ASPECT RATIO 21
5.6 RANGE VS ASPECT RATIO 21
5.7 WING LOADING VS ASPECT RATIO 22
5.8 WING LOADING VS TAKEOFF RUN 22
5.9 WING LOADING VS R/CMAX 23
5.10 ASPECT RATIO VS R/CMAX 23
6 WEIGHT ESTIMATION 24
6.1 MISSION PROFILE 24
6.2 ESTIMATION OF FUEL FRACTION 25
7 WING LOADING 28

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 7.1 THRUST LOADING (T/W) 28
8 AIRFOIL SELECTION 31
8.1 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY 31
8.2 NACA 63A-514 (ROOT AIRFOIL) 33
8.3 NACA 63-512 (MIDSPAN AIRFOIL) 34
8.4 NACA 63-310 (TIP AIRFOIL) 35
8.5 MAXIMUM THICKNESS (T/C) 35
8.6 TAPER RATIO 36
8.7 WING SWEEP 37
8.8 DIHEDRAL 38
8.9 WINGLETS 39
8.10 WING PARAMETERS 40
9 DRAG ESTIMATION 41
10 POWERPLANT SELECTION 44
10.1 ENGINE SELECTION: 44
10.2 DETAILS OF THE SELECTED ENGINE 45
10.3 PW1000G 46
11 LANDINGGEAR DESIGN 47
11.1 LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT 47
11.2 TYRE SIZING 47
11.3 NOSE GEAR 47
11.4 MAIN GEAR 48
12 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 50
12.1 TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE 50
12.2 CLIMBING 50
12.3 GLIDING 51
12.4 LANDING PERFORMANCE: 53
13 CENTRE OF GRAVITY ESTIMATION 54
13.1 THE STRUCTURES GROUP 54
13.2 WING 55
13.2.1 HORIZONTAL TAIL 56
13.2.2 VERTICAL TAIL 56
13.2.3 ENGINE 57
13.2.4 LANDING GEAR 57
13.2.5 FUSELAGE 58
14 STABILITY & CONTROL 60
14.1 STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY: 60
14.2 STICK FIXED LONGITUDINAL CONTROL: 61
14.3 DIRECTIONAL STABILITY 62
15 3-VIEW DIAGRAM 66
16 V-N DIAGRAM 68
17 EMPENNAGE SELECTION 71
18 FINALIZED DESIGN PARAMETERS 75
19 CONCLUSION 76
20 REFERENCES 77

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 NUMBER OF TABLES

S.NO TABLES PAGE NO

1 1.7 DESIGN PROCESS BREAKDOWN 11

2 3.1 COMMON COMPARATIVE STUDY 16

3 4.1 COMMON COMPARATIVE STUDY 17

(BUSINESS JET)

4 4.1 COMMON COMPARATIVE STUDY 18

(BUSINESS JET)

5 6.2.1 WEIGHT ESTIMATION TABLE 27

6 8.10 WING PARAMETER 40

7 12.5.1 FERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 53

8 13.1.1 GROUP WEIGHT METHODS 55

9 13.7 CG – TABLE 59

10 18 FINALIZED DESIGN PARAMETERS 75

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 NUMBER OF FIGURES

S.NO FIGURES PAGE NO

1 6.2.2 WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION CHART 25

2 7.2.1 WING LOADING 28

3 8.1.1 AIRFOIL 29

4 8.1.2 ANGLE OF ATTACK 29

5 8.2.1 NACA 63A-514 (ROOT AIRFOIL) 31

6 8.2.2 GRAPH NACA 63A-514 31

7 8.3.1 NACA 63-512 (MIDSPAN AIRFOIL) 32

8 8.3.2 GRAPH NACA 63-512 32

9 8.4.1 NACA 63-310 (TIP AIRFOIL) 33

10 8.4.2 GRAPH NACA 63-310 33

11 10.2.1 PRATT & WHITNEY PW1000G 43

12 10.3.1 PW1000G 44
13 11.1.1 LANDING GEAR 45

14 12.2.1 CLIMBING 49

15 12.4.1 GLIDING 50

16 14.1.1 STATICLONGITUDINALSTABILITY 58

17 14.3.2 DIRECTIONAL STABILITY 62

18 15.1 TOP-VIEW 64

19 15.2 SIDE-VIEW 65
20 15.3 FRONT-VIEW 65

viii
 NUMBER OF GRAPH

S.NO GRAPHS PAGE.NO

CRUISE SPEED VS RANGE 17

1 5.1

CRUISE SPEED VS ALTITUDE 17

2 5.2

CRUISE SPEED VS WING LOAD 18

3 5.3

CRUISE SPEED VS GROSS WEIGHT 18

4 5.4

CRUISE SPEED VS ASPECT RATIO 19

5 5.5

RANGE VS ASPECT RATIO 19

6 5.6

WING LOADING VS ASPECT RATIO 20

7 5.7

WING LOADING VS TAKEOFF RUN 20

8 5.8

WING LOADING VS R/CMAX 21

9 5.9

ASPECT RATIO VS R/CMAX 21

10 5.10

ix
 LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AT LIFT CURVE SLOPE OF TAIL
AV LIFT CURVE SLOPE OF VERTICAL TAIL
AW LIFT CURVE SLOPE OF WING
B WING SPAN
C CHORD LENGTH
Ĉ MEAN CHORD
C.G. CENTRE OF GRAVITY
CAEP COMMITTEE OF AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
CD DRAG COEFFICIENT
CD0 ZERO LIFT DRAG CO-EFFICIENT
CFE SKIN FRICTION COEFFICIENT
CL ROLLING MOMENT COEFFICIENT
CLF FUNCTION OF AIRFOIL CHORD OVER
CLMAX MAXIMUM LIFT COEFFICIENT
CM PITCHING MOMENT COEFFICIENT
CN YAWING MOMENT COEFFICIENT
CR ROOT CHORD
CT TIP CHORD
D DRAG FORCE
D TIRE DIAMETER
E ENDURANCE
E OSWALD EFFICIENCY FACTOR
G ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
KTF FACTOR ALLOWED FOR TRAPPED FUEL
L LIFT FORCE
LE LEADING EDGE OF WING
LF LENGTH OF FUSELAGE
LT LOAD ON TYRE
LV AERODYNAMIC CENTRE OF VERTICAL M - MACH NUMBER
MTOW MAXIMUM TAKEOFF WEIGHT
N0 NEUTRAL POINT
NE NUMBER OF ENGINES LOCATED ON TOP SURFACE OF WING
X
Q DYNAMIC PRESSURE
R TURN RADIUS
R/C RATE OF CLIMB
RR ROLLING RADIUS OF TYRE
S WING AREA
SFC SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
SLO TAKEOFF RUN DISTANCE
SREF WING REFERENCE AREA
STD LANDING RUN DISTANCE
SWET WING WETTED AREA
T THRUST FORCE
T/C WING THICKNESS RATIO
T/W THRUST LOADING
TF A FACTOR WHICH IS UNITY FOR STREAMLINED SHAPE
V VELOCITY OF AIR/AIRCRAFT
VCRUISE VELOCITY AT CRUISE
VF VOLUME OF FUEL
VSTALL VELOCITY AT STALL
W TYRE WIDTH
W/S WING LOADING
W0 GROSS WEIGHT OF AIRCRAFT
WCREW CREW WEIGHT

2
 CHAPTER-1

1. INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN

Modern aircraft are a complex combination of aerodynamic performance, lightweight

durable structures and advanced systems engineering. Air passengers demand more comfort
and more environmentally friendly aircraft. Hence many technical challenges need to be
balanced for an aircraft to economically achieve its design specification. Aircraft design is a
complex and laborious undertaking with a number of factors and details that are required
to be checked to obtain optimum the final envisioned product. The design process begins from
scratch and involves a number of calculations, logistic planning, design and real world
considerations, and a level head to meet any hurdle head on.

Every airplane goes through many changes in design before it is finally built in a
factory. These steps between the first ideas for an airplane and the time when it is actually
flown make up the design process. Along the way, engineers think about four main areas of
aeronautics: Aerodynamics, Propulsion, Structures andMaterials, and Stability and Control.

1.1.1 Aerodynamics is the study of how air flows around an airplane. In order for an
airplane to fly at all, air must flow over and under its wings. The more aerodynamic, or
streamlined the airplane is, the less resistance it has against the air. If air can move around
the airplane easier, the airplane's engines have less

work to do. This means the engines do not have to be as big or eat up as much fuel which
makes the airplane more lightweight and easier to fly. Engineers have to think about what
type of airplane they are designing because certain airplanes need to be aerodynamic in
certain ways. For example, fighter jets maneuver and turn quickly and fly faster than sound
(supersonic flight) over short distances. Most passenger airplanes, on the other hand, fly
below the speed of sound (subsonic flight) for long periods of time.

1.1.2 Propulsion is the study of what kind of engine and power an airplane needs. An
airplane needs to have the right kind of engine for the kind of job that it has. A passenger jet
carries many passengers and a lot of heavy cargo over long distances so its engines need to
use fuel very efficiently. Engineers are also trying to make airplane engines quieter so they do
not bother the passengers onboard or the neighborhoods they are flying over. Another
3
important concern is making the exhaust cleaner and more environmentally friendly. Just like
automobiles, airplane exhaust contains chemicals that can damage the earth's environment.

1.1.3 Structures and Materials is the study of how strong the airplane is and what
materials will be used to build it. It is really important for an airplane to be as lightweight as
possible. The less weight an airplane has, the less work the engines have to do and the
farther it can fly. It is tough designing an airplane that is lightweight and strong at the
same time. In the past, airplanes were

usually made out of lightweight metals like aluminum, but today a lot of engineers are
thinking about using composites in their designs. Composites look and feel like plastic, but are
stronger than most metals. Engineers also need to make sure that airplanes not only fly well,
but are also easy to build and maintain.

1.1.4 Stability and Control is the study of how an airplane handles and interacts to
pilot input and feed. Pilots in the cockpit have a lot of data to read from the airplane's
computers or displays. Some of this information could include the airplane's speed, altitude,
direction, and fuel levels as well as upcoming weather conditions and other instructions
from ground control. The pilot needs to be able to process the correct data quickly, to think
about what kind of action needs to be taken, and to react in an appropriate way. Meanwhile,
the airplane should display information to the pilot in an easy-to-read and easy-to-understand
way. The controls in the cockpit should be within easy reach and just where the pilot expects
them to be. It is also important that the airplane responds quickly and accurately to the pilot's
instructions and maneuvers.

“A beautiful aircraft is the expression of the genius of a great engineer who is also a great
artist.”

Neville Shute,

British Aeronautical Engineer and Novelist,

From, No Highway, 1947.

4
 When you look at aircraft, it is easy to observe that they have a number of common
features: wings, a tail with vertical and horizontal wing sections, engines to propel them
through the air, and a fuselage to carry passengers or cargo. If, however, you take a more
critical look beyond the gross features, you also can see subtle, and sometimes not so subtle,
differences. This is where design comes into play. Each and every aircraft is built for a
specific task, and the design is worked around the requirement and need of the aircraft.
The design is modeled about the aircraft role and type and not the other way around. Thus,
this is why airplanes differ from each other and are conceptualized differently. Aircrafts that
fall in the same category may have similar specifications and performance parameters, albeit
with a few design changes.

Design is a pivotal part of any operation. Without a fixed idea or knowledge of

required aircraft, it is not possible to conceive the end product. Airplane design is both an art
and a science. In that respect it is difficult to learn by reading a book; rather, it must be
experienced and practiced. However, we can offer the following definition and then attempt
to explain it. Airplane design is the intellectual engineering process of creating on paper (or
on a computer screen) a flying machine to (1) meet certain specifications and requirements
established by potential users (or as perceived by the manufacturer) and/or (2) pioneer
innovative, new ideas and technology. An example of the former is the design of most
commercial transports, starting at least with the Douglas DC-1 in 1932,

which was designed to meet or exceed various specifications by an airplane company.

(The airline was TWA, named Transcontinental and Western Air at that time.) An example of
the latter is the design of the rocket-powered Bell X- 1, the first airplane to exceed the speed
of sound in level or climbing flight (October 14, 1947). The design process is indeed an
intellectual activity, but a rather special one that is tempered by good intuition developed via
experience, by attention paid to successful airplane designs that have been used in the past,
and by (generally proprietary) design procedures and databases (handbooks, etc) that are a
part of every airplane manufacturer.

1.2 Defining a new design

The design of an aircraft draws on a number of basic areas of aerospace engineering.
These include aerodynamics, propulsion, light-weight structures and control. Each of these
5
areas involves parameters that govern the size, shape, weight and performance of an aircraft.
Although we generally try to seek optimum in all these aspects, with an aircraft, this is
practically impossible to achieve. The reason is that in many cases, optimizing one
characteristic degrades another.

There are many performance aspects that can be specified by the mission requirements. These
include:

 The aircraft purpose or mission profile

 The type(s) and amount of payload

 The cruise and maximum speeds

 The normal cruise altitude

 The range or radius with normal payload

 The endurance

 The take-off distance at the maximum weight

 The purchase cost

1.3 Aircraft Purpose

The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With this, it is
often possible to place a design into a general category. Such categories include combat
aircraft, passenger or cargo transports, and general aviation aircraft. These may also be
further refined into subcategories based on particular design objectives such as range (short or
long), take-off or landing distances, maximum speed, etc. The process of categorizing is
useful in identifying any existing aircraft that might be used in making comparisons to a
proposed design. With modern military aircraft, the purpose for a new aircraft generally
6
comes from a military program office. For example, the mission specifications for the X-29
pictured in figure 1.1 came from a 1977 request for proposals from the U.S. Air Force were
seeking a research aircraft that would explore the forward swept wing

concept and validate studies that indicated such a design could provide better control and lift
qualities in extreme maneuvers. With modern commercial aircraft, a proposal for a new
design usually comes as the response to internal studies that aim to project future market
needs. For example, the specifications for the Boeing commercial aircraft (B-777) were based
on the interest of commercial airlines to have a twin-engine aircraft with a payload and range
in between those of the existing B-767 and B-747 aircraft. Since it is not usually possible to
optimize all of the performance aspects in an aircraft, defining the purpose leads the way in
setting which of these aspects will be the “design drivers.” For example, with the B-777,
two of the prominent design drivers were range and payload.

1.4 Design Motivation

Fundamentally, an aircraft is a structure. Aircraft designers design structures. The
structures are shaped to give them desired aerodynamic characteristics, and the materials and
structures of their engines are chosen and shaped so they can provide needed thrust. Even
seats, control sticks, and windows are structures, all of which must be designed for optimum
performance. Designing aircraft structures is particularly challenging, because their weight
must be kept to a minimum. There is always a tradeoff between structural strength and
weight. A good aircraft structure is one which provides all the strength and rigidity to

allow the aircraft to meet all its design requirements, but which weighs no more than
necessary. Any excess structural weight often makes the aircraft cost more to build and almost
always makes it cost more to operate. As with small excesses of aircraft drag, a small
percentage of total aircraft weight used for structure instead of payload can make the
difference between a profitable airliner or successful tactical fighter and a failure. Designing
aircraft structures involves determining the loads on the structure, planning the general shape
and layout, choosing materials, and then shaping, sizing and optimizing its many components
to give every part just enough strength without excess weight. Since aircraft structures have
relatively low densities, much of their interiors are typically empty space which in the
complete aircraft is filled with equipment, payload, and fuel. Careful layout of the aircraft
structure ensures structural components are placed within the interior of the structure so they

7
carry the required loads efficiently and do not interfere with placement of other components
and payload within the space. Choice of materials for the structure can profoundly influence
weight, cost, and manufacturing difficulty. The extreme complexity of modern aircraft
structures makes optimal sizing of individual components particularly challenging. An
understanding of basic structural concepts and techniques for designing efficient structures is
essential to every aircraft designer

1.5 Design Process

The process of designing an aircraft and taking it to the point of a flight test article
consists of a sequence of steps, as illustrated in the figure. It starts by identifying a need or
capability for a new aircraft that is brought about by (1) a perceived market potential and (2)
technological advances made through research and development. The former will include a
market-share forecast, which attempts to examine factors that might impact future sales of a
new design. These factors include the need for a new design of a specific size and
performance, the number of competing designs, and the commonality of features with
existing aircraft. As a rule, a new design with competitive performance and cost will have an
equal share of new sales with existing competitors. The needs and capabilities of a new
aircraft that are determined in a market survey go to define the mission requirements for a
conceptual aircraft. These are compiled in the form of a design proposal that includes (1) the
motivation for initiating a new design and (2) the “technology readiness” of new technology
for incorporation into a new design. It is essential that the mission requirements be defined
before the design can be started. Based on these, the most important performance aspects or
“design drivers” can be identified and optimized above all others. Following the design
proposal, the next step is to produce a conceptual design. The conceptual design develops the
first general size and configuration for a new aircraft. It involves the estimates of the weights

8
and the choice of aerodynamic characteristics that will be best suited to the mission

requirements stated in the design proposal.

Research, Development and Market Analysis

Mission Requirements

Conceptual Design

No

Requirements Satisfie

Yes

Preliminary Design

Stop

Final Evaluation

Go
Detailed Design

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 The conceptual design is driven by the mission requirements, which are set in the design
proposal. In some cases, these may not be attainable so that the requirement may need to be
relaxed in one or more areas. This is shown in the iterative loop in the flow chart. When the
mission requirements are satisfied, the design moves to the next phase, which is the
preliminary design.

1.6 Conceptual Design

This article deals with the steps involved in the conceptual design of an aircraft. It is
broken down in to several elements, which are followed in order. These consist of:

1. Literature survey

2. Preliminary data acquisition

3. Estimation of aircraft weight

a. Maximum take-off weight

b. Empty weight of the aircraft

c. Weight of the fuel

d. Fuel tank capacity

4. Estimation of critical performance parameters

a. Wing area

b. Lift and drag coefficients

c. Wing loading

d. Power loading

e. Thrust to weight ratio

5. Engine selection

6. Performance
10
1.7 Design Process Breakdown

• Conceptual Design:

- Competing concepts evaluated What drives the design?

- Performance goals established Will it work/meet requirement?

- Preferred concept selected What does it look like?

• Preliminary Design:

- Refined sizing of preferred concept Do serious wind tunnel tests

tests

- Design examined data/establish parameters Make actual cost estimate

- Some changes allowed

• Detail Design:

- Final detail design Certification process

- Drawings released Component/systems tests

- Detailed performance Manufacturing

- Only “tweaking” of design allowed Flight control system design

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 CHAPTER-2

2. INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS JETS

A business jet is a jet that is owned by a private company or individual that is used
primarily for transporting the people who own the aircraft. That being said a lot of planes that
were developed to be used as business jets are also used for other purposes. In addition there
are also companies that are set up exclusively to operate business jets. Therefore the lines
between a business aircraft and a commercial one have become somewhat blurred.

Over the last few years business jets have become a very popular way to travel. They
offer great comfort of travel and service, with the option of having the aircraft at your beck
and call whenever you require it. A private business jet trumps regular commercial transport
in a number of areas. Nowadays, organizations and individuals who can afford the heavy
expenses that a private jet entails are willing to invest in one. Greater ease of travel, ease of
access, faster and hassle free transit and high comfort levels are some of the advantages of
business jet transport.

In most cases a business jet will be quite a bit smaller than a commercial jet. The
most common ones carry fewer than twenty passengers since this allows them to operate
under a different set of rules from the ones that are required for airliners. There are however
now quite a few business jets that are the size of

airliners and in many cases they are airliners that have been adapted for the purpose.
Nevertheless most business jets are quite small and only carry a small number of people.

Business jets have a much more luxurious interior, with a number of amenities and services
that a normal airliner would not have. Airliners are designed to carry large numbers of
people, most of who are looking for the lowest cost possible. Business jets on the other hand
are designed to carry people in a much higher level of comfort. The people who travel by
business jet are almost always quite well off and expect this level of comfort when they
travel.

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 2.1Classification of Business Jets

The business jet industry groups these jets into four loosely-defined classes

2.1.1 Mid-sized jets

Combining flight distance, speed and comfort, these mid-sized jets are

ideal for intimate trips.

Number of Passengers: 8 - 10

Sample Aircraft:

Gulfstream 200, Embraer Legacy 450, Cessna Citation X, Bombardier Challenger 605

2.1.2 Large-cabin jets

These aircraft are fast, comfortable, and can accommodate a medium-sized group.

Number of Passengers: 8 – 15

Sample Aircraft:

Gulfstream 550, Embraer Legacy 650, Dassault Falcon 7X

2.1.3 Light jets

Light jets have been a staple of the business jet industry since the advent of the Learjet
23 in the early 1960s. They provide access to small airports and the speed to be an effective air travel
tool.

Number of Passengers: 3 – 10

Sample Aircraft

Learjet 40, Cessna Citation CJ1, Dassault Falcon 10, Beechcraft Premier I
2.1.4VIP business jets / Heavy airliners
With a variety of potential configurations, jets in this category have the capacity for dining
rooms, bedrooms and offices. Number of Passengers: 18 - 40/50 – 25

13
These heavy airliners are an ideal choice for larger groups, corporate meetings and special

Sample Aircraft:

Boeing BBJ, Airbus AGJ, Embraer Lineage 1000

2.2 Need for Business Jets

The following list details some of the primary reasons companies utilize business aviation
as a solution to some of their transportation challenges:
 Accessing communities with little or no airline service
Business aviation serves ten times the number of communities (more than 5,000 airports)
served by commercial airlines (about 500 airports). This means business aviation can allow
companies to locate plants or facilities in small towns or rural communities with little or no
commercial airline service. With nearly 100 communities having lost airline service, this is
important.

 Reaching multiple destinations quickly and efficiently.

Companies that need to reach multiple destinations in a single day may elect to use
business aviation because that type of mission could be hard or impossible to complete with
other modes of transportation.

 Supporting the travel needs of many types of company employees.

An NBAA survey revealed that 72 percent of passengers aboard business airplanes are
non-executive employees. Companies often send teams of employees to a given destination
because it is the most cost-effective means of transport.

 Moving equipment.
When companies need to immediately move sensitive or critical equipment, business
aviation is often the best solution.

 Ensuring flexibility.
Businesses don’t always know in advance where or when opportunities will present
themselves. In today’s business environment, companies need to be nimble enough to move
quickly. Business aviation provides flexibility for companies that need to ensure employees
can respond to changing demands and circumstances
14
  Increasing employee productivity and providing security.
Business aviation is a productivity tool – when traveling aboard business aircraft,
employees can meet, plan and work en route. Business aviation also allows employees to
discuss proprietary information in a secure environment without fear of eavesdropping,
industrial espionage or physical threat.

 Keeping in contact.
Many aircraft have technologies that allow employees to remain in communication
throughout the duration of their flight. This can be critical for companies managing a rapidly
changing situation.

 Providing a return to shareholders.

Studies have found that businesses which use business aviation as a solution to some of
their transportation challenges return more to shareholders than companies in the same
industry that do not utilize business aviation.

 Schedule Predictability.
More than 3 percent of all commercial airline flights are cancelled. Nearly one quarter are
delayed. Today, because of record load factors on commercial airlines, if your flight is
cancelled or a delay causes you to miss your connection, the odds of you getting on the next
flight are significantly reduced. When the future of a company and its employees is
dependent upon you arriving on time, business aviation is an important tool.

15
 CHAPTER-3
3.1 COMMON COMPARATIVE STUDY

Parameters Lancair IV Boeing 777 Antonov Gulfstream F-16

An-70 G550

Dimensions

Length 7.62 m 63.7 m 40.7 m 29.39 m 15.06 m

Height 2.44 m 18.51 m 16.38 m 7.87 m 4.88 m

Wing span 9.93 m 60.93 m 44.06 m 28.50 m 9.96 m

Aspect ratio 9.3 8.7 8.2 7.7 3.2

Wing area 9.1 m2 427.8 m2 394 m2 105.63 m2 27.86 m2

Specifications

Empty weight 907 kg 134800 kg 66230 kg 17917 kg 8570 kg

MTOW 1610 kg 247200 kg 145000 kg 41277 kg 19200 kg

Fuel weight 703 kg 94210 kg 38000 kg 18819 kg 7797 kg

Max. speed 595 kph 950 kph 780 kph 1086kph 2120 kph

Range 2494 km 9700 km 6600 km 12501 km 4220 km

Max. (R/C) 13.2 m/s 26.33 m/s 24.9 m/s 21 m/s 254 m/s

Max. (W/S) 176.9kg/m2 536.5kg/m2 498 kg/m2 390.8kg/m2 431 kg/m2

Service ceiling 8840 m 13140 m 12000 m 15545 m 15240 m

Takeoff run 457 m 2440 m 1800 m 1801 m -

16
 CHAPTER-4
4.1 COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET (BUSINESS JETS)

Parameters Airbus A340 Boeing B777 Embraer Lineage

Prestige VIP 1000

Type Long range Wide body Long range

corporate jet business jet business jet

Dimensions

Length 63.68 m 73.86 m 36.24 m

Height 16.74 m 18.49 m 10.28 m

Wing span 60.3 m 60.9 m 28.72 m

Aspect ratio 10.1 8.7 8.9

Wing area 361.6 m2 427 m2 92.5 m2

Wing

Sweep angle 300 31.60 250

Root chord 10.6 m 9.57 m 4.76 m

Tip chord 2.6 m 2.29 m 1.22 m

Mean chord 7.26 m 7.01 m 3.22 m

Flaps Single slotted Double slotted Double slotted

Taper ratio 0.25 0.24 0.25

594.6
Wing loading 760.5 m2 699.8 m2 m2

17
 Weights

Payload 50900 kg 59422 kg 12400 kg

Empty weight 130900 kg 167800 kg 28080 kg

MTOW 275000 kg 299370 kg 55000 kg

Fuel weight 114615 kg 135845 kg 21871 kg

Powerplant

Name CFM56-5C3 GE90-115B GE CF34-

10E

Thrust rating 145 kN (x4) 514 kN (x2) 82.3 kN (x2)

SFC 0.58 0.55 0.65

Dry weight 3990 kg 8283 kg 1700 kg

Performance

Max speed 914 kph 927 kph 890 kph

Cruise speed 880 kph 895 kph 847 kph

Max R/C 23 m/s 24.38 m/s 16.19 m/s

Service ceiling 12500 m 13140 m 12496 m

Range 14300 km 18700 km 8334 km

Takeoff run 3125 m 3045 m 1852

18
 CHAPTER-5
5.COMPARATIVE GRAPHS

5.1 Cruise Speed vs Range

5.2Cruise speed vs Altitude

19
5.3 Cruise Speed vs Wing Loading

5.4Cruise Speed vs Gross Weight

20
5.5 Cruise Speed vs Aspect Ratio

5.6 Range vs Aspect ratio

21
5.7 Wing loading vs Aspect ratio

5.8 Wing Loading vs Takeoff run

22
5.9 Wing Loading vs R/Cmax

5.10 Aspect ratio vs R/Cmax

23
 CHAPTER-6

6.WEIGHT ESTIMATION

MISSION PROFILE

6.1 MISSION PROFILE

A mission profile defines the phases when different events and environments occur during an
aircraft mission. By recording the time that is spent during each phase of a mission, the frequency of
associated maintenance activities can be adjusted to more accurately reflect aircraft usage

In the Meters application, create mission profile meters.

1. In the Flight Log Book Setup application, create a template for flight log books for a model and
configuration, and add mission profile meters to the template.
2. In the Flight Log Book application, create a flight log book, based on the mission profile template.
After each flight, a member of the crew creates a flight record in the flight log book, and enters
meter readings.
3. In the Task Card or Master Task Card application, associate relevant tasks with mission profile
meters and configure the frequency intervals and thresholds when tasks become due
Specify adjustment factors that define when to adjust frequency values and the recalculation
formula to apply when meter readings are updated .

24
 In a flight record, if the total time recorded for mission profile meters does not equal the total
hours for the flight, you can save the record but it is set as an invalid mission profile record. When
you save flight records, an asynchronous cron task updates the frequencies on associated task cards
and master task cards. When readings are updated in the Task Card application, if the total meter
readings do not equal the total flight hours for the aircraft, frequency intervals and thresholds are reset
to the valuesfor the worst-case scenario

Gross weight W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wempty

Wcrew = 800 kg ( 2 pilots + 6 cabin crew)

Wpayload = 4000 kg (40 passengers max)
Gross weight W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload  [1 – (WfW0 ) – (We W0 )]

Estimation of empty weight fraction (We W0 ) We W0

= A W0 c = 1.0595 x W0 -0.059

6.2 Estimation of fuel fraction

(WfW0)WfW0 = Ktf x (1 -Wn W0)

Wn W0 = W1 W0 x W2 W1 x …. x Wn-1 wn-2 x Wn Wn-1

Fuel fraction for warm up, taxing and take-off (W1 W0 ) = 0.98
Fuel fraction for climb (W2 W1 ) = 0.98
Fuel fraction for cruise (W3 W2 )

From Breguet range equation:

W3 W2 = exp { -R x TSFC / (3.6 x V x L/D) }To

calculate L/D
(L/D) m ax = 1/ (4 Cd0 k)
Cd0 = 0.005 a Rw Tf S-0.1 {1- (Clf/Rw )} [1- 0.2M + 0.12{M (cosa1/4 )1/2 / Af –
t/c}20 ] We have,M= 0.79

AR= 9.45

t/c = 0.14

25
Taper ratio, = 0.25 Sweep
angle, 1/4 = 250
Ne = 0 (no. of engines located on top of the wings)
Clf = 0 (assuming no laminar flow over the wing in cruise) Rw =
Swet /S = 5.5

Tf = 1.1 (a factor which is unity for streamlined shape) Af =

0.93 (airfoil factor)
= 1.013 (wing thickness ratio correction factor) f ( ) =
0.00592
Substituting,

Cd0 = 0.01875 [0.8868]

Cd0 = 0.0167

To calculate K
K = 1/πAR { 1+ 0.12M6 [((1+ {0.142 + f(a)A(10 t/ c)0.33 })/ (cosa1/4 )2 ) +{0.1 (3N e + 1)/ (4+
AR)0.8 }]
K = 0.03368 {1.029 [1.249 + 0.0125]}

K = 0.04372

(L/D)max = 1 / (4Cd0 k)
(L/D)max = 18.56

(L/D)cruise =86.6 % (L/D)max

(L/D)cruise = 16.0
W3 W2 = exp { -R x TSFC / (3.6 x V x L/D) }

= exp { - 11000 x 0.51 / (3.6 x 236.67 x 16.07)

W3 /W2 = 0.665
Fuel fraction for loiter (W4 /W3
W4 /W3 = exp { - E x TSFC / (L/D)}
= exp { - 0.5 x 0.41 / 18.56 }
W4 /W3 = 0.989
Fuel fraction for descent, landing and taxing (W5 /W4 ) = 0.98

26
W5 /W0 = W1 W0 x W2 W1 x W3 /W2 x W4 /W3 x W5 /w4
= 0.98 x 0.98 x 0.663 x 0.989 x 0.98
W5 /W0 = 0.617

WfW0 = Ktf x (1 -Wn W0 )

Wf/W0 = 1.06 x 1 – (0.617)
Wf/W0 = 0.406

Gross Weight, W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload  [1 – (WfW0 ) – (WeW0 )]

W0 = 4800 / [1 – 0.406 – 1.0595(W0 )-0.0598] Table 6.2.1

W0 Guessed (kg) We /W0 W0 Calculated (kg)

80000 0.539 87272
85000 0.537 84210
84500 0.5377 85257
84800 0.5375 84995
84900 0.53746 84907

Weight Distribution Chart

40%

64%

Figure 6.2.2

27
 7.WING LOADING
7.1 THRUST LOADING (T/W)

here are four forces that act on an aircraft in flight: lift, weight, thrust, and drag. The motion of
the aircraft through the air depends on the size of the various forces. The weight of an airplane is
determined by the size and materials used in the airplane's construction and on the payload and fuel that
the airplane carries. The thrust is determined by the size and type of propulsion system used on the
airplane and on the throttle setting selected by the pilot. Lift and drag are aerodynamic forces that
depend on the shape and size of the aircraft, air conditions, and the flight velocity.

C
T/W0 = AM max

= 0.267 (0.82)0.363
(T/W)take off = 0.248
(T/W)cruise = 1/(L/D)cruise
(T/W)cruise = 0.0622

7.2 WING LOADING (W/S)

In aerodynamics, wing loading is the total mass of an aircraft divided by the area of its
wing.[1] The stalling speed of an aircraft in straight, level flight is partly determined by its wing loading.
An aircraft with a low wing loading has a larger wing area relative to its mass, as compared to an
aircraft with a high wing loading.

The faster an aircraft flies, the more lift can be produced by each unit of wing area, so a smaller wing
can carry the same mass in level flight. Consequently, faster aircraft generally have higher wing
loadings than slower aircraft. This increased wing loading also increases takeoff and landing distances.
A higher wing loading also decreases maneuverability. The same constraints apply to winged biological
organisms.

Stall:
Vstall = Vapproach / 1.3
= 72.5 / 1.3
Vstall = 55.77 m/s
28
CLmax = CL =0 cos 1/4
= 3.4 cos 250

= 3.0

W/S = ( Vsta ll 2 CLmax )/2

= (1.225 x 55.772 x 3.08)

/2
W/S = 598.12 kg/m2 (at sea level)

Landing:
Ground roll distance, S = 80 (W/S) / ( CLma x )

(W/S) = S ( CLm ax )/ 80

= 662 x 0.82 x 3.08 / 80

(W/S)landing = 21 kg/m2

Cruise:

Skin friction coefficient, Cfe = 0.003 (subsonic)

Assuming Swet /S = 5.5

Parasite drag CDo = Cfe (Swet / Sref)

CDo = 0.0165

Oswald efficiency factor,

1/e = 1/e wing + 1/e fuselage + 0.05

ewing = 0.84 for an unswept wing of A = 9.45 and λ = 0.25 ewing for a
swept wing is,
ewing = ewing =0 cos ( -5)

= 0.84 cos (25-5)

= 0.7893
1/efuselage = 0.1

1/e = 1.267 + 0.1+ 0.05

Therefore, e = 0.707
29
At 10 km altitude, V= 236.67, = 0.41 kg/m2 q0 = ℓ
V2 / 2 = 1170.5 kg/m2

0.5
(W/S)optimum cruise = q0 (πeARCD0 /3)

= 1170.5 ( 0.432)
(W/S)optimum cruise = 506.2 kg/m2
-1 -1
(W/S)takeoff = (W/S)opt cruise x (W1/W0) x (W2/W1)

= 506.2 x 0.98-1 x 0.98-1

(W/S)take off = 527 kg/m2

600

500

400

300 W/S

200

100

0
takeoff cruise landing stall

Figure 7.2.1

30
 CHAPTER-8
8.AIRFOIL SELECTION

8.1 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY

An airfoil is a surface designed to obtain a desirable reaction from the air through
which it moves.

Figure 8.1.1

Chord line: Straight line connecting leading edge and trailing edge. Thickness:
Measured perpendicular to chord line as a % of it.
Camber: Curvature of section – perpendicular distance of section mid-points from chord
line as a % of it.

ANGLE OF ATTACK ( )

Figure 8.1.2

Angle of attack is the angle between the free stream and the chord line.

Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions, design/selection,

families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio, lift curve slope, characteristic
curves.

The following are airfoil categories:

31
Early on, airfoil selection was based on trial & error.

NACA 4 digit was introduced during the 1930’s.

NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards for increasedax .

NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of laminar flow.

The modern airfoil is mainly based upon need for improved aerodynamic characteristics at
speeds just below speed of sound

NACA 4 Digit
– 1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).
– 2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord fromleading edge (LE)).
-- 3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 5 Digit:
– 1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient.
– 2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber (as % of chordfrom LE).
– 4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 6 Digit:
– 1st digit: identifies series type.
--2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord fromleading edge (LE)).
– 3rd digit: indicates acceptable range of CL above/below design value for
satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).

– 4th digit (x0.1): design CL.

– 5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c

It becomes necessary to use high speed airfoils, i.e., the 6x series, which have been designed
to suit high subsonic cruise Mach numbers.

32
 8.2 NACA 63A-514 (Root airfoil)

Figure 8.2.1

Max thickness 14%

Figure 8.2.2

33
8.3 NACA 63-512 (Midspan airfoil)

Figure 8.3.1

Max thickness 12.5%

Max camber 2.2%

Figure 8.3.2
34
 8.4 NACA 63-310 (Tip airfoil)

Figure 8.4.1

Max thickness 10%

Max camber 1.1%

Figures 8.4.2

35
8.5 MAXIMUM THICKNESS (T/C)

Figures 8.5.1
Maximum thickness of the airfoil desired to produce max Cl is 14%
With a wing sweep angle of 250 , the max lift coefficient can be obtained from Clmax
Cl =0 cos 1/4

= 3.4 cos 250

= 3.08 (at 400 flap settings)

Clcruise = 2W/ ( V2S)

= 2 x 598 x 9.81 / 0.41 x 236.672 )

= 0.511

8.6 TAPER RATIO

Figures 8.

36
 Wing area, S = 84907 / 598.12 = 142 m2

Wing span, b = (9.45 x 142) = 36.63 m

Root chord, cR = 2 x 142 / [36.63 x (1 + 0.25)] …. ( = 0.25)

= 6.2 m

Tip chord, cT = 0.25 x 6.2

= 1.55 m

Mean aerodynam ic chord (mac) = (2/3) [(1+ + 2 )/(1+ )] c = 4.34 m

8.7 WING SWEEP

Figures 8.7.1

LE = c/4 + [(1- ) / AR (1+ )]

= 250 + 0.75 / (9.45 x 1.25)

= 25.060
Meff = M cos LE

= 0.79 cos25.060

37
8.8 Dihedral

( ) is the angle of the wing with respect to the horizontal plane when seen in the front view.
Dihedral of the wing affects the lateral stability of the airplane. A value of Γ = 50 is chosen.

Figures 8.8.1
Wing sweep effect on dCL/d

dCL/d = 2.π.AR / [2+ {4+(AR. ) 2. (1+tan2 t/c / 2)}]

= 2 x π x 9.45 / [2+ {4+(9.45 x 0.7)2 x (1+tan2 25 / 0.72 )}]

= 59.376 / 5.269

= 11.27

38
8.9 WINGLETS

Blended winglets are used in this heavy business jet.

A blended winglet is attached to the wing with smooth curve instead of a sharp angle and is
intended to reduce interference drag at the wing/winglet junction.

These winglets which stand 2.5m tall each offers 5 to 7% reduction in cruise drag
(induced drag) and increase in wing area and aspect ratio without geometrically
increasing the wing span which results in 8 to 10% increase in range.

39
 8.10 WING PARAMETERS

Design Parameters Values

Wing loading (W/S) 598 kg/m2

Wing area (S) 142 m2

Aspect ratio (AR) 9.45

Wing span (b) 36.63 m

Taper ratio ( ) 0.25

Root chord (c R) 6.2 m

Tip chord (c T ) 1.55 m

Mean chord (c m) 4.34 m

Design CL 0.511

Sweepback angle ( ) 250

Dihedral angle ( ) 50

40
 CHAPTER-9
9.DRAG ESTIMATION

In fluid dynamics, the drag coefficient (commonly denoted as or ) is a dimensionless quantity that
is used to quantify the drag or resistance of an object in a fluid environment, such as air or water. It is used
the drag equation in which a lower drag coefficient indicates the object will have
less aerodynamic or hydrodynamic drag. The drag coefficient is always associated with a particular surface
area.

The drag coefficient of any object comprises the effects of the two basic contributors to fluid
dynamic drag: skin friction and form drag. The drag coefficient of a lifting airfoil or hydrofoil also includes
the effects of lift-induced drag.[4][5] The drag coefficient of a complete structure such as an aircraft also
includes the effects of interference drag

The drag polar is expressed as

2
CD = CD0 + KC L

Where K = 1 / πAe

e = Oswald efficiency factor

Parasite drag CDo = Cfe (Swet / Sref)

Where, Cfe = equivalent skin friction drag coefficient ; Swet =

Wetted area of the airplane.
Swet /Sref = 5.5

The estimation of K is carried out next and then the value of CD0 is deduced using the earlier
calculation that (L/D)max = 18.56

ESTIMATION OF K:

Oswald efficiency factor,

1/e = 1/e wing + 1/e fuselage + 0.05
ewing = 0.84 for an unswept wing of A = 9.45 and λ = 0.25ewing for a
swept wing is,

ewing = ewing =0 cos ( -5)

= 0.84 cos (25-5)

41
 = 0.7893
1/efuselage = 0.1

1/e = 1.267 + 0.1+ 0.05

Therefore, e = 0.707

K = 1 / πAe

= 1 / π x 9.45 x 0.707

= 0.0476

(L/D)max = 1 / 2 (CD0 K)

CD0 = 1 / 4K (L/D)2 max

= 1 / 4 x 0.0476 x 18.562

= 0.0165

Cfe = 0.0165 / 5.5

= 0.003
The drag polar is:
CD = 0.0165 + 0.0476 CL2 Drag, D = (1/2) V2 SCD

Takeoff:
= 1.225 kg/m 3 V
= 1.15 Vstall

= 1.15 (55.77)

= 64.13 m/s S
= 142 m2

Drag, D = 0.5 x 1.225 x 64.132 x 142 x (0.0165 + 0.0476 x 1.52 )

D takeoff = 44.21 kN

Landing:

= 1.225 kg/m 3 V
= 1.3 Vstall
42
 = 72.5 m/s

Drag, D = 0.5 x 1.225 x 72.52 x 142 x (0.0165 + 0.0476 x 3.082 )

DLanding = 213.9 kN
Cruise:

= 0.466 (at 10 km altitude)

V = 236.67 m/s S
= 142 m2

Drag, D = 0.5 x 0.41 x 236.672 x 142 x (0.0165 + 0.0476 x 0.5112 )

D cruise = 47.17 kN

also, (T/W)cruise = 1 / (L/D)cruise T/W

= 0.0622
T = 0.0622 x (84907 x 9.81 )
Tcruise = 51.81 kN

In straight and level flight, D ~ T

Here, Dcruise and Tcruise calculated are almost equal.

43
 10 POWERPLANT SELECTION

10.1 ENGINE SELECTION:

The thrust loading based on sea level static thrust is:

T/W = 0.248 ……. (from thrust loading calculation) Thus,
the thrust required is,
Tre q = 0.248 x 84907 x 9.81 = 206.57 kN

It is observed that the maximum thrust requirements occurs from Vmax

consideration i.e. Tmax = 206.57 kN.

As a twin engine configuration has been adopted, the above requirement implies a thrust per
engine of 103.28 kN

The above comparison of high bypass turbofan engines shows the competition between
CFM LEAP-1C and PW1000-G in various parameters. Unlike fighter aircraft, business jets or any
airliner in that case looks for an important parameter which is lowest specific fuel consumption.
Though LEAP-1C gives a pressure ratio higher than PW1000-G, it contains more number of stages
which adds weight to the aircraft. On the other hand, PW1000G has a lowest TSFC of 0.39/hr.

PW1000-G will be designed with a variable inlet duct and a Gearing system (Geared
turbofan), that will allow changes in bypass ratio by controlling the rpm of the fan, whenever
required as per the flight phase. In addition to the geared turbofan, the current design includes a
variable-area nozzle, which offers reduction in noise. It also offers 15% reduction in CO 2 emission
and 55% reduced NO x margin in accordance with CAEP/6.

Taking these advantages in consideration, PW1000-G is selected.Selected

Engine series of PW1000G family:

PW1124G
PW1127G
PW1133G

44
10.2 DETAILS OF THE SELECTED ENGINE:

PRATT & WHITNEY PW1000G

Figures 10.2.1

The Pratt & Whitney PW1000G is a high-bypass geared turbofan engine family, currently
selected as the exclusive engine for the Bombardier CSeries, Mitsubishi Regional Jet (MRJ),
Embraer's second generation E-Jets, and as an ultra efficient option for the Airbus A320neo.

FAN:

A large, light-weight fan moves well over 90% of air around the core, delivering a very
quiet engine with very low fuel burn.

COMPRESSORS AND TURBINES:

A compact, high-speed low-pressure system accomplishes the same work in fewer

stages. That means fewer airfoils, fewer life-limited parts, and ultimately lower maintenance
costs.

CORE:

The supercharged low-pressure system allows the advanced PurePower engine core –
optimized for high-cycle durability – to run cooler than the closest competition, with fewer
stages, and without expensive materials. That means longer time on wing and low

45
10.3 PW1000G

Figures 10.3.1

COMPONENTS:
COMPRESSOR: Axial flow, 1-stage geared fan, 3-stage LP, 8-stage HP
COMBUSTORS: Annular combustion chamber

TURBINE: Axial, 2-stage HP, 3-stage LP

GEARED TURBOFAN:

In a conventional turbofan engine, a single shaft (the "low-pressure" or LP shaft)

connects the fan, the low-pressure compressor and the low-pressure turbine. A second concentric
shaft connects the high-pressure compressor and high-pressure turbine.

In this configuration, the maximum tip speed for the fan limits the rotational speed for the
LP shaft and thus the LP compressor and turbine. At high bypass ratios (and thus high radius
ratios) the tip speeds of the LP turbine and LP compressor must be relatively low, which means
extra compressor and turbine stages are required to keep the average stage loadings and,
therefore, overall component efficiencies to an acceptable level.

In a geared turbofan, a reduction gearbox between the fan and the LP shaft allows the
latter to run at a higher rotational speed thus enabling fewer stages to be used in both the LP
turbine and the HP compressor, increasing efficiency and reducing weight. Also the weight saved
on turbine and compressor stages is offset to some extent by the mass of the gearbox.

The Pure Power engine allows for a more efficient arrangement: a big, slow fan shoving air
46
 CHAPTER-11

LANDING GEAR DESIGN

The landing gear supports the aircraft when it is not flying, allowing it to take off, land and
usually to taxi without damage. Landing gear placement is essential for ground stability and
controllability. A good landing gear position must provide superior handling characteristics and
must not allow over- balancing during takeoff or landing.

11.1 Landing gear arrangement:

Landing gears normally come in two types: conventional or "taildragger" landing gear,
where there are two main wheels towards the front of the aircraft and a single, much smaller,
wheel or skid at the rear; or tricycle landing gear, where there are two main wheels (or wheel
assemblies) under the wings and a third smaller wheel in the nose.

To decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings and/or fuselage with wheels
flush against the surface or concealed behind doors; this is called retractable gear.

With a tricycle landing gear, the c.g is ahead of the main wheels, so the aircraft is stable on
the ground. It improves forward visibility on the ground and permits a flat cabin floor for
passengers and cargo loading.

Thus retractable tricycle landing gear system is selected.

Figures 11.1.1
47
11.2 Tyre sizing:

The “wheel” is the circular metal object upon which the rubber “tyre” is mounted. The
“brake” inside the wheel slows the aircraft by increasing the rolling friction. However, the term
“wheel” is frequently used to mean the entire wheel/brake/tyre assembly.

The tyres are sized to carry the weight of the weight of the aircraft. Typically the main
tyres carry about 90% of the total aircraft weight. Nose tyres carry only about 10% of the static
load but experience higher dynamic loads during landing.

The nose gear is of double‐bogey type with two wheels. The main gear consists of two sets
of wheels (wing‐retracted) each of multi‐bogey type with 4 wheels each.

11.3 Nose gear:

Load on nose gear = 0.1W0

= 8490.7 kg

Load per tyre, Lt = 4245.35 kg = 9359.4 lb

.......................
Wheel diameter = 2.69Lt 0.251 (from Raymer)

= 21.9 in = 0.56 m
0.216 .........
Wheel width = 1.17L
t (from Raymer)
= 7.11 in = 0.18 m

Tyre size, 27 x 7.75

Tyre diameter, d = 27 in = 0.686 m

Tyre width, w = 7.75 in = 0.197 m
Rolling radius, Rr = 11.5 in = 0.3 m
Pavement contact area, Ap = 2.3 x (wd) x (0.5d – Rr)
= 66.54 in2
Tyre pressure = 9359.4 / 66.54 = 140.6 psi

11.4 Main gear:

Load on main gear = 0.9 W0

= 76416.3 kg
Load per tyre, Lt = 19104 kg = 42117.3 lb
48
 ..........
Wheel diameter = 2.69Lt 0.251 (from Raymer)

= 31.94 in = 0.81 m

....................
Wheel width = 1.17L 0.216t (from Raymer)

= 9.83 in = 0.25 m

Selecting Goodrich tyre of size 40x14.5 Tyre

diameter d = 40 in = 1 m
Tyre width, w = 14.5 in = 0.37 m Rolling
radius, Rr = 16.3 in = 0.414 m
Pavement contact area, Ap = 2.3 x (wd) x (0.5d – Rr)
= 205 in2
Tyre pressure = 42117.3 / 205 = 205 psi

Wheel base = 17.17 m

Wheel track = 5.71 m (incl. shock struts)

No one would deny that the landing gear is a vital component of any aircraft. But how much
attention do you pay to it when flying? Technology and safety have significantly improved in this area,
but incidents still occur. Get up close, and these huge structures, supporting enormous weight
and landing forces, are amazing pieces of engineering.

Landing gear is the core support of the aircraft when parked, taxiing, taking off, or landing. The
most familiar form of gear involves of wheels. However, planes can also be fitted with floats for water
services or skis for operating on snow.

CHAPTER-12

49
 CHAPTER-12
12. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
Performance is a term used to describe the ability of an aircraft to accomplish certain things that
make it useful for certain purposes. For example, the ability of an aircraft to land and take off in a very short
distance is an important factor to the pilot who operates in and out of short, unimproved airfields. The
ability to carry heavy loads, fly at high altitudes at fast speeds, and/or travel long distances is essential for
the performance of airline and executive type aircraft.

The primary factors most affected by performance are the takeoff and landing distance, rate of climb,
ceiling, payload, range, speed, maneuverability, stability, and fuel economy. Some of these factors are often
directly opposed: for example, high speed versus short landing distance, long range versus great payload,
and high rate of climb versus fuel economy. It is the preeminence of one or more of these factors that
dictates differences between aircraft and explains the high degree of specialization found in modern aircraft.

12.1 TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE:

Distance from rest to clearance of obstacle in flight path and usually considered in two parts:

- Ground roll - rest to lift-off (SLO)

- Airborne distance – lift off to specified height of 50ft
The aircraft will accelerate up to lift-off speed (VLO = about 1.2 x Vstall) when it will then be
rotated.

Ground roll take-off distance is given by

SLO = 1.21W / g SCLm a x (T/W ) ….. (from ‘Aircraft Performance & Design’by John. D
Anderson)
= 1.21 x 84907x9.81 / (9.81 x 1.225 x 142 x1.5 x 0.248)

…(CLmax for takeoff = 1.5, from airfoil selection)

SLO = 1587.67 m

12.2 CLIMBING:

Consider aircraft in a steady unaccelerated climb with vertical climb speed of Vc

𝐿=𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾C

50
 Figures 12.2.1

VC = (T - D)Vstall / W

R/Cmax = VC = (2x206570 – 44210) x 55.77 / (84907 x 9.81)

R/Cmax = 24.7 m/s

12.3 LEVEL TURN:

In the case of a commercial transport aircraft, it is capable of performing only a constant

altitude banked turn and not any vertical pull-up or pull-down manoeuvres.

In steady condition:

T = DForce balance gives:

W = Lcos

Fr = mV2 / r = Lsin

tan = V2 / Rg

So for given speed and turn radius there is only one correct bank angle for a co- ordinate (no
sideslip) turn.

In the turn, n = L/W = sec > 1 and is therefore determined by bank angle.
Turn radius (R) and turn rate ( ) are good indicators of aircraft manoeuvrability.
V2 / (Rg) = tan = (sec2 - 1) = (n2 - 1)

R = V2/ (g (n2 - 1))

51
And = V/R = (g (n2 - 1)) / VW =
Lcos

Let = 600 n =
𝐿/𝑊 = 2

R = V2 / (g (n2 - 1))

= 236.672 / (9.81 x (22 – 1))

R = 3296.5 m

= V/R
= 236.67 / 3296.5
= 0.072 rad/s

12.4 GLIDING:
The thrust can be assumed to be zero while the aircraft is gliding

F igures 12.4.1

= tan-1 [1/ (L/D)]

= tan-1 [ 1 / 18.57]
= 3.080 is the glide angle.

12.5 LANDING PERFORMANCE:

APPROACH & LANDING:
- Airborne approach at constant glide angle (around 30 ) and at constant speed.

52
 - Flare - transitional maneuver with airspeed reduced from about 1.3 Vstall down to
touch-down speed.

- Ground roll - from touch-down to rest.

Ground roll distance (ST D):

ST D = 1.69 W2 / 𝑔𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 [D + r (W-L)]

r is higher than for take-off since brakes are applied - use r = 0.4 for paved surface.

ST D = 1.69 x (84907 x 9.81)2 / (9.81 x 1.225 x 142 x 3.08 x [213976 +

0.4(832937.67 – 0.8 x 832937.67)]

Landing distance is STD = 795 m

Performance
Values Units
Parameters

Takeoff distance 1587.67 m

(R/C)max 24.7 m/s

Turn radius 3296.5 m

Turn rate 0.072 rad/s

Glide angle 3.08 deg

Landing distance 795 m

Figure 12.5.1

53
 CHAPTER-13
13.CENTRE OF GRAVITY ESTIMATION

The weight of an airplane changes in the flight due to consumption of fuel and dropping
off / release of armament or supplies. Further, the payload and the amount of fuel carried by the
airplane may vary from flight to flight.

These factors lead to change in the location of the centre of gravity (c.g.) of the airplane. The shift
in the c.g location affects the stability and controllability of the airplane.

The weight of entire airplane can be sub divided into empty weight and useful load. The empty
weight can be further subdivided into:
(i) structures group
(ii) propulsion group and
(iii) equipment group.

13.1 THE STRUCTURES GROUP CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING COMPONENTS:

- wing

- horizontal tail /canard

- vertical tail

- fuselage

- landing gear - main and nose/tail wheel

- nacelle, engine pod and air intake

The propulsion group consists of the following components:

- engine as installed

- reduction gear

- propeller for piston and turboprop engines

- cooling provisions
54
 - engine controls

The equipment group consists of the following items:

- flight controls

- auxiliary power unit (APU)

- instruments

- hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, armament, air conditioning, anti-icing

- avionics

- furnishings in passenger airplanes

The useful load consists of:

(i) Crew
(ii) Fuel - usable and trapped
(iii) Oil
Payload - passengers, cargo and baggage in transport airplane; ammunition, expendable weapons and other
items in military airplanes

Approximate group weights method:

Figures13.1.1

55
The aim of estimating the weights of individual components and their c.g. is to obtain
thelocation of the c.g. of the airplane. Then, the shift in the airplane c.g. is examined under
various conditions.

At this stage of preliminary design, the weights of individual components are estimated using
simpler method like using the table above.

The gross weight of the airplane estimated is 84907 kg

The weights and c.g. locations of various components are estimated below:

13.2 Wing:

S = 142 m2 b
= 36.63 m

bsemi = (36.63/2) – (3.76/2) = 16.435 mcR =

6.2 m
cT = 1.55 m

Fuselage width = 3.76 m mac

= 4.34 m

Location of L.E of mac from L.E of wing = 0.45 m

S(exposed)wing = 142 – (6.2x3.76) = 118.7 m2
From the table, the weight of the wing is, Wwing
= 118.7 x 49 = 5816.3 kg

Wwing / W0 = 6.8%
From the table, c.g of the wing is at 40% of mac

Hence, the location of the c.g. of wing from the leading edge of the root chord is, 0.45 +
0.4x4.34 = 2.186 m

13.2.1 Horizontal tail:

btail = 14.35 m
Stail = 32.8 m2 cR
,h.tail = 3.38 m
cT, htail = 1.18 m
56
mac, htail = 2.29 m

S(exposed)tail = 27.88 m2
From the table,
Weight of Horizontal tail = 27 x 27.88 = 752.76 kgWht /
W0 = 0.887%

From the table, c.g of the h.tail is at 40% of mac.

Hence, the location of the c.g. of h.tail from the leading edge of the root chord of h.tail is,
0.45 + 0.4 x 2.29 = 1.37 m

13.2.2 Vertical tail:

The contribution of dorsal fin to the weight of v.tail is ignored at this stage of preliminary design.

Sv.tail = 26.40 m2 From the table,

Weight of vertical tail = 27 x 26.40 = 712.8 kg

Wvt /W0 = 0.84%

From the table, c.g of the v.tail is at 40% of mac. Mean

aerodynamic chord of v.tail = 3.7 m

Hence, the location of the c.g. of v.tail from the leading edge of the root chord of v.tail is
1.45 + 0.4 x 3.7 = 2.93

13.2.3 Engine:

The weight of each engine is 3796 kg

From the table, the installed weight of two engines is, Wengine =
1.3 x (2 x 3796) = 9869.6 kg
Wengine / W0 = 11.62 %

For gas turbine engines the location of c.g. from the engine inlet is between 30 to 45% of
engine length.

In the present case the engine length is 3 m.

The engines are located at 3.06 m from the wing root and the inlet is at 2.5 m from wing
leading edge.

57
Hence, the location of c.g of engine from L.E of the wing is,

= -2.5 + (0.4 x 3) = -1.3 m i.e., 1.3 m ahead of the L.E of root chord of wing
13.2.4 Landing gear:

From the table, the weight of the nose wheel plus the main landing gear is 4.3% of W0 . i.e.,
0.043 x 84907 = 3651 kg

Out of this total weight, the nose wheel and main wheel account for 15% and 85%
respectively.

Hence, nose wheel weighs 0.15 x 3651 = 547.65 kg And the

main wheels weigh 0.85 x 3651 = 3103.35 kg.

With regard to the locations of the c.g.’s of nose wheel and main wheels, it is recalled that
the nose wheel and main wheels share respectively 10 % and 90 % of the airplane weight.

Wheel base is 17.17 m.

Hence, the c.g. of the nose wheel is 0.9 x 17.17 = 15.45 m ahead of the c.g. ofthe airplane.

The c.g. of the main wheels, as a group, is:

= 0.1 x 17.17 = 1.717 m behind the c.g. of the airplane.

13.2.5 Fuselage:

An approximate estimation of fuselage wetted area is,

= 0.75 x perimeter of fuselage x length of fuselage

= 0.75 x π x 3.76 x 42

= 372.1 m2

(Wfuse + Wsyst )/ W0 = (Wempty/W0 ) – [(Ww/W0 ) + (Wht /W0 ) + (Wvt /W0 ) + (We/W0 )

+ (Wlg/W0 )]

(Wfuse + Wsyst )/ W0 = 0.5375 – (0.068 + 0.00887 + 0.0084 + 0.1162 + 0.043) (Wfuse + Wsyst ) =
0.2932 x 84907 = 24894.73 kg
From the table, the c.g of fuselage and systems is, 0.45 x length of fuselage
= 0.45 x 42 =18.9 m from the nose of the fuselage.
Wing location and c.g. of the airplane:

58
 Item W (kg) x (m) W.x (kg.m)

5816.3xlew +
12714.43
Wing 5816.3 xlew +2.186

752.76xlew
H.tail 752.76 xlew+1.37 +1031.28

712.8xlew +
2088.5
V.tail 712.8 xlew + 2.93

9869.6xlew –
12830.48
Engines 9869.6 xlew - 1.3

547.65xlew –
8461.2
Nose wheel 547.65 xlew – 15.45

3103.35xlew
Main wheel 3103.35 xlew + 1.717 +5328.45

Fuselage & syst 24894.73 18.9

470510.4

20800.9xlew +
512964.34
45696.89

Figures 13.7

59
 CHAPTER-14

14.STABILITY & CONTROL

14.1 STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY:

Figures 14.1.1

For the aircraft configuration adopted,

1.5/4.34 = 0.3456ĉ;
ĉ = 4.34 m

( Cm/ C L) fuse,nac = 0.042 ;

/ = 0.4 vHT =
0.48 ;

t = 0.9

For the wing, airfoil selected is NACA 63A-514

CL/ = 0.125 deg-1 ….. (refer lift curve plot in airfoil selection) xac =
0.25ĉ

For the tail, airfoil selected is NACA 0012

CL/ = 0.1 deg-1

For the longitudinal stick‐fixed static stability of the aircraft, we have ( Cm/ CL)stickfix ed = (xcg
– xac) + ( Cm / CL)fuse,nac – [(at vHT t /aw) (1- / )]

60
 = (0.3456 – 0.25) + 0.042 – 0.20736
( Cm / CL)stickfixed = - 0.06976
The negative value of ( Cm / CL)stickfixed indicates that the airplane has longitudinal stick-fixed
static stability.

Figures 14.1.2

Longitudinal stability

Stick fixed Neutral point:

When the value of ( Cm / C L ) stickfixe d reduces to zero, the location of the

C.G is called the Neutral Point.

N0 = (xac/ĉ) - ( Cm/ CL)fuse,nac + [(at vHT t /aw) (1- / )]

= 0.25 – 0.042 + 0.20736

N0 =0.41536

Static margin, = N0 – (xcg/ĉ)

= 0.41536 – 0.3456
Static margin = 0.07

vHT = 0.48
61
 14.2 STICK FIXED LONGITUDINAL CONTROL:

t = 0.9

The rate at which the pitching moment coefficient of the aircraft changes with change in
elevator deflection is called the Elevator control power.

14.3 DIRECTIONAL STABILITY:

Directional stability of the airplane is a measure of its tendency to produce restoring

moments when disturbed from an equilibrium angle of sideslip – usually taken as zero. It is
measured quantitatively by the variation of yawing moment coefficient with sideslip angle.

Cn = N / q S b
In general Cn / should be negative for the airplane to have static directional stability. All the
components of the aircraft contribute to the stability coefficient Cn / .

Contribution from Wing:

The wing contribution to directional stability is quite small, as the cross wind
effects on the wing are very small. The critical factor is the sweepback ( ) ofthe wing.

( Cn / )wing = - 0.00006

For the aircraft, = 250

( Cn / )wing = - 0.0003 deg-1

Contribution from Fuselage and Nacelle:

( Cn / )fuse,nace = (0.96K / 57.3) (Sf/S w) (Lf/b) (h1/h2 ) 1/2 (w2/w1 )1/3

where, K is an empirical constant which is obtained from the graph below, K = 0.12

Sf = 157.92 m2 = Projected area of fuselage

h1, w1 : Height and width of fuselage at Lf /4 in m h2 , w2 :

Height and width of fuselage at 3Lf /4 in m h1 = h2 = 3.76 m
w1 = w2 = 3.76 m

( Cn / )fuse,nace = (0.96K / 57.3) (Sf/S w) (Lf/b) (h1/h2 ) 1/2 (w2/w1 )1/3

62
Thus the fuselage is destabilizing the aircraft.

Figures 14.3.1
Contribution of Vertical Tail:

The vertical tail is the stabilizing component in the aircraft as far as directional stability is
concerned.

( Cn / )v.tail = - av vv v (1 - )
( Cn / )v.tail = ( Cn / )v.t + ( Cn / )slipstream interferen ce

For the vertical tail, av

= 0.1 deg-1

vv = 0.05

v = 0.9
( Cn / )v.t = - 0.0045

( Cn / )slipstrea m interfe rence = -0.0003 (Perkins)

( Cn / )v.tail = -0.0048 deg-1
63
( Cn / )airplane = ( Cn / )win g + ( Cn / )fuse,nace + ( Cn / )v.tail

( Cn / )airplane = - 0.00254 deg-1

Directional Control:

The rate at which the yawing moment coefficient of the aircraft changes with change in
rudder deflection is called the Rudder control power.

( Cn / r) = - av vv v r

For rudder, r = 0.4

( Cn/ r) = - 0.0018 deg-1

Directional stability

Figures 14.3.2
LATERAL STABILITY:

When a small vertical disturbance causes the aircraft to roll to one side, as
such, the airplane will continue to roll at the same constant velocity. As such, the airplane is
neutrally stable in roll. However, due to the development of sideslip, the lift distribution over
the wings is altered, tending to produce restoring moments which restore the aircraft to its
original state. This effect is generally

64
called the Dihedral Effect. Lateral stability of the airplane is a measure of this tendency to
produce restoring moments when disturbed in roll.

The rolling moment coefficient is:Cl = L / (q s b)

In general, Cl / should be positive for the airplane to have static lateral stability. All the
components of the aircraft contribute to the stability coefficient C l / .

Contribution from Wing:

The wing dihedral angle has a linear variation with the stability coefficient.
There is also an additional component due to the tip shape. The stability coefficient is
given by

( Cl / )wing = 0.000 2 + ( Cl / )tip-shape + ( Cl / )sweepback

where - dihedral angle in degrees = 50

( Cl / )tip-shape = 0.0002 deg-1 (Perkins)

( Cl / )sweepback = -0.5 ( Cn / )wing

= 0.00015 deg-1
( Cl / )wing = 0.00135 deg-1

Since the wing configuration is low‐wing,

( Cl / )interference = - 0.0008 deg-1 (Perkins)

Contribution of Vertical Tail:

The vertical tail is stabilizing as far as directional stability is concerned. ( Cl /

)v.tail = av vv v (Zv /lv )
For the vertical tail,

Zv = 4.78 m

lv = 17.75 m

( Cl / )v.tail = 0.00121183
Since the wing configuration is low‐wing,

( Cl / )interference = 0.00016 deg-1

( Cl / )airplan e = ( Cl / )wing + ( Cl / )v.tail + ( Cl / )interference
( Cl / )airplane = 0.001922

65
 CHAPTER-15
15. 3-VIEW DIAGRAM

Top view

FIGURE 15.1

66
 Side view

FIGURE 15.2

Front view

FIGURE 15.3

67
 CHAPTER-16
16. V-n DIAGRAM

16.1 INTRODUCTION

Figures 16.1.1

In aerodynamics, the flight envelope defines operational limits for an aerial platform with
respect to maximum speed and load factor given a particular atmospheric density. The flight
envelope is the region within which an aircraft can operate safely.

If an aircraft flies 'outside the envelope' it may suffer damage; the limits should therefore
never be exceeded. The term has also been adopted in other fields of engineering when referring to
the behaviour of a system which is operating beyond its normal design specification, i.e. 'outside the
flight envelope' (even if the system is not even actually flying).

Visual Representation. There are several types of aircraft flight envelope diagram, normally
depicting the relation between one flight parameter and another. The most common diagram includes
airspeed (normally expressed in Mach) and flight altitude variation (V-h) or airspeed and load
variation (V-n).

This second diagram is the most important and common plot used as it shows structural load
limits as a function of airspeed. This flight envelope is normally defined during the design phase. A

68
 chart of speed versus load factor (or V-n diagram) is a way of showing the limits of an aircraft's

performance. It shows how much load factor can be safely achieved at different airspeeds.

The definition and analysis of the V-n diagram is critical during the design of an aircraft as it affects the
operation of the aircraft. A manoeuvre or gust of wind may temporarily force an aircraft outside its safe
16.2V-n FLIGHT ENVELOPE

The following is a basic V-n diagram (sometimes referred to as a V-g diagram) including the most
important features of such diagrams. The diagram does not belong to a specific airplane. In this example the
V-n diagram represents airspeed (horizontal axis) against load factor (vertical axis). In more complex
aircraft the diagram may vary.Load Factor. An aircraft structure is designed to be able to withstand the
forces exerted upon it during flight; together, these forces are calculated as the load factor and may vary
depending on the phase of flight; the load factor is defined as the relationship between lift and the weight of
the aircraft:

where

n = Load factor
L = Lift
W = Weight
The load factor is equal to 1 when the aircraft is static on the ground, with only gravity acting upon
it. The load factor can therefore be defined as a multiple of gravitational acceleration g.

There are various important features of the V-n diagram:

The normal stall speed (point A) is defined by the aerodynamic characteristics of the platform. In the
example above the aircraft is capable of developing n=1 (1g) at 62 mph, which is the wing level stall
speed of the aircraft.

The intersection of the positive limit of the load factor and the line of maximum lift (point B)
69
defines the maximum airspeed that allows full manoeuverability. This point is called the
manoeuver speed or corner speed. At lower speeds, the structure cannot be overstressed as it will
stall before reaching the limit load factor. At the manoeuver airspeed the aircraft's limit load factor
will be reached at the lowest possible airspeed . At higher speeds, possible structural damage may
be caused. In the diagram above, the manoeuvering speed is reached in n=4.4g and IAS=137 mph.

The intersection of the negative limit load factor and line of maximum negative lift capability
(point C) defines the maximum airspeed that allows full manoeuverability in a negative lift
situation. As the graph shows, airspeeds greater than point C provide sufficient negative lift to
damage the structure.

The airspeed necessary to produce a given negative load factor is higher than that to produce the
same positive load factor.

To ensure structural safety, a maximum structural cruise speed should be defined. It is normally
defined as a reference point for every aircraft; in the example above it is 180mph. Additionally, the
diagram defines the never exceed speed or diving speed. This is the maximum speed (normally
1.25 Cruise speed) before the aircraft enters the region where structural failure is possible.

When an aircraft is operated in the regions called Structural Damage or Structural Failure,
unacceptable permanent deformation of the primary structure and a high rate of fatigue may take
place. Operation above the limit load factor must therefore be avoided in normal operation.

In order to figure out what the loads are on an airplane, first we gather a bunch of data and then
work up a V-n diagram. The “V” stand for velocity and the “n” stands for the maximum positive
limit G load that the airplane can survive. Once we have that, we know how many Gs the plane can
see and at what speeds, and then we can work up the loads on the wings and tail. Other loads like
the ground handling loads and the engine mount loads are only partially affected by the V-n
diagram, but even there, its influence is felt.

The V-n diagram is the envelope that pilots talk about when they say that they are “opening up the
envelope.” The speeds it shows are the speeds that govern how the pilot operates the airplane.

70
 CHAPTER-17
EMPENNAGE SELECTION

And their c.g. is to obtain the location of the c.g. of the airplane. Then, the shift in the airplane
examined under various conditions.
At this stage of preliminary design, the weights of individual components are estimated using simpler
method like using the table above.
17.1 Introduction for Empennage
The weight of an airplane changes in the flight due to consumption of fuel and dropping off release
of armament or supplies. Further, the payload and the amount of fuel carried by the airplane may vary from
flight to flight.
These factors lead to change in the location of the centre of gravity (c.g.) of the airplane. The shift in the
c.g location affects the stability and controllability of the airplane.
The weight of entire airplane can be sub divided into empty weight and useful
load. The empty weight can be further subdivided into:
(i) structures group
(ii) propulsion group and
(iii) equipment group.

The structures group consists of the following components:

- wing
- horizontal tail /canard
- vertical tail
- fuselage
- landing gear
- main and nose/tail wheel
- nacelle, engine pod and air intake
The propulsion group consists of the following components:
- engine as installed
- reduction gear
- propeller for piston and turboprop engines
- cooling provisions
- engine controls
71
 - fuel system and tanks
The equipment group consists of the following items:
- flight controls
- auxiliary power unit (APU)
- instruments - hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, armament, air conditioning, anti-icing
- avionics
- furnishings in passenger airplanes
The useful load consists of:
(i) Crew
(ii) Fuel - usable and trapped
(iii) Oil
(iv) Payload - passengers, cargo and baggage in transport airplane; ammunition, expendable weapons
and other items in military airplanes

The aim of estimating the weights of individual components

The gross weight of the airplane estimated is 84907 kg
The weights and c.g. locations of various components are estimated below:

17.2Wing:
S = 142 m 2
b = 36.63 m
bsemi = (36.63/2) – (3.76/2) = 16.435 m
72
 cR = 6.2 m
cT = 1.55 m
Fuselage width = 3.76 m
mac = 4.34 m
Location of L.E of mac from L.E of wing = 0.45 m
S(exposed)wing = 142 – (6.2x3.76) = 118.7 m2
From the table, the weight of the wing is,
Wwing = 118.7 x 49 = 5816.3 kg
Wwing / W0 = 6.8%
From the table, c.g of the wing is at 40% of mac
Hence, the location of the c.g. of wing from the leading edge of the root chord
is, 0.45 + 0.4x4.34 = 2.186 m

17.3 Horizontal tail:

btail = 14.35 m
Stail = 32.8 m2
cR ,h.tail = 3.38 m
cT, htail = 1.18 m
mac, htail = 2.29 m
S(exposed)tail = 27.88 m2
From the table,
Weight of Horizontal tail = 27 x 27.88 = 752.76 kg
Wht / W0 = 0.887%
From the table, c.g of the h.tail is at 40% of mac.
Hence, the location of the c.g. of h.tail from the leading edge of the root chord
of h.tail is, 0.45 + 0.4 x 2.29 = 1.37 m

17.4 Vertical tail:

The contribution of dorsal fin to the weight of v.tail is ignored at this stage of preliminary design.
Sv.tail = 26.40 m2
From the table,
Weight of vertical tail = 27 x 26.40 = 712.8 kg
Wvt/W0 = 0.84%
73
From the table, c.g of the v.tail is at 40% of mac.
Mean aerodynamic chord of v.tail = 3.7 m
Hence, the location of the c.g. of v.tail from the leading edge of the root chord
of v.tail is 1.45 + 0.4 x 3.7 = 2.93 m

17.5 Engine:
The weight of each engine is 3796 kg
From the table, the installed weight of two engines is
Wengine = 1.3 x (2 x 3796) = 9869.6 kg
Wengine / W0 = 11.62 %
For gas turbine engines the location of c.g. from the engine inlet is between 30 to 45% of
engine length.
In the present case the engine length is 3 m.
The engines are located at 3.06 m from the wing root and the inlet is at 2.5 m from wing
leading edge.
Hence, the location of c.g of engine from L.E of the wing is, = -2.5 + (0.4 x 3) = -1.3 m i.e.,
1.3 m ahead of the L.E of root chord of wing.

74
 CHAPTER-18
18.FINALIZED DESIGN PARAMETERS

Parameters Values

Length 43.1 m

Height 12.5 m

Wing span 36.63 m

Wing area 142 m2

Wing sweep angle 250

Cabin width 3.53 m

Fuselage width 3.76 m

Empty weight 45634 kg

Max. Takeoff weight 84907 kg

Max. Fuel capacity 42610 L

Max. speed 0.82 M

Cruise speed 0.79 M

Range 11000 km

Service ceiling 12500 m

Wing loading 598 kg/m2

Engines (x2) PW1000G geared turbofan

75
 CHAPTER-19
19.CONCLUSION

The preliminary design of a heavy business jet is done and the various design
considerations and performance parameters required are calculated and found
out. The obtained design values are not necessarily a definite reflection of the
airplane's true and conceptualized design, but the basic outlay of development
has been obtained.

The final design stays true to the desired considerations of a long range aircraft
that can provide high fuel efficiency as well. There is no ideal design as such
and continuous changes, improvements and innovations serve to make the
design as ideal as possible, while always looking to achieve optimum
performance.

The challenges we faced at various phases of the project made clear the fact that
experience plays a vital role in successful design of any aircraft or aircraft
component. A lot of effort has been put into this project and as much as we have
worked, we have learnt in turn.

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 CHAPTER-20
20.REFERENCES

1. Anderson, John D. Jr., (1999) Aircraft Performance and Design,

McGraw-Hill, New York
2. Anderson, John D. Jr., (2001) Introduction to Flight, McGraw-Hill ,
New York
3. Perkins, C. and Hage, R. (1949) Airplane Performance, Stability and
Control, Wiley, New York
4. Raymer, Daniel P. (1992) Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach,
AIAA Education series, Washington, DC
5. Roskam, J. (1985) Airplane Design, Roskam Aviation and Engineering
Corp., Ottawa, Kansas
6. Taylor, J. (2004) Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft, Jane’s, London, UK

WEBSITES

1. Boeing technical characteristics, viewed 2 March 2014

http://www.boeing.com/boeing/commercial/737family/specs.page
2. Engine selection and technical Information, viewed 25 March 2014
www.purepowerengine.com
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_PW1000G
3. JavaFoil – Analysis of airfoil, viewed 29 March 2014
http://www.mhaerotools.de/aerofoils/javafoil.htm
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