Sem 1 Electronics

Nautical Electronics
Semiconductors & Diodes

UNIT 1
Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

Professor, IMU 1
Introduction
Electronic devices and circuits deal with the study of mostly
semiconductor devices and their associated concepts.
Based on the electrical conductivity, the materials in nature are

classified into three types: Conductors, Insulators and
Semiconductors.
Conductors are those having very good conductivity.

Insulators are those having very poor conductivity.
Semiconductors are those having conductivity(resistivity)

level between conductor and insulator.
Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 2

Contd...
Properties of Semiconductors:
Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than

insulators and more than conductors.
Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient. The

resistance in semiconductors, increases with the decrease in
temperature and vice versa.
The conducting properties of a Semiconductor changes, when

a suitable metallic impurity is added to it, which is a very
important property.

Professor, IMU 3
Energy band structure of materials
Figure(a) represents the insulator in which the forbidden energy gap is

large. e.g. diamond (Eg=6eV)
Figure(b) represents the semiconductor in which the forbidden energy gap

is about 1eV.
e.g. For Ge, Eg = 0.785 eV and for Si, Eg = 1.21 eV
Figure(c) represents the conductor in which there is no forbidden energy

gap.

Semiconductors
Most of the electronic devices are made from semiconductor materials.
Semiconductors are of two types: Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

Contd...
A pure form of semiconductor is called an intrinsic
semiconductor. e.g. Silicon(Si)and Germanium(Ge).
Other examples: Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Indium
Antimonide (InSb),etc
But intrinsic semiconductor finds less applications

because of less conduction at room temperature.
In semiconductor, the conduction is due to both

electrons and holes.

Professor, IMU 6
Condcution in Semiconductors

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
Due to the thermal energy supplied to the crystal, some
electrons tend to move out of their place and break the
covalent bonds.
These broken covalent bonds, result in free electrons which
wander randomly. But the moved away electrons creates an
empty space or valence behind, which is called as a hole.
These holes are assumed to be positive charge and moving
ina direction opposite to that of electrons.
The movement of holes constitute the current in
semiconductor is called hole current.

Professor, IMU 8
Seimconductors(Contd…)
To increase the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor, doping is done.
The result is extrinsic semiconductor.
Doping is the process of adding impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor.

The impurities added, are generally pentavalent and trivalent impurities.
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types: P-type and N-type.

Adding pentavalent impurities(donor) such as phosphorous, arsenic and
antimony to get N-type semiconductor. It increases the number of electrons
than that of holes.
Adding trivalent impurities(acceptor) such as boron or aluminium to get

P-type. It increases the number of holes than that of electrons.

N-Type Semiconductor
Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of the
valence electrons get attached with the Ge atoms while one
electron remains as a free electron.
In N-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes

place through electrons, the electrons are majority carriers
and the holes are minority carriers.

Professor, IMU 10
P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor
Boron atom is added to the germanium atom, three of the
valence electrons get attached with the Ge atoms, to form
three covalent bonds.
But, one more electron in germanium remains without
forming any bond. As there is no electron in boron remaining
to form a covalent bond, the space is treated as a hole.
In P-type extrinsic semiconductor, as

the conduction takes place through
holes, the holes are majority carriers
while the electrons are minority
carriers.

Professor, IMU 11
Conductivity of Semiconductor
In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons is equal to the
number of holes.
At room temperature, we can find few electrons and holes. They

move in opposite direction in an electric field E.
Further, electrons move with its mobility μn and holes move with
mobility μp.
Let the number of electrons be n and number of holes be p

The total current density in an intrinsic semiconductor is
J = Jn + Jp = qnμnE + qpμp E = σE
where the conductivity, σ = (nμn+pμp)q and q is the charge

Conductivity of Semiconductor(Contd…)
In case of extrinsic semiconductor,

the conductivity of an N-type semiconductor is is σn
= nμnq
the conductivity of an P-type semiconductor is is σp
= pμpq

Conductivity of semiconductor with
temperature
Let’s Consider the effect of increasing the temperature on the
conductivity of semiconductors.
w.k.t conductivity of a semiconductor is

sigma = ni q (μn + μp)
First let's consider q. As with conductors, as temperature increases,
the charge on each carrier will not change.
Next consider mobility. The effect of an increase in temperature
on mobility is the same as it was for conductors. With the same
reasoning, we see that the drift velocity will decrease causing the
mobility to decrease.

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
Lastly, let's consider what will happen to ni for semiconductors as
temperature increases.
The electrons in the valance band will gain energy and go into the
higher energy levels in the conduction band where they become
charge carriers. So this term will increase. But it will increase
exponentially.
ni = C exp( – (E – Eave)/kT )
ni = C exp( – Eg/2kT)
So even though mobility decreases, the exponential increase in the
number of charge carriers will dominate.
It is concluded that the electrical conductivity of a semiconductor
will increase exponentially with an increase in temperature.
sigma = C exp( – Eg/2kT)

Professor, IMU 15
Law of mass action
The law of mass action states that the product of number of
electrons in the conduction band and the number of holes in
the valence band is constant at a fixed temperature and is
independent of amount of donor and acceptor impurity
added.
Mathematically it is represented as
np = ni2 = constant
where ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration
n is number of electrons in conduction band
p is number of holes in valence band

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...
The law of mass action is applied for both intrinsic and
extrinsic semiconductors.
For extrinsic semiconductor the law of mass action states
that the product of majority carriers and minority carriers is
constant at fixed temperature and is independent of amount
of donor and acceptor impurity added.
Law of mass action for n-type semiconductor:
nn pn = ni2 = constant
Law of mass action for p-type semiconductor:
pp np = ni2 = constant

Professor, IMU 17
Why Silicon is Preferred in
Semiconductors?
The energy band gap is 1.21ev, whereas it is 0.785ev for
germanium.
The thermal pair generation is smaller.
The formation of SiO2 layer is easy for silicon, which helps in

the manufacture of many components along with integration
technology.
Si is easily found in nature than Ge.
Noise is less in components made up of Si than in Ge.

Professor, IMU 18
PN Junction
PN junction is formed by doping one half of a semiconductor material with
P-type impurity and other half with N-type impurity. This PN junction is
called PN junction diode.

PN Junction (Contd…)
When we fuse P-type and N-type semiconductors, there will be
initial transfer of electrons from N-side and holes from P-side by
diffusion. After sometime, further diffusion is prevented due to
formation of immobile charged ions on either side, creating a region
called depletion region.
The potential difference developed in the depletion region is called

barrier potential. The magnitude of this barrier potential is 0.3 V for
Ge and 0.72 V for Si.

Drift and Diffusion Currents
The net current through a PN junction has two components: Drift current
and Diffusion current.
Drift current: Under the influence of electric field, the charge carriers attain
a certain drift velocity and move towards their opposite terminals. This
movement of charge carriers constitutes a current known as drift current.
The drift current densities due to electrons and holes are given as
Diffusion current: The movement of charge carriers due to their

concentration gradient exists in semiconductor material resulting in a
current called diffusion current. The diffusion current density due to
electrons and holes are given as
where Dn and Dp are diffusion constants for electrons and holes respectively.

PN Junction Diode
Diode is an unidirectional, two terminal semiconductor device. i.e. it
conducts only in one direction. The circuit symbol is
The operation of the diode can be understood when PN junction is

biased. There are two type of biasing namely forward bias and
reverse bias.
Forward bias refers to the connection of positive terminal of battery
to P-type and negative terminal to N-type of PN junction.
Reverse bias refers to the connection of negative terminal of battery
to P-type and positive terminal to N-type of PN junction.

PN junction under forward bias
Under forward bias, the positive potential repels the holes in P-type
towards the junction and negative potential repels the electrons in
N-type towards the junction.
When the applied voltage is more than internal barrier potential, the
depletion region and potential barrier disappears. Then the
conduction takes place.

V-I characteristics under forward bias
When the forward voltage (Vf) is increased, the forward current (If)
is almost zero until Vf < V0 because of existence of potential barrier.
For Vf > V0, the potential barrier disappears and the holes from
P-type and electrons from N-type crosses the junction, resulting in
large current flow in the external circuit.
The voltage at which the diode starts conducting is called cut in or
threshold voltage. It is 0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si.

PN junction under reverse bias
Under reverse bias, the holes from P-type are attracted towards the
negative terminal of the battery and the electrons from N-type are
attracted towards the positive terminal.
It increases the depletion region width and eventually increases the

potential barrier. Hence there are no flow of charge carriers across
the junction. Theoretically, no current flows under reverse bias.

PN junction under reverse bias(Contd…)
But in practice, there will be a small reverse current called reverse
saturation current I0 due to thermal generation of holes and electrons
from the breakage of covalent bonds.
The magnitude of this reverse saturation current depends upon the

junction temperature.
V-I characteristics of diode under reverse bias is shown below.

PN junction under reverse bias(Contd…)
For large applied reverse bias, free electrons from N-type are
accelerated faster to dislodge valence electrons from the atom.
These newly liberated electrons acquire energy to dislodge other

electrons and thereby avalanche multiplication of electrons occur.
This leads to the breakdown of the junction leading to very large

reverse current.
The reverse voltage at which the junction breakdown occurs is

known as breakdown voltage.

Equivalent circuit of diode
The V-I characteristics of the Ideal diode is
The V-I characteristics of the real diode is

Diode ratings
PN junction diode works well when it is operated within certain
limiting values called its ratings.
Maximum forward current: highest instantaneous current through

the junction under forward bias condition.
Peak inverse voltage (PIV): maximum reverse voltage with which

diode can operate without any damage to the junction.
Maximum power rating: Maximum power that can be dissipated at

the junction without damaging the junction.
Maximum junction temperature: maximum temperature with which

the junction diode can operate and is related to maximum power
dissipation.

Diode resistances
All practical diodes offer small value of
resistance under forward bias called
forward resistance and high value of
resistance under reverse bias called
reverse resistance.
Static resistance is the opposition

offered by the diode to DC current
flowing under forward bias.
Dynamic resistance is the opposition

offered by the diode to AC current
flowing in forward biased condition.

Diode Capacitances
There are two type of capacitance in a PN junction diode: Transition
capacitance and Diffusion capacitance.
The capacitance associated with depletion layer under reverse bias is

called transition capacitance or space charge capacitance (CT).
In both step graded and linear graded junction, CT is inversely

proportional to the square root of the junction voltage.
The value of CT ranges from 5 to 200 pF.

Diode Capacitances(Contd…)
Under forward bias, the injected charges get stored near the junction
outside the depletion layer resulting in a capacitance called diffusion
or storage capacitance (CD).
The value of CD ranges from 10 to 1000 pF.
CD is defined as the rate of change of injected charge with voltage,

Diode Current equation
In a PN junction diode, the current equation relating the voltage and
the current is given as
where
I0 is the diode reverse saturation current at room temperature
V is the external voltage applied
η is a constant; 1 for Ge and 2 for Si
VT is the volt-equivalent of temperature = kT/q = T/11600
k is Boltzmann constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
q is the charge of the electron(1.602 x 10-19 C)
T is the junction temperature

Problem 4
Room Temperature, T =300 K

Professor, IMU 4
Problem 5 - Home Assignment
Hint:

Professor, IMU 5
Problem 6
Find the value of D.C resistance and a.c resistance of a
Germanium junction diode, if the temperature is 25°C and I0=
20μA with an applied voltage of 0.1 V.
W.k.t the diode current is I = I0 (eV/VT - 1)

T = 273 + 25 = 298°K
For Germanium, η = I
VT = T/ 11 600 = (298/11 600) = 0.026V
I = (20 x 10-6)(e0.1/VT - 1) = 0.916 mA
Hence rDC = V/I = 109.2 Ω

Professor, IMU 6
Problem 6(contd...)
To find rac,
dI/dV = (I0/VT) eV/VT = 38.1x10-3 mho
therefore, rac = 26.3Ω

Professor, IMU 7
Problem 7
Calculate the dynamic forward and reverse resistance of a
p - n junction diode, when the applied voltage is 0.25V for
Germanium Diode. I0 = 1 μA and T = 300oK.
Given:
I0 = 1 μA
T = 300oK
Vf =0.25V
Vr= 0.25V
W.K.T the diode current is I = I0 (eV/VT - 1)
For Germanium, η = I

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
Dynamic Forward Resistance :
V is positive
1/rf = dI/dV = (I0/VT) (eV/VT - 0)
= (1 x 10-6/0.026) e(0.25/0.026)
1/rf = 0.578 mho
rf = 1.734 ohm
Dynamic Reverse Resistance :
V is negative
1/rr= dI/dV = (I0/VT) (e-V/VT - 0)
= (1 x 10-6/0.026) e(- 0.25/0.026)
1/rr = 2.57 x 10-9 mho
rr = 389.7 MΩ

Professor, IMU 9
Temperature dependence of Diode
Generally, rise in temperature generates electron-hole pairs in
semiconductors and increases the conductivity.
Hence, current through PN junction increases with temperature as given by
the diode current equation.
The reverse saturation current approximately doubles for every 10oC rise in
temperature.
The junction barrier voltage is temperature dependant and it decreases by
2mV/oC for both germanium and silicon.

Breakdown in PN Junction diodes
Under reverse bias, a small constant current I0 flows due to minority
carriers, which is independent of reverse bias voltage.
Further, there is an gradual increase in reverse current with

increasing bias due to ohmic leakage current around the junction.
But, when the reverse bias voltage reaches a particular voltage

called breakdown voltage(VBD), there is a sudden increase in reverse
current due to the breakdown mechanism.
There are two types of breakdown: Avalanche breakdown and Zener

breakdown

Breakdown in PN Junction diodes(contd…)
The breakdown occurs due to avalanche effect is known as

avalanche breakdown.
In avalanche breakdown, thermally generated minority carriers

cross depletion region and acquire sufficient energy from the
applied voltage to create new carriers. These new carriers in
turn collide with other atoms and releases more number of
carriers for conduction.
In Zener breakdown, under the influence of strong electric

field, there is a direct rupture of bonds to initiate the
breakdown.

PN Diode Applications
Rectifiers in DC power supplies
Switch in digital logic circuits
Clamping circuits as DC restorer in TV receivers
Clipping circuits as wave shaping circuits used in radio and TV

receivers
Demodulator circuits

Rectifiers
Rectifier is defined as an electronic device used for converting AC
voltage into unidirectional voltage.
According to the period of conduction, rectifiers can be classified into two

types: Half-wave rectifier and Full-wave rectifier.
Half –wave rectifier converts AC voltage into a pulsating DC voltage

using only one half of the applied AC voltage. i.e. diode conducts during
one half of the AC cycle only.
Full-wave rectifier converts AC into a pulsating DC voltage using both

half cycles of the applied AC voltage. It uses two diodes of which one
conducts during one half cycle while the other diode conducts during the
other half cycle of the applied AC voltage.

Half-wave Rectifier (HWR)
The circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier is shown below
Let Vi be the primary voltage of the transformer and given as

Vi = Vm sinωt ; Vm >> Vγ
where Vγ is the cut-in voltage of the diode.
During the positive half cycle of the input, the diode D becomes forward
biased and it conducts. Assuming ideal diode, the whole input appears
across the load.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the diode D becomes reverse
biased and it does not conduct. For an ideal diode, the voltage drop across
the load is zero.

HWR (Contd…)
The input and output waveforms of HWR is shown below

Analysis of Half-Wave Rectifier
Let us consider the input voltage,
where Vm is the maximum value of supply voltage.
Let us assume that the diode is ideal.

The resistance in the forward direction, i.e., in the ON state is
R f.
The resistance in the reverse direction, i.e., in the OFF state is
R r.
The current i in the diode or the load resistor RL is given by
where
Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
The average current Idc is given by
Substituting the value of Im, we get
The DC output voltage is given by

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
The value of RMS current is given by
RMS voltage across load is

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
The rectifier efficiency is defined as

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
Ripple Factor: It is defined as the ratio of the effective value of ac
component of voltage or current to the direct value or average
value.
where
The value of ripple factor for HWR is 1.21.
Form Factor: The ratio of rms value to the average value. For a
HWR, Vrms = Vm/2 and Vdc = Vm/π. The value of form factor is
1.57.
Peak Factor: The ratio of peak value to the rms value. Peak value is
Vm. The value of peak factor is 2.
Professor, IMU 8
HWR(Contd…)
Peak Inverse Voltage(PIV): PIV for a HWR is Vm.
Transformer Utilization Factor(TUF): The ratio of DC power

delivered to the load to the AC rating of the transformer
secondary. The value of TUF is 0.287

Contd...

Professor, IMU 10
Full-Wave Rectifier(FWR)
FWR is classified into two types: FWR with center tapped transformer and
FWR without transformer(Bridge rectifier).
The basic circuit diagram of FWR is shown below

Contd...
During positive half cycle of the input , Diode D1
becomes forward biased and D2 becomes reverse
biased. So, Diode D1 conducts and Diode D2 does not
conduct.
Hence the load current flows through D1 and the

voltage drop across the load is equal to the input
voltage.

Professor, IMU 2
FWR(Contd…)
During negative half cycle of the input , Diode D1 becomes reverse biased
and D2 becomes forward biased. So, Diode D1 does not conduct and Diode
D2 conducts.
Hence the load current flows through D2 and the voltage drop across the
load is equal to the input voltage.
The input and output waveforms of a FWR

are shown

Analysis of Full-Wave Rectifier
Let us assume the input voltage Vi as
The current i1 through the load resistor RL is given by
where
Rf being the diode resistance in ON condition.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Similarly, the current i2 flowing through diode D2 and load resistor RL
is given by
The average value of output current is
This is double the value of a HWR.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
The dc output voltage across load is given by
The RMS value of the current is given by
The RMS value of voltage is Vrms = Vm/√2
The rectifier efficiency is defined as

Professor, IMU 6
FWR(Contd…)
Ripple Factor: For a FWR, Vdc = 2Vm/π and Vrms = Vm/√2.
The value of ripple factor for FWR is 0.482.
Form Factor: The value of form factor is 1.11
Peak factor: The value of peak factor is √2.
PIV: The value of PIV is 2Vm.
Efficiency: The value of η is 81.2%.
TUF: The value of TUF is 0.693.

Contd...
There are few disadvantages for a center-tapped full wave
rectifier such as −
◦ Location of center-tapping is difficult
◦ The dc output voltage is small
◦ PIV of the diodes should be high

Professor, IMU 8
Bridge rectifier
The elimination of center tapped transformer in FWR results in
bridge rectifier. The bridge rectifier circuit is shown below
It has four diodes (D1 through D4)to form a bridge in which input is
given at the opposite ends of the bridge and the load is connected
across the two ends of the bridge.

Bridge rectifier(Contd…)
During the positive half cycle of the input, Diodes D1 and D3
conduct, whereas Diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct. Hence the
current flows through the load.
During the negative half cycle of the input, Diodes D2 and D4
conduct, whereas Diodes D1 and D3 do not conduct. Again, the
current flows through the load in the same direction as in the
previous half cycle.
Thus the bidirectional wave is converted into an unidirectional

wave.
The main advantages of bridge rectifier are elimination of bulky
center tapped transformer and high value of TUF.

The input and output waveforms of bridge rectifier are shown below

For a bridge rectifier,
◦ The value of ripple factor is 0.48
◦ The value of form factor is 1.11
◦ The value of peak factor is √2
◦ The maximum efficiency is 81.2%
◦ The value of PIV is Vm
◦ The value of TUF is 0.812

Contd...
There are many advantages for a bridge full wave rectifier,
such as −
◦ No need of center-tapping.
◦ The dc output voltage is twice that of the center-tapper FWR.
◦ PIV of the diodes is of the half value that of the center-tapper

FWR.
◦ The design of the circuit is easier with better output.

Professor, IMU 13
Comparison between HWR, FWR and Bridge
rectifier

Professor, IMU 14
Filter Circuits
The output of HWR or FWR is not pure DC. It contains some
ripples. To minimize the ripples, filter circuits are used. It is
illustrated in the circuit below.

Professor, IMU 15
Capacitor input filter
When looking from the rectifier, if the first element is
capacitor in the filter, then the filter is called capacitor input
filter.
The block diagram of capacitor input filter is shown below.

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...
Considering FWR with capacitor input filter as shown below
The operation of the above circuit can be understood by

referring the following output from the circuit

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...
During the first half cycle of rectified output voltage,
capacitor charges up to Esm.
But in next quarter cycle from π/2 to π , the rectifier output
voltage starts decreasing. Since capacitor is charged upto E sm,
which makes the conducting diode reverse biased. Hence
diode stops conducting.
Now the capacitor starts discharging through RL. Since the
value of capacitor is large, time constant RLC is large. Hence
capacitor discharges to less extent from A to B.
At point B, the rectifier output voltage exceeds the capacitor
voltage and hence another diode is forward biased and starts
conducting.

Professor, IMU 18
Contd...
In this circuit, two diodes are conducting in alternate half
cycles of ouput of rectifier circuit.
But two diodes are not conducting for the entire half cycle
but only for a part of the half cycle, during which capcitor is
charging.
During discharging of the capacitor, both diodes are
non-conducting.
As time taken by the capacitor to charge is very small and also
it discharges very little due to large time constant, ripple in
the output gets considerably reduced.

Professor, IMU 19
Expression of Ripple Factor for Capacitor
input filter
Consider a FWR with capacitor input filter as shown below
The ouput voltage of the above circuit is shown below

Professor, IMU 20
Contd...
Let T/2 be the time for half cycle of AC input voltage.
T1 be the period for which diode is conducting and capacitor
is getting charged.
T2 be the period for which diode is non-conducting and
capacitor discharges through load resistance RL.
Let Vr be the peak to peak value of ripple voltage, assumed to
be triangular as shown below.

Professor, IMU 21
Contd...
Mathematically, the rms value of such a triangular wave is
During time interval T2, capacitor discharges through RL, The

charge lost is
W.K.T

Professor, IMU 22
Contd...
From triangular waveform,
W.K.T

Professor, IMU 23
Problem 8
A FWR is used to supply power to a 2000Ω Load. Calculate the
ripple factor if a capacitor of 16μF is used as filter.
Solution:

Professor, IMU 24
Problem 9
In a half-wave rectifier circuit, Vs = 30 sinωt; RL = 1KΩ;
Vbreakdown = 50 volts. Calculate the values of Im, Irms, IDC; D.C.
power output, A.C. power input; r ; ηR
Solution:

Professor, IMU 25
Contd...
Rectifier Efficiency, η = 40.5%

Professor, IMU 26
Problem 10
The transformer of a half-wave rectifier has a secondary voltage of 30 volts (Vrms) at 50
Hz with winding resistance rs of 10 ohms. The semiconductor diode in the circuit has a
forward resistance rf of 10 ohms. Determine, if RL =524Ω,
1. No load D.C. voltage.
2. D.C. output voltage when the load current IL = 25 mA.
3. Percentage regulation at this load current.
4. Ripple voltage across the load, ripple frequency fs and ripple factor r.
5. D.C. power output.
6. A.C. power input.
7. Power conversion efficiency.
8. Peak inverse voltage, the semiconductor diode has to withstand.
Solution:
1. No load D.C. voltage:

Professor, IMU 27
Contd...
2. D.C. output voltage when the load current IL = 25 mA.
Considering the voltage drops across rf and rs due to the flow of load
current IL = 25 mA through them

Professor, IMU 28
Contd...

Professor, IMU 29
Contd...

Professor, IMU 30
Contd...

Professor, IMU 31
Zener diode
Zener diode is heavily doped than the ordinary PN junction diode so
as to operate with adequate power dissipation capability in the
breakdown region.
The circuit symbol of Zener diode is

Construction:
Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar

Zener Diode (Contd...)
The V-I Characteristics of Zener diode is shown
below

Professor, IMU 2
Zener diode(Contd…)
From the above V-I characteristics, it is found that Zener diode works
same as that of PN diode under forward bias.
But in reverse bias, it exhibits a different breakdown mechanism called

Zener breakdown.
Because of heavily doped diode, the depletion layer is thin and

breakdown occurs at lower reverse voltage and also the breakdown is
sharp.
In zener breakdown, under the influence of strong reverse voltage, direct

rupture of covalent bonds takes place and creates more number of
electron-hole pairs, that constitute the reverse current.
The increase in current takes place at a constant value of reverse bias

below 6V for heavily doped diodes.

Zener diode as voltage regulator
Based on the reverse bias characteristics of Zener diode, it is observed
that the voltage across Zener diode remains constant, which can be served
as reference voltage.
Hence, the Zener diode can be used as voltage regulator.
In the above circuit, Zener diode is reverse biased. As long as the input
voltage does not fall below VZ, the voltage across the diode is constant
and hence the load voltage is also constant.

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
A Light Dependent Resistor (also known as a photoresistor or LDR)
is a device whose resistivity is a function of the incident light.
Hence, they are light-sensitive devices.
They are also called as photoconductors, photoconductive cells or

simply photocells. They are also known as cadmium sulfide (CdS)
cell.
It is basically a resistor whose resistance value decreases when the

intensity of light increases.
They are made up of semiconductor materials that have high

resistance.

Professor, IMU 4/16/2021 11
Contd...
Symbolic representation of LDR is shown below
Basic structure of LDR is

Working principle of LDR
It works on the principle of photoconductivity.
Photoconductivity is an optical phenomenon in which the material’s

conductivity is increased when light is absorbed by the material.
When light falls, the electrons in the valence band of the

semiconductor material are excited to the conduction band.
Hence when light having enough energy strikes on the device, more
and more electrons are excited to the conduction band which results
in a large number of charge carriers.
This results in the increase of current through the device when the
circuit is closed and hence it is said that the resistance of the device
has been decreased.

Characteristics of LDR

Contd...
Advantages:
◦ LDR’s are cheap and are readily available in many sizes and
shapes.
◦ They need very small power and voltage for its operation.
Disadvantages:
◦ Highly inaccurate with a response time of about tens or
hundreds of milliseconds.

Applications of LDR
Detect absences or presences of light
Used in street light controller
Alarm clocks
Burglar alarm circuits
Light intensity meters

Light Emitting Diode (LED)
It is a semiconductor device which emits either visible light or invisible
infrared light when forward biased.
The process called electroluminiscence occurs in LED by which only LED

emits light. i.e, under forward bias, energy is released in the form of light
when free electrons in conduction band recombines with holes in the
valence band.
Similar to ordinary PN diode, it also operates in forward bias only.
But the construction of LED is quite different from ordinary diode, i.e, PN
junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin
hemispherical shaped shell inorder to protect it from vibration and shock.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
LED symbol is shown below
LED has three layers:

◦ P-type semiconductor
◦ N-type semiconductor
◦ Depletion layer

Professor, IMU 2
Working of LED
Like an ordinary diode, the LED diode works when it is forward
biased.
Here, n-type semiconductor is heavily doped than the p-type.
When it is forward biased, the potential barrier gets reduced and
the electrons and holes combine at the depletion layer, light is
emitted in all directions, as shown below

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Based on energy band theory of solids, the emission of
photons occur when electron - hole combines depends on
whether the material has direct band gap or indirect band
gap.
The semiconductor materials which have a direct band gap

are the ones that emit photons.
Example of material which has direct band gap is Gallium

Arsenide(GaAs), a compound semiconductor which is the
material used in LEDs.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Dopant atoms are added to GaAs to give out a wide
range of colors. Some of the materials used in LEDs
are:
◦ Aluminium Gallium Arsenide(AlGaAs) – infrared.
◦ Gallium Arsenic Phosphide(GaAsP) – red, orange,
yellow.
◦ Aluminium Gallium Phosphide(AlGaP) – green.
◦ Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) – blue, blue-green,
near UV.
◦ Zinc Selenide(ZnSe) – blue.

Professor, IMU 5
LED Characteristics

Professor, IMU 6
Advantages and Disadvantages of LED
Advantages:
◦ Brightness of LED can be easily controlled by varying the current.
◦ These are smaller in size, light in weight and have longer in
lifetime.
◦ These are very cheap, readily available and consume low energy.
◦ LEDs operate very fast.
◦ These can emit different colors of light.
◦ LEDs do not contain toxic material like mercury which is used in
fluorescent lamps.
Disadvantages:
◦ Efficiency is low
◦ needs more power to operate than normal p-n junction diodes.

Professor, IMU 7
Applications of LED
Digital computers and calculators
Traffic signals and Burglar alarms systems
Microprocessors and multiplexers
Picture phones and digital watches
Camera flashes and automotive heat lamps
Aviation lighting

Professor, IMU 8
Photoelectric cell
Photoelectric cell or photocell or photovoltaic cell or Solar cell
is a semiconductor device which works on the principle of
photoelectric effect and converts light energy into electrical
energy.
The voltage induces by the PV cell depends on the intensity of

light incident on it.
When the photons are incident on the semiconductor

material, then the electrons become energised and starts
emitting.
The energised electrons are known as photoelectrons and the

phenomenon of emission of electrons is known as
photoelectric effect.

Professor, IMU 9
Construction of PV Cell
The semiconductor materials like arsenide, indium, cadmium,
silicon, selenium and gallium are used for making the PV cells.
Mostly silicon and selenium are used for making the cell.
The constructions of the silicon photovoltaic cell is shown in
figure below.

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
The upper surface of the cell is made of the thin layer of the
p-type material so that the light can easily enter into the
material.
The multi-crystalline or monocrystalline semiconductor
material make the single unit of the PV cell.
The output voltage and current obtained from the single unit
of the cell is very less.
The magnitude of the output voltage is 0.6v, and that of the
current is 0.8A.
Different combinations of cells are used for increasing the
output efficiency.

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
They are series combination, parallel combination and
series-parallel combination of PV cells.
In series combination, output current remains same but the

voltage gets doubled.
In parallel combination, voltage remains same, but the

current gets doubled.
In series-parallel combination, magnitude of both the voltage

and current increases. Hence, solar panels are made using
series-parallel combination of cells.

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...
Symbol of PV cell is shown below

Professor, IMU 14
Working of PV cell
When the semiconductor material absorbs light, the electrons
absorb the photons, they become energised and starts
moving into the material.
Because of the effect of an electric field, the particles move
only in the one direction and develops current.
Consider the figure below shows the PV cell made of silicon
and the resistive load is connected across it.

Professor, IMU 15
Contd...
The PV cell consists the P and N-type layer of semiconductor
material. These layers are joined together to form the PN
junction.
As soon as light is applied, a remarkable state of PN junction

diode can be observed.
As a result, the electrons acquire sufficient energy and break

away from the parent atoms. These newly generated
electron-hole pairs in the depletion region crosses the
junction.

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...
The electrons move into the N type material because of its
normal positive ion concentration.
Likewise holes sweep into the P type material because of its

negative ion content.
This causes the N type material to instantly take on a negative

charge and the P material to take on a positive charge.
The P-N junction then delivers a small voltage as a response.

Professor, IMU 18
Electronics
Transistors
UNIT 2

Professor, IMU 1
Bipolar Junction Transistor
The device in which conduction takes place due to two types
of carriers (electrons and holes) is called a bipolar device.
A Bipolar Junction Transistor(BJT) is such a bipolar device and

is a three terminal semiconductor device. It has three
terminals namely emitter, base and collector.
It has PN junction in its construction and hence it is a junction

device.
Transistor means Trans Resistor, i.e, transfer of resistance

from input side, which is forward biased (low resistance) to
the output side which is reverse biased (high resistance).

Types of transistor
There are two types of transistors namely NPN and
PNP.
In NPN Transistor, a p-type Silicon (Si) or Germanium
(Ge) is sandwiched between two layers of n-type
silicon.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Similarly, in PNP Transistor, a n-type Silicon (Si) or Germanium
(Ge) is sandwiched between two layers of p-type silicon.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
In both NPN and PNP transistors, between base and emitter
regions, one P -N junction J1 a exists, which is known as the
input junction or the emitter junction.
A second P -N junction J2 exists between base and collector
regions, which is known as output junction or the collector
junction.
The functioning of the active device, the transistor depends
on the biasing voltages to the two PN junctions.
The arrow on the emitter specifies the direction of current
flow when EB junction is forward biased.
Normally, emitter is heavily doped, base is lighlty doped and
collector is moderatley doped.

Professor, IMU 5
Transistor biasing
• Usually the EB junction is forward biased and CB junction is reverse

biased.
• Due to forward bias on EB junction, an emitter current flows through the
base into the collector.
• Though the CB junction is reverse biased, entire emitter current flows
through the collector circuit.

Professor, IMU 6
Operation of NPN transistor
In the transistor, IE = -(IC + IB)

In the external circuit, IE = IC + IB

Professor, IMU 7
Operation of PNP transistor
In the transistor, IE = -(IC + IB)

In the external circuit, IE = IC + IB

Professor, IMU 8
Transistor Configurations
Transistor device can be connected in three basic modes or
configurations that are known as
(1) common base transistor configuration (CB Transistor
operation),
(2) common emitter transistor configuration (CE transistor
operation) and
(3) common collector transistor configuration (CC transistor
operation).
In each mode, one of the three terminals of the transistor is

grounded and the other two form input and output terminals.

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
Thus, transistor is operated as a four terminal or a two-port
network.
For instance, in common emitter configuration the emitter

terminal is grounded and the input is applied between base
and emitter forming the input port.
Output is obtained between collector and emitter terminals,

which form the output port.

Professor, IMU 10
Common Base Transistor Configuration

Professor, IMU 11
Common Emitter Transistor Configuration

Professor, IMU 12
Common Collector Transistor Configuration

Professor, IMU 13
Characteristics of Common base configuration
The circuit for obtaining characteristics of CB transistor is

shown below

Contd...
For the transistor to be in the active region of its output
characteristics, the emitter-base junction is to be forward biased by
VEB and the output or collector-base junction is reverse biased by
VCB as shown in the circuit above.
the input current is the emitter current I e and the output current is
the collector current I c . The current through the base lead is I B and
IB = IE - IC.
The current gain of CB transistor is defined as the ratio of change in
collector current to the change in emitter current with V CB as
constant. i.e, the current gain is

Input Characteristics of CB configuration
In any transistor configuration, for the input characteristics, the
output voltage is kept constant. For the output characteristics the
input current is kept constant.
The input characteristics of common base (CB) transistor are thus
between VEB and IE; the input voltage and current variations
maintaining constant VCB, the reverse bias to the collector junction.

Contd...
The input characteristic of any transistor configuration is
similar to a forward biased diode.
For a given VCB, as VEB increases, beyond the cut-in voltage Vγ
the emitter current IE increases.

Contd...
For a constant VEB, the increasing reverse bias voltage, VCB
can increase the emitter current IE due to early effect.
So the cut in voltage on emitter side lowers and large
changes in IE can be obtained at lower VEB.
For a higher value of VCB2; the characteristic moves to the left
of VCB1 characteristic.
Early effect: As the collector voltage VCC is increased, the
reverse bias increases which in turn increases the space
charge width between collector and base. It leads to the
reduction in effective base width. This dependency of base
width on collector-to-base voltage is known as early effect.

Contd...
Due to early effect, there will be three consequences:
◦ less chance for recombination within base region. So α
increases with increasing VCB.
◦ Charge gradient is increased within base and as a result,
current of minority carriers injected across emitter junction
increases.
◦ For very large voltages, effective base width is reduced to 0
causing voltage breakdown in the transistor. This
phenomenon is called punch through.

Output Characteristics of CB configuration
For a given magnitude of emitter current IE, the graph

between the output parameters, the collector current IC and
VCB is called the output characteristics.

Contd...
Actually IC is independent of reverse bias voltage VCB.
For every increase in IE, IC also increases.
So, even for VCB = 0, there is a collector current IC for a given
emitter current IE.
When VCB is increased, due to early effect, there is a slight
increase in collector current.
The relation between the collector current and the emitter
current is given as IC = - αIE + IC0
where IC0 is the reverse saturation current and α is called as
the forward current gain of common base transistor.

Parameters in CB configuration
The slope of CB characteristics gives the following four
parameters and they are called hybrid or h-parameters
because they have different dimensions.
◦ Input impedance (hib): defined as the ratio of change in input
emitter voltage to the change in input emitter current with
output collector voltage kept constant. i.e,
◦ Typical value of hib ranges from 20 to 50Ω.
◦ Output admittance (hob): defined as the ratio of change in

output collector current to the change in output collector voltage
with input emitter current kept constant. i.e,
◦ Typical value of hob ranges from 0.1 - 10μmho.

Contd...
Forward current gain: defined as the ratio of change in output
collector current to the change in input emitter current keeping
output collector voltage constant. i.e,
its typical vale ranges from 0.9 - 1.0 . It is also denoted by α.

Reverse volatge gain: defined as the ratio of change in input
emitter voltage to the change in output collector voltage keeping
input emitter current constant. i.e,
its typical value is of the order of 10-5 to 10-4.

Characteristics of Common Emitter configuration
The circuit for obtaining static characteristics of CE

transistor is shown below

Input Characteristics of CE configuration
To determine the input characteristics, VCE is kept constant.

VBE is increased from zero and the corresponding IB is noted.
The procedure is repeated for higher fixed values of VCE. The
graph between VBE and IB keeping VCE constant is called input
characteristics.

Contd...
When VCE = 0, emitter-base junction is forward biased and it
behaves like forward biased diode.
Hence the input characteristics for VCE =0 is similar to that of
forward biased diode.
When VCE is increased, reverse bias voltage at collector- base
junction increases and depletion layer width widens resulting
in reduction of effective width of the base.
This causes decrease in IB. Hence, in order to get same value
of IB as that for VCE = 0, VBE should be increased.
Hence the curve shifts to right as VCE increases.

Output Characteristics of CE configuration
To determine the output characteristics, IB is kept constant by

adjusting VBE.
Now IC is noted for the increase in VCE.
The graph between IC and VCE keeping IB constant is called
output characteristics.

Contd...
W.k.t in CB transistor, IC = - αIE + IC0
In CB transistor, the above equation can be rewritten as
IC = - αIE + ICB0
Since IC and IE are flowing in opposite directions, IE = -(IC+IB)
Hence, IC can be modified as IC = - α[ -(IC+IB)] + ICB0
where
Hence the above equation becomes

In CE Transistor, IC = βIB + ICE0

Contd...
For larger values of VCE, due to early effect, even for a small
change in α, there will be a very large change in β.
For example, when α = 0.98, the value of β is 49 and when
α = 0.985, the value of β is 66.
Hence the output characteristics of CE transistor shows a
larger slope compared to CB transistor.
The output characteristics of CE transistor has three regions
namely saturation region, active region and cut off region.

Contd...
The region of curves to the left of the line OA is called saturation

region.
In this region, both junctions are forward biased.
The ratio of VCE(sat) to IC in this region is called saturation resistance.

Contd...
The region below the curve for IB=0 is called cut off region.
In this region, both junctions are reverse biased and transistor
is said to be OFF.
IC = 0 and VCE= VCC.
The region lies between saturation and cut off region is called
active region.
In active region, EB junction is forward biased and CB junction
is reverse biased. This is the requirement for a transistor to
be used as an amplifier.

Parameters in CE configuration
The slope of CE characteristics gives the following four parameters
and they are called hybrid or h-parameters because they have
different dimensions.
Input impedance(hie): defined as the ratio of change in input base
voltage to the change in input base current with output collector
voltage kept constant. i.e,
The value of hie ranges from 500 - 2000Ω

Output admittance(hoe): defined as the ratio of change in output
collector current to the change in output collector voltage with
input base current kept constant. i.e,
The value of hoe is of the order of 0.1 - 10μmhos

Contd...
Forward current gain(hfe): defined as the ratio of change in
output collector current to the change in input base current
with output collector voltage kept constant. i.e,
The value of hfe ranges from 20 - 200.

It is also denoted by β.
Reverse voltage gain(hre): defined as the ratio of change in
input base voltage to the change in output collector voltage
with input base current constant. i.e,
The value of hre is of the order of 10-5 - 10-4.

Characteristics of Common collector configuration
The circuit for obtaining the static characteristics of CC

configuration is shown below.
Common collector configuration is also called emitter

follower.

Professor, IMU 1
Input characteristics of CC configuration
In order to obtain the input characteristics of CC configuration, V EC
is kept constant.
The input voltage VBC is increassed in equal steps and
corresponding change in IB is noted.
This is repeated for different fixed values of VEC.
Plots between VBC and IB for different values of VEC are called input
characteristics.

Professor, IMU 2
Ouput characteristics of CC configuration
The output characteristics of CC configuration is same as that

of CE configuration, as shown below.

Professor, IMU 3
Parameters in CC configuration
Input impedance(hic): defined as the ratio of change in input
base voltage to the change in input base current with output
emitter voltage kept constant. i.e,
The value of hic is high.

Output admittance(hoc): defined as the ratio of change in
output emitter current to the change in output emitter
voltage with input base current kept constant. i.e,
The value of hoc is high.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Forward current gain(hfc): defined as the ratio of change in
output emitter current to the change in input base current
with output emitter voltage kept constant. i.e,
The value of hfc is high. It is also denoted by γ.

Reverse voltage gain(hrc): defined as the ratio of change in
input base voltage to the change in output emitter voltage
with input base current constant. i.e,

Professor, IMU 5
Relationship between α and γ
w.k.t IE+IC + IB= 0

IB =- (IC+IE)

Professor, IMU 6
Relation between α and β
W.K.T in a transistor, IE = IC + IB
Divide the above equation by IC
IE/IC = 1+IB/IC
1/α = 1+ 1/β
1/β = 1/α - 1
1/β = 1-α/α
β = α/1-α

Professor, IMU 7
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ICBO AND ICEO
w.k.t Ic = - αlE + ICBO

In CE configuration, when EB junction is left open, IB = 0.
Hence IC = -IE = ICEO
Therefore, ICEO = αICEO + ICBO
ICEO - αICEO =ICBO
ICEO (1-α) = ICBO
ICEO = ICBO/(1-α)
w.k.t β = α/(1-α)
ICEO = (β+1)ICBO

Professor, IMU 8
Problem 1
w.k.t IE = IC + IB
IB = IE -IC = (10 - 9.8) x 10-3 = 0.2mA
Problem 2

Professor, IMU 9
Problem 3
w.k.t
w.k.t
Problem 4
w.k.t
If

Professor, IMU 10
Problem 5
Problem 6

Professor, IMU 11
Comparison between CB,CE & CC

Professor, IMU 12
Transistor Biasing
The supply of suitable external dc voltage is called as biasing.
Either forward or reverse biasing is done to the emitter and
collector junctions of the transistor.
These biasing methods make the transistor circuit to work in four
kinds of regions such as Active region, Saturation region, Cutoff
region and Inverse active region.
Inverse active region, which is just the inverse of active region, is

not suitable for any applications and hence not used.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
Active Region:
This is also called as linear region. A transistor, in this region, acts
better as an Amplifier.
The below circuit diagram shows a transistor in active region.
In this region, the emitter junction is forward biased and collector

junction is reverse biased. The collector current is β times the base
current in this active state. i.e,

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Saturation region:
This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as a closed
switch.
The transistor has the effect of its collector and emitter being
shorted.
The collector and emitter currents are maximum in this mode of
operation.
In this region, both the emitter and collector junctions are forward
biased.
The below figure shows a transistor in saturation region.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Cutoff Region:
This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as an open
switch. The transistor has the effect of its collector and base being
opened.
The collector, emitter and base currents are all zero in this mode of
operation.
In this region, both the emitter and collector junctions are reverse
biased.
The figure below shows a transistor working in cutoff region.

Professor, IMU 4
Load Lines
Considering the output characteristics of a transistor as
shown below
Saturation point indicates the maximum possible collector

current on y-axis and Cutoff point indicates the maximum
possible collector-emitter voltage on x-axis.
The line drawn between these two points is called load line.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
This line, when drawn over the output characteristic curve, makes
contact at a point called as Operating point or quiescent point or
simply Q-point, as shown below.
The load line is drawn when DC biasing is given to the transistor

without applying any input signal. Such a load line is called DC Load
line.
Whereas the load line drawn when an input signal along with DC
voltages are applied, is called AC load line.

Professor, IMU 6
DC Load Line
Without applying input signal, the circuit is shown below
The value of collector emitter voltage at any given time will

be
VCE=VCC−ICRC
Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
As VCC and RC are fixed values, there will be a straight line on
the output characteristics. This line is called DC load line as
shown in figure below.
To obtain the load line, the two end points A and B of the
straight line are to be determined.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
In order to obtain point A, keep VCE = 0 gives IC = VCC/RC. This
gives the maximum value of IC marked on current axis as OA.
In order to obtain point B, keep IC = 0 gives VCE = VCC, which is

the maximum value, marked on voltage axis as OB.
By this way, both cutoff and saturation points are determined
and DC load line is drawn.

Professor, IMU 9
AC Load Line
The AC load line gives the peak-to-peak voltage, or the
maximum possible output swing for a given amplifier.
AC equivalent circuit of a CE amplifier is shown below.
In the above circuit, VCE = rc x IC

where rc = RC||R1

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
For a transistor to operate as an amplifier, it should stay in
active region.
The quiescent point is so chosen in such a way that the
maximum input signal excursion is symmetrical on both
negative and positive half cycles. Hence,
where VCEQ is the emitter-collector voltage at quiescent point.

AC load line drawn between saturation and cutoff points is
shown below.

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Therefore, the end points of AC load line are

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...
When AC and DC Load lines are represented in a graph, it can
be understood that they are not identical.
Both of these lines intersect at the Q-point or quiescent
point.
The endpoints of AC load line are saturation and cut off
points.

Professor, IMU 13
Operating point
When a line is drawn joining the saturation and cut off points, such
a line can be called as Load line.
This line, when drawn over the output characteristic curve, makes
contact at a point called as Operating point. This operating point is
also called as quiescent point or simply Q-point.
There can be many such intersecting points, but the Q-point is
selected in such a way that irrespective of AC signal swing, the
transistor remains in the active region.

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
The operating point should not get disturbed as it should
remain stable to achieve faithful amplification.
Faithful amplification is the process of obtaining complete
portions of input signal by increasing the signal strength. It is
depicted in the figure below.

Professor, IMU 15
Contd...
If the operating point is considered near saturation point,
then the amplification will be as under.

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...
If the operation point is considered near cut off point, then
the amplification will be as under.

Professor, IMU 17
Transistor as an amplifier
Any transistor amplifier, uses a transistor to amplify the
signals which is connected in one of the three configurations.
For an amplifier it is a better state to have a high input

impedance, in order to avoid loading effect in Multi-stage
circuits and lower output impedance, in order to deliver
maximum output to the load.
The voltage gain and power gain should also be high to

produce a better output.

Professor, IMU 18
Contd..
If CB configuration is considered for amplification, it has low input
impedance and high output impedance.
The voltage gain is also low compared to CE configuration.
Hence CB configured amplifiers are used at high frequency
applications.
CE amplifier has a high input impedance and lower output
impedance than CB amplifier.
The voltage gain and power gain are also high in CE amplifier and
hence this is mostly used in Audio amplifiers.
If CC configuration is considered for amplification, though CC
amplifier has better input impedance and lower output impedance
than CE amplifier, the voltage gain of CC is very less which limits its
applications to impedance matching only.

Professor, IMU 19
Transistor as a switch
A transistor is used as an electronic switch by driving it either
in saturation or in cut off.
Saturation region - ON state and Cutoff region - OFF state.
Operation in Cut-off condition:
The following figure shows a transistor in cut-off region.

Professor, IMU 20
Contd...
When the base of the transistor is given negative, the
transistor goes to cut off state. Hence IC = 0.
The voltage VCC applied at the collector, appears across the
collector resistor RC. i.e, VCE = VCC.
Operation in Saturation region:
The following figure shows a transistor in saturation region.

Professor, IMU 21
Contd...
When the base voltage is positive and transistor goes into
saturation, IC flows through RC. Then VCC drops across RC. The
output will be zero.
From the above discussion, we understood that a transistor

works as a switch when driven into saturation and cut off
regions by applying positive and negative voltages to the
base.
The following figure gives a better explanation.

Professor, IMU 22
Contd...
A Transistor which is fabricated only to make it work for
switching purposes is called as Switching Transistor.
While in saturation state, the collector saturation current
flows through the load and while in cut off state, the collector
leakage current flows through the load.
The Switching transistor has a pulse as an input and a pulse
with few variations will be the output.
When the input pulse is applied, the collector current takes
some time to reach the steady state value, due to the stray
capacitances.
This concept is explained with the help of the following figure.

Professor, IMU 23
Contd...
Switching times are defined from the above figure.

Time delay(td) − The time taken by the collector current to reach
from its initial value to 10% of its final value is called as the Time
Delay.
Rise time(tr) − The time taken for the collector current to reach
from 10% of its initial value to 90% of its final value is called as the
Rise Time.
Professor, IMU 24
Contd...
Turn-on time (TON) − The sum of time delay (td) and rise time
(tr) is called as Turn-on time. i.e, TON = td + tr.
Storage time (ts) − The time interval between the trailing
edge of the input pulse to the 90% of the maximum value of
the output, is called as the Storage time.
Fall time (tf) − The time taken for the collector current to
reach from 90% of its maximum value to 10% of its initial
value is called as the Fall Time.
Turn-off time (TOFF) − The sum of storage time (ts) and fall
time (tf) is defined as the Turn-off time. i.e, TOFF = ts + tf.
Pulse Width(W) − The time duration of the output pulse
measured between two 50% levels of rising and falling
waveform is defined as Pulse Width.

Professor, IMU 25
Bias Stability
The quiscent operating point of a transistor amplifier should
be established in the active region of its characteristics.
Inorder to establish the operating point in the active region,
the supply voltages and resistances in the circuit should be
chosen suitably.
The process of giving proper supply voltages and resistances
for obtaining the desired Q-point is called biasing and the
circuit used for getting desired Q-point is called biasing
circuits.
W.k.t the collector current in CE amplifier is

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
In the above expression, the three variables β, IB and ICO are found
to increase with temperature.
For every 10oC rise in temperature, ICO doubles itself. When ICO
increases, IC increases significantly.
The increase in IC increases the power dissipation and hence ICO
again increases.
This leads to further increase in IC and this process becomes
cumulative and leads to thermal runaway that will destroy the
transistor.
It aslo affects the position of quiscent point and transistor can be
driven into saturation region.
Since the transistor parameters such as β, ICO and VBE are functions
of temperature, the operating point shifts with change in
temperature.
The process of making operating point independent of temperature
changes or variations in transistor parameters is known as bias
stabilisation.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Inorder to avoid the damage due to thermal runaway,
◦ the collector is usually made larger than emitter so that the heat
developed at the collector junction can be dissipated.
◦ the circuit can be designed in such a way that IB is automatically

decreased with rise in temperature and hence the decrease in βIB
will compensate for the increase in (1+β)ICO, keeping IC constant.
◦ use of heat sink(metal sheet) in case of power transistors to

remove the heat developed at the collector junction.
The extent to which the collector current IC is stabilised with varying

ICO is measured by stability factor S.

Professor, IMU 3
Stability factor (S)
Stability factor is defined as the rate of change of collector
current IC with the change in collector-base leakage current
ICO, keeping both β and IB constant. i.e,

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
The stability factor should be as small as possible to have

better thermal stability.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
Other stability factors S’ and S’’.
The stability factor S’ is defined as the rate of change of I C
with VBE, keeping ICO and β constant. i.e,
The stability factor S” is defined as the rate of change of IC

with β , keeping ICO and VBE constant.

Professor, IMU 6
Methods of Transistor Biasing
Fixed bias or Base resistor bias:
A CE amplifier using fixed bias circuit is shown below.
DC analysis of the circuit yields

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
It is found that this equation is independent of IC.
So dIB/dIC =0. Hence the stability factor is reduced to S= 1+β.
Since β is very large value, the value of S is also high. Hence
the circuit has poor stability. Hence this method of biasing is
rarely used.
However, this biasing offers few advantages:
◦ simplicity
◦ small number of components are required
◦ IB can be made independent of VBE if supply voltage VCC is very
large

Professor, IMU 8
Collector to Base Bias
The collector to base bias circuit is same as base bias circuit
except that the base resistor RB is returned to collector,
rather than to VCC supply as shown in the figure below.

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
This circuit helps in improving the stability considerably.
If the value of IC increases, the voltage across RL increases
and hence the VCE also increases.
This in turn reduces the base current IB, which compensates
the original increase.
From the circuit, VCC = (IC + IB)RL + IB RB + VBE
Rewriting the above equation as
IB (RL + RB) = VCC -VBE - IC RL

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
Since VBE is almost independent of collector current,
Substitute the above expression in
Finally, we get
The value of S is smaller than (1+β), which is obtained for fixed bias
circuit. Thus there is an improvement in the stability.
However, this circuit uses negative feedback, which reduces the gain
of the amplifier.

Professor, IMU 11
Emitter bias
Including an emitter resistor in the fixed bias circuit improves

the stability of Q point. The emitter bias circuit is shown
below.

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...
Writing KVL around the input loop,
Differentiate the above equation with respect to IC,

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...
w.k.t the stability factor
Substituting the expression of in the above equation, we

get

Professor, IMU 14
Voltage Divider Bias or Self bias
Among all the methods of providing biasing and stabilization,
the voltage divider bias method is the most prominent one.
Here, two resistors R1 and R2 are employed, which are
connected to VCC and provide biasing. The resistor RE
employed in the emitter provides stabilization.
The name voltage divider comes from the voltage divider
formed by R1 and R2.
The voltage drop across R2 forward biases the base-emitter
junction. This causes the base current and hence collector
current flow in the zero signal conditions.
The figure below shows the circuit of voltage divider bias
method.

Professor, IMU 15
Contd...

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit has been derived for analysis
purpose.
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit suitable for analysis is shown
below.

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...
The above equation is rewritten as
Differentiating the above equation with respect to IC,

Professor, IMU 18
Contd...
Rearranging the above equation, we get

Professor, IMU 19
Contd...
Finally, the stability factor S can be written as
If RB/RE value is very small, then

This is the smallest possible value of S and leads to the
maximum possible thermal stability.
Hence, this voltage divider bias is more popoular for
transistor biasing than other biasing circuits.

Professor, IMU 20
Problems
Problem 7:

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Problem 8:

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Problem 9:
From the circuit,

VCC = ICRC + VCE
At Q-point, VCC = ICQRC + VCEQ
Hence RC = (VCC - VCEQ)/ ICQ

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
From the circuit,

VCC = IBRB + VBE
At Q-point, VCC = IBQRB + VBE(on)
Hence RB = (VCC - VBE(on))/ IBQ

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
Problem 10:
W.K.T the fixed bias circuit is as shown below

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
Problem 11:

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...

Professor, IMU 12
Amplifiers
UNIT 3

Professor, IMU 1
Amplifier
With the sufficient knowledge on operating point, its stability
and the bias stabilization techniques, we move to study the
basic concepts of a basic amplifier.
The Amplifier is an electronic circuit that is used to increase

the strength of a weak input signal in terms of voltage,
current, or power.
The process of increasing the strength of a weak signal is

known as Amplification.

Professor, IMU 2
Classification of amplifiers
Amplifiers are classified according to many factors:
Based on number of stages:
Single-stage Amplifiers − This has only one transistor circuit,
which is a singlestage amplification.
Multi-stage Amplifiers − This has multiple transistor circuit,
which provides multi-stage amplification.
Based on its output:

Voltage Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the
voltage level of the input signal, is called as Voltage amplifier.
Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that increases the
power level of the input signal, is called as Power amplifier.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Based on the input signals:
Small signal Amplifiers − When the input signal is so weak so as to
produce small fluctuations in the collector current compared to its
quiescent value, the amplifier is known as Small signal amplifier.
Large signal amplifiers − When the fluctuations in collector current
are large i.e. beyond the linear portion of the characteristics, the
amplifier is known as large signal amplifier.
Based on the frequency range:
Audio Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the signals
that lie in the audio frequency range i.e. from 20Hz to 20 KHz
frequency range, is called as audio amplifier.
Radio Power Amplifiers − The amplifier circuit that amplifies the
signals that lie in a very high frequency range, is called as Radio
power amplifier.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Based on Biasing Conditions: (i.e., mode of operation)
Class A amplifier − The biasing conditions in class A power amplifier
are such that the collector current flows for the entire AC signal
applied.
Class B amplifier − The biasing conditions in class B power amplifier
are such that the collector current flows for half-cycle of input AC
signal applied.
Class C amplifier − The biasing conditions in class C power amplifier
are such that the collector current flows for less than half cycle of
input AC signal applied.
Class AB amplifier − The class AB power amplifier is one which is
created by combining both class A and class B in order to have all
the advantages of both the classes and to minimize the problems
they have.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
Based on the Coupling method: (in case of multistage)
RC Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is coupled

to the next stage using resistor and capacitor (RC) combination can
be called as a RC coupled amplifier.
Transformer Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that

is coupled to the next stage, with the help of a transformer, can be
called as a Transformer coupled amplifier.
Direct Coupled amplifier − A Multi-stage amplifier circuit that is

coupled to the next stage directly, can be called as a direct coupled
amplifier.

Professor, IMU 6
CE Amplifier
The common emitter amplifier is a three terminal basic single-stage
bipolar junction transistor and is used as a voltage amplifier.
The basic symbol of the common emitter amplifier is shown below.
Input of this amplifier is given to the base terminal, the output is

collected from the collector terminal and the emitter terminal is
common for both the terminals.

Professor, IMU 7
CE amplifier Circuit
The below circuit diagram shows the common emitter amplifier
circuit.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
The various prominent circuit elements and their functions
are as described below.
Biasing Circuit:
The resistors R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilization
circuit, which helps in establishing a proper operating point.
Input Capacitor (Cin):

This capacitor couples the input signal to the base of the
transistor.
The input capacitor Cin allows AC signal, but isolates the signal
source from R2.
If this capacitor is not present, the input signal gets directly
applied, which changes the bias at R2.

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
Coupling Capacitor (CC):
This capacitor is present at the end of one stage and
connects it to the other stage.
As it couples two stages it is called as coupling capacitor. This
capacitor blocks DC of one stage to enter the other but
allows AC to pass. Hence it is also called as blocking
capacitor.
Due to the presence of coupling capacitor CC, the output
across the resistor RL is free from the collector’s DC voltage.
If this is not present, the bias conditions of the next stage will
be drastically changed due to the shunting effect of RC, as it
would come in parallel to R1 of the next stage.
Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
Emitter by-pass capacitor (CE):
This capacitor is employed in parallel to the emitter resistor
RE.
The amplified AC signal is by passed through this.
If this is not present, that signal will pass through RE which
produces a voltage drop across RE that will feedback the
input signal reducing the output voltage.
Load resistor (RL):

The resistance RL connected at the output is known as Load
resistor.

Professor, IMU 11
Working of CE amplifier
When a weak input signal is given to the base of the
transistor in the CE amplifier circuit, a small amount of base
current flows.
Due to the transistor action, a larger current flows in the
collector of the transistor. (Since IC = βIB).
Now, as the collector current increases, the voltage drop
across the resistor RC also increases, which is collected as the
output.
Hence a small input at the base gets amplified as the signal
of larger magnitude and strength at the collector output.
Hence this transistor acts as an amplifier.

Professor, IMU 12
Characteristics of CE amplifier
The voltage gain of a common emitter amplifier is
medium.
The power gain is high in the common emitter
amplifier.
There is a phase relationship of 180 degrees in input
and output.
In the common emitter amplifier, the input and output
resistances are medium.

Professor, IMU 13
DC equivalent circuit of CE amplifier
DC equivalent circuit of CE amplifier can be drawn by

removing all the capacitors in CE amplifier circuit. Hence the
circuit becomes

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
In the above circuit(neglecting base current), because of
voltage divider network, the voltage at the base is given as
Then the voltage at the emitter VE is given as
DC collector-emitter voltage is
where VC = VCC - ICRC and IC ≈ IE.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
If base current is considered, then the equivalent circuit becomes
where Vth is the Thevenin’s voltage and Rth is Thevenin’s resistance.

From the above circuit, Vth = IBRth+VBE+(IC+IB)RE
Since IC = βIB, Vth = IBRth+VBE+(βIB+IB)RE
Vth = IBRth+VBE+(β+1)IBRE

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
From the above equation,

Professor, IMU 4
AC equivalent circuit of CE amplifier
In order to find the ac response of CE amplifier, we need
i) AC equivalent circuit
ii) Equivalent model of transistor
To draw the AC equivalent circuit, three steps to be

followed:
1. Remove all the DC sources
2. Short all the capacitors
3. Redraw the network removing all the elements which
are short circuited in step 1 and 2.

Professor, IMU 5
Step 1

Professor, IMU 6
Step 2

Professor, IMU 7
Step 3

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...

Professor, IMU 9
Frequency response of CE amplifier
The voltage gain of a CE amplifier varies with signal frequency. It is
because the reactance of the capacitors in the circuit changes with
signal frequency and hence affects the output voltage.
The curve drawn between voltage gain and the signal frequency of
an amplifier is known as frequency response. The below figure
shows the frequency response of a typical CE amplifier.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
• At low frequencies the coupling and bypass capacitors lower the gain.
• At high frequencies, stray capacitances associated with the active device
lower the gain.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
From the above graph, we observe that the voltage gain
drops off at low (< FL) and high (> FH) frequencies, whereas it
is constant over the mid-frequency range (FL to FH).
At Low Frequencies (< FL), the reactance of coupling capacitor

C2 is relatively high and hence very small part of the signal will
pass from the amplifier stage to the load.
Moreover, CE cannot shunt the RE effectively because of its

large reactance at low frequencies. These two factors cause a
drops off of voltage gain at low frequencies.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
At High Frequencies (> FH) , the reactance of coupling
capacitor C2 is very small and it behaves as a short circuit. This
increases the loading effect of the amplifier stage and serves
to reduce the voltage gain.
Moreover, at high frequencies, the capacitive reactance of

base-emitters junction is low which increases the base
current.
This frequency reduces the current amplification factor β.

Due to these two reasons, the voltage gain drops off at a high
frequency.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
At Mid Frequencies (FL to FH), the voltage gain of the amplifier is constant.
The effect of the coupling capacitor C2 in this frequency range is such as to
maintain a constant voltage gain.
Hence, as the frequency increases in this mid range, the reactance of CC

decreases, which tends to increase the gain.
Frequency points like FL & FH are related to the lower corner & the upper
corner of the amplifier which are the gain falls of the circuits at high as
well as low frequencies. These frequency points are also known as decibel
points.
From the above two frequency points, the bandwidth(BW) can be defined
as BW = FH – FL.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
We can notice from the above graph, the output at the two
cut-off frequency points will decrease from 0dB to -3dB &
continues to drop at a fixed rate.
This reduction within gain is known commonly as the roll-off

section of the frequency response curve. Normally, the roll-ff
rate is 20 dB/decade.
These 3dB cut-off frequency points will describe the

frequency where the o/p gain can be decreased to 70.7 % of
its utmost value.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Link for frequency response of CE amplifier

http://vlabs.iitkgp.ernet.in/be/exp13/ceamp.html

Professor, IMU 7
Problems on CE amplifier
Problem 1: In the transistor amplifier shown in Figure, RC = 10
kΩ, RL= 30 kΩ and VCC= 20V. The values R1 and R2 are such so as
to fix the operating point at 10V, 1mA. Draw the d.c. and a.c.
load lines. Assume RE is negligible.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
To draw dc load line, two end points to be determined
without input ac signal. Using equation, VCE = VCC - ICRC
i.e. Cut-off point, Maximum VCE = VCC = 20V
Saturation point, Maximum IC = VCC/RC = 20/10K = 2 mA
To draw ac load line, two end points to be determined with

the application of input ac signal.
Here AC load is given as RAC= RC || RL = (10 x 30)/(10+30)
= 7.5 kΩ

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Problem 2: In a transistor amplifier, when the signal changes
by 0.02V, the base current changes by 10 μA and collector
current by 1mA. If collector load RC = 5 kΩ and RL= 10 kΩ,
find: (i) current gain (ii) input impedance (iii) a.c. load
(iv) voltage gain (v) power gain.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
Problem 3: Design a common-emitter amplifier with output impedance
10KΩ and having a gain of 100 using a transistor of β=200 and a 24V
power supply.
Solution:
Vcc=+24V
Output impedance, RC = 10KΩ
Choose VC = Vcc/2 so that the amplifier has +/- 12V swing

IC = (24-VC)/Rc = 12/10K = 1.2 mA
For a gain of 100, Choose RC/RE = 100 or RE = 100Ω

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
For determine the base voltage for biasing R1 and R2
VE = IE RE ≈IC RE = (1.2mA)( 100 Ω ) = 0.12V
VB = VE + 0.6V = 0.72V
w.k.t R2 ≈ 0.1βRE = 0.1 x 200 x 100 = 2KΩ
W.k.t, in voltage divider network, using voltage
division rule
VB = (R2 x VCC)/(R1+R2)
0.72 = (2K x 24)/(R1 + 2K)
R1+2K = 2000 x24/0.72 = 64.6 KΩ ≈ 65 kΩ

Professor, IMU 7
Cascading stages of amplifier
In practical applications, the output of a single state amplifier
is usually insufficient, though it is a voltage or power
amplifier. Hence they are replaced by Multi-stage transistor
amplifiers.
In Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled
to the input of next stage using a coupling device. These
coupling devices can usually be a capacitor or a transformer.
This process of joining two amplifier stages using a coupling
device can be called as Cascading.
Cascading of two stage amplifiers is shown below

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
The basic purposes of a coupling device are

• To transfer the AC from the output of one stage to the input of next
stage.
• To block the DC to pass from the output of one stage to the input of
next stage, which means to isolate the DC conditions.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
There are four basic methods of coupling, using these coupling
devices such as resistors, capacitors, transformers etc.
The type of coupling decides the classification of the multistage
amplifier and those are direct coupling, transformer coupling and
capacitor coupling.
Resistance-Capacitance Coupling:
This is the mostly used method of coupling, formed using simple
resistor-capacitor combination.
The capacitor which allows AC and blocks DC is the main coupling
element used here.
The coupling capacitor passes the AC from the output of one stage
to the input of its next stage. While blocking the DC components
from DC bias voltages to effect the next stage.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Impedance Coupling:
The coupling network that uses inductance and
capacitance as coupling elements can be called as
Impedance coupling network.
In this impedance coupling method, the impedance
of coupling coil depends on its inductance and signal
frequency.
This method is not so popular and is seldom
employed.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
Transformer Coupling:
The coupling method that uses a transformer as the
coupling device can be called as Transformer coupling.
There is no capacitor used in this method of coupling
because the transformer itself conveys the AC
component directly to the base of second stage.
The secondary winding of the transformer provides a
base return path and hence there is no need of base
resistance.
This coupling is popular for its efficiency and its
impedance matching and hence it is mostly used.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
Direct Coupling:
If the previous amplifier stage is connected to the next
amplifier stage directly, it is called as direct coupling.
The individual amplifier stage bias conditions are so designed

that the stages can be directly connected without DC
isolation.
The direct coupling method is mostly used when the load is

connected in series, with the output terminal of the active
circuit element. For example, head-phones, loud speakers
etc.
Professor, IMU 8
Contd...

Professor, IMU 9
RC Coupled Amplifiers
The resistance-capacitance coupling is shortly termed as RC
coupling. This is the mostly used coupling technique in
amplifiers.
Construction of a Two-stage RC Coupled Amplifier:
The figure below shows the circuit diagram of RC coupled
amplifier.

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
The two stage amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected
in CE configuration and a common power supply VCC is used.
The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the resistor RE
form the biasing and stabilization network.
The emitter by-pass capacitor CE offers a low reactance path
to the signal.
The resistor RL is used as a load impedance.
The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the
amplifier couples AC signal to the base of the transistor.
The capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor that connects two
stages and prevents DC interference between the stages and
controls the shift of operating point.

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier:
When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it
gets amplified and appears at the collector load RL which is then
passed through the coupling capacitor CC to the next stage.
This becomes the input of the next stage, whose amplified output
again appears across its collector load. Thus the signal is amplified
in stage by stage action.Thus the total gain is less than the product
of the gains of individual stages.
This is because the effective load resistance of the first stage is
reduced due to the shunting effect of the input resistance of the
second stage. Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the gain of the
last stage remains unchanged.
The output phase is same as input because the phase reversal is
done two times by the two stage CE configured amplifier circuit.

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...
Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier:
The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier is as shown
in the following graph.

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...
From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off
or decreases for the frequencies below 50Hz and for the frequencies
above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain for the range of frequencies
between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.
At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz):
W.k.t, the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the
frequency.
At low frequencies, the reactance is quite high.
The reactance of input capacitor Cin and the coupling capacitor CC
are so high that only small part of the input signal is allowed. The
reactance of the emitter by pass capacitor CE is also very high during
low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the emitter resistance
effectively.
With all these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low frequencies.

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz):
Again with the same point, the capacitive reactance is low at
high frequencies.
So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies.
As a result of this, the loading effect of the next stage
increases, which reduces the voltage gain.
Along with this, as the capacitance of emitter diode
decreases, it increases the base current of the transistor due
to which the current gain (β) reduces.
Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high frequencies.

Professor, IMU 15
Contd...
At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz):
The voltage gain of the amplifier is maintained constant in
this range of frequencies.
If the frequency increases, the reactance of the capacitor CC
decreases which tends to increase the gain.
But this lower capacitive reactance increases the loading
effect of the next stage by which there is a reduction in gain.
By this way, the gain is maintained constant.

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...
Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier:
The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant
gain over a wide frequency range, hence most suitable for
audio applications.
The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs
resistors and capacitors which are cheap.
It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.
Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier:
The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective
load resistance.
They become noisy with age.
Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...
Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier:
They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of

frequency.
Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used

in the final stages.

Professor, IMU 18
Negative and Positive feedback amplifiers
Every high gain amplifier tends to give noise along with signal
in its output, which is very undesirable.
This noise is introduced in the amplifiers because of their

strong tendency to introduce hum due to sudden
temperature changes or stray electric and magnetic fields.
The noise level in the amplifier circuits can be considerably

reduced by using negative feedback done by injecting a
fraction of output in phase opposition to the input signal.

Professor, IMU 1
Principle of Feedback Amplifier
A feedback amplifier generally consists of two parts. They are
the amplifier and the feedback circuit. The feedback circuit
usually consists of resistors.
The concept of feedback amplifier can be understood from
the following figure.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
From the above figure, the feedback network extracts a
voltage Vf = β Vo from the output Vo of the amplifier.
This voltage is added for positive feedback and subtracted for
negative feedback, from the signal voltage Vs.
Now,
The quantity β = Vf/Vo is called as feedback ratio or feedback

fraction.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
In case of negative feedback, The output Vo must be equal to
the input voltage (Vs - βVo) multiplied by the gain A of the
amplifier. i.e.,

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the
amplifier. Then Af can be defined as
In case of negative feedback, the equation of gain of the

feedback amplifier is
In case of positive feedback, the equation of gain of the

feedback amplifier is

Professor, IMU 5
Types of Feedbacks
The process of injecting a fraction of output energy of some device
back to the input is known as Feedback.
Feedback is very useful in reducing noise and making the amplifier
operation stable.
Depending upon whether the feedback signal aids or opposes the
input signal, there are two types of feedbacks used.
Positive Feedback:
The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage or
current is in phase with the input signal and thus aids it is called as
Positive feedback.
The input signal and feedback signal introduces a phase shift of 180o
, thus making a 360o resultant phase shift around the loop.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Though the positive feedback increases the gain of the
amplifier, it has the disadvantages such as
◦ Increasing distortion
◦ Instability
Because of these disadvantages, the positive feedback is not
recommended for the amplifiers.
If the positive feedback is sufficiently large, it leads to
oscillations. Hence positive feedback is used in oscillators.
Negative Feedback:
The feedback in which the feedback energy i.e., either voltage
or current is out of phase with the input and thus opposes it,
is called as negative feedback.

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
In negative feedback, the amplifier introduces a phase shift of
180o and the feedback network produces no phase shift. Hence
Vf is 180o out of phase with the input Vi.
Though the gain of negative feedback amplifier is reduced, there

are many advantages of negative feedback such as
◦ Stability of gain is improved
◦ Reduction in distortion
◦ Reduction in noise
◦ Increase in input impedance
◦ Decrease in output impedance
Because of these advantages, negative feedback is frequently

employed in amplifiers.
Professor, IMU 8
Negative Feedback Amplifiers
There are two main types of negative feedback circuits. They
are Negative Voltage Feedback and Negative Current
Feedback.
In Negative Voltage Feedback, the voltage feedback to the

input of amplifier is proportional to the output voltage. They
are further calssified into two types namely Voltage-series
feedback and Voltage-shunt feedback.
In Negative Current Feedback, the voltage feedback to the

input of amplifier is proportional to the output current. They
are further calssified into two types namely Current-series
feedback and Current-shunt feedback.

Professor, IMU 9
Voltage-Series Feedback Amplifier
In this circuit, a fraction of the output voltage is applied in
series with the input voltage through the feedback circuit.
This is also known as shunt-driven series-fed feedback.
The block diagram of voltage series feedback is shown below.
As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output,

the output impedance is decreased and due to the series
connection with the input, the input impedance is increased.

Professor, IMU 10
Voltage-Shunt Feedback Amplifier
parallel with the input voltage through the feedback network.
This is also known as shunt-driven shunt-fed feedback.
The block diagram of voltage shunt feedback is shown below.
As the feedback circuit is connected in shunt with the output

and the input as well, both the output impedance and the
input impedance are decreased.

Professor, IMU 11
Current-Series Feedback Amplifier
This is also known as series-driven series-fed feedback.
The block diagram of current series feedback is shown below.
As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output

and the input as well, both the output impedance and the
input impedance are increased.

Professor, IMU 12
Current-Shunt Feedback Amplifier
This is also known as series-driven shunt-fed feedback.
The block diagram of current shunt feedback is shown below.
As the feedback circuit is connected in series with the output,

the output impedance is increased and due to the parallel
connection with the input, the input impedance is decreased.

Professor, IMU 13
Comparision of negative feedback amplifiers

Professor, IMU 14
Power amplifiers
In practice, any amplifier consists of few stages of
amplification.
After the audio signal is converted into electrical signal, it has
several voltage amplifications done, after which the power
amplification of the amplified signal is done just before the
loud speaker stage. This is shown in figure below.
While the voltage amplifier raises the voltage level of the

signal, the power amplifier raises the power level of the
signal.
Power amplifier also does the conversion of DC power to AC
power and whose action is controlled by the input signal
Professor, IMU 1
Power transistor
Normal transistor will not do the poweramplification. Power
transistor is used for doing the same.
A Power transistor differs from the other transistors, in the

following factors:
◦ It is larger in size, in order to handle large powers.
◦ The collector region of the transistor is made large and a heat
sink is placed at the collector-base junction in order to minimize
heat generated.
◦ The emitter and base regions of a power transistor are heavily
doped.
◦ Due to the low input resistance, it requires low input power.
Hence there is a lot of difference in voltage amplification and

power amplification.

Professor, IMU 2
Difference between voltage and power amplifier
Voltage Amplifier:
The function of a voltage amplifier is to raise the voltage level of the
signal. The voltage gain of an amplifier is given by
Characteristics of a voltage amplifier are as follows:

◦ The base of the transistor should be thin and hence the value of β
should be greater than 100.
◦ The resistance of the input resistor Rin should be low when
compared to collector load RC.
◦ The collector load RC should be relatively high. To permit high
collector load, the voltage amplifiers are always operated at low
collector current.
◦ The voltage amplifiers are used for small signal voltages.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Power Amplifier:
The function of a power amplifier is to raise the power level of
input signal. It is required to deliver a large amount of power and
has to handle large current.
Characteristics of a power amplifier are as follows:

◦ The base of transistor is made thicken to handle large currents.
The value of β being low.
◦ The size of the transistor is made larger, in order to dissipate
more heat, which is produced during transistor operation.
◦ Transformer coupling is used for impedance matching.
◦ Collector resistance is made low.

Professor, IMU 4
Comparision between voltage and power amplifier

Professor, IMU 5
Classification of power amplifiers
The classification is done based on their frequencies and also
based on their mode of operation.
Classification Based on Frequencies:

Audio Power Amplifiers − The audio power amplifiers raise
the power level of signals that have audio frequency range
(20 Hz to 20 KHz). They are also known as Small signal power
amplifiers.
Radio Power Amplifiers − Radio Power Amplifiers or tuned
power amplifiers raise the power level of signals that have
radio frequency range (3 KHz to 300 MHz). They are also
known as large signal power amplifiers.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Classification Based on Mode of Operation:
On the basis of the mode of operation, i.e., the portion of the input cycle
during which collector current flows, the power amplifiers may be
classified as follows:
Class A Power amplifier − When the collector current flows at all times
during the full cycle of signal, the power amplifier is known as class A
power amplifier.
Class B Power amplifier − When the collector current flows only during the
positive half cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as
class B power amplifier.
Class C Power amplifier − When the collector current flows for less than
half cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class C
power amplifier.
There forms another amplifier called Class AB amplifier, if we combine the
class A and class B amplifiers so as to utilize the advantages of both.

Professor, IMU 7
Factors determining performance of power
amplifiers
The primary objective of a power amplifier is to obtain
maximum output power.
In order to achieve this, the important factors to be
considered are collector efficiency, power dissipation
capability and distortion.
Collector Efficiency:
This explains how well an amplifier converts DC power to AC
power.
When the DC supply is given by the battery but no AC signal
input is given, the collector output at such a condition is
observed as collector efficiency.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
The collector efficiency is defined as
The main aim of a power amplifier is to obtain maximum

collector efficiency. Hence, the value of collector efficiency
should be always high.
Power Dissipation Capacity:
As a power transistor handles large currents, it gets more
heated up. This heat increases the temperature of the
transistor, which alters the operating point of the transistor.

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
In order to maintain the operating point stability, the
temperature of the transistor has to be kept in permissible
limits.
For this, metal cases called heat sinks are used in order to
dissipate the heat produced in power transistors. Such a
capacity is called as Power dissipation capability.
Power dissipation capability can be defined as the ability of a
power transistor to dissipate the heat developed in it.
Distortion:
Distortion is defined as the change in output wave shape
from the input wave shape of the amplifier.

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
Since transistor is a non-linear device, when compared with
the input, there occur few variations in the output.
In voltage amplifiers, this problem is not pre-dominant as
small currents are used. But in power amplifiers, as large
currents are in use, the problem of distortion certainly arises.
But this distortion should be low.
An amplifier that has lesser distortion, produces a better
output and hence considered efficient.

Professor, IMU 11
Class A Power Amplifier
Class A power amplifier is one in which the output current
flows for the entire cycle of the AC input supply.
Hence the complete signal present at the input is amplified at
the output.
The circuit diagram of series-fed Class A power amplifier is
shown here.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
The operating point of this
amplifier is present in the linear
region. It is so selected that the
current flows for the entire ac
input cycle.
The figure explains the selection
of operating point.
Here IcQ and VceQ represent no
signal collector current and
voltage between collector and
emitter respectively.
When signal is applied, the
Q-point shifts to Q1 and Q2.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
D.C. Power drawn from collector battery Vcc is given by
This power is used in the following two parts:

◦ Power dissipated in the collector load as heat is given by
◦ Power given to transistor is given by

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
When signal is applied, the power given to transistor is used
in the following two parts:
◦ A.C. Power developed across load resistors RC which constitutes the

a.c. power output.
where I is the R.M.S. value of a.c. output current through load, V is

the R.M.S. value of a.c. voltage, and Vm is the maximum value.
◦ The D.C. power dissipated by the transistor (collector region) in the

form of heat, i.e., (PC)dc

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Power flow diagram:
This class A power amplifier can amplify small signals with least
distortion and the output will be an exact replica of the input with
increased strength.

Professor, IMU 5
Overall Efficiency of Class A amplifier
The overall efficiency of the amplifier circuit is given by
w.k.t
The overall efficiency of series fed Class A amplifier is 25%.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Advantages of Class A Amplifier:

◦ The current flows for complete input cycle
◦ It can amplify small signals
◦ The output is same as input
◦ No distortion is present
Disadvantages of Class A Amplifier:
◦ Low power output
◦ Low collector efficiency

Professor, IMU 7
Transformer Coupled Class A Power Amplifier
The circuit diagam of transformer coupled class A power

amplifier is shown below.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
The transformer used here is a step-down transformer.
The high impedance primary of the transformer is connected
to the high impedance collector circuit. The low impedance
secondary is connected to the load (generally loud speaker).
The transformer used in the collector circuit is for impedance
matching.

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
In order to achieve complete amplification, the operating
point should lie at the center of the load line.
The operating point obviously varies when the signal is
applied.
If the peak value of the collector current due to signal is equal
to zero signal collector current, then the maximum a.c. power
output is obtained.
Since we are using transformer at the output, power loss is
negligible.

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
Therefore the collector efficiency is given as
Collector efficiency in transformer coupled Class A amplifier is

50 %.
Hence, compared to series-fed class A amplifier, the efficiency

has been improved to 50% using transformer coupled class A
amplifier.

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Advantages of transformer coupled Class A amplifier:
◦ No loss of signal power in the base or collector resistors.
◦ Excellent impedance matching is achieved.
◦ Gain is high.
◦ DC isolation is provided.
Disadvantages of transformer coupled Class A amplifier:
◦ Low frequency signals are less amplified comparatively.
◦ Hum noise is introduced by transformers.
◦ Transformers are bulky and costly.
◦ Poor frequency response.
Applications:
◦ This circuit is used where impedance matching is the main criterion.
◦ These are used as driver amplifiers and sometimes as output amplifiers.

Professor, IMU 12
Class B Power Amplifier
When the collector current flows only during the positive half
cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class
B power amplifier.
The biasing of the transistor in class B operation is in such a
way that at zero signal condition, there will be no collector
current.
The operating point is selected to be at collector cut off
voltage.
So, when the signal is applied, only the positive half cycle is
amplified at the output.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
The figure shows the input and
output waveforms during class B
operation.
When the signal is applied, the

circuit is forward biased for the
positive half cycle of the input and
hence the collector current flows.
But during the negative half cycle

of the input, the circuit is reverse
biased and the collector current
will be absent. Hence only the
positive half cycle is amplified at
the output.
Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
As the negative half cycle is completely absent, the signal
distortion will be high.
Also, when the applied signal increases, the power dissipation
will be more.
But when compared to class A power amplifier, the output
efficiency is increased.
The circuit diagram of Class B amplifier is same as that of
transformer coupled class A amplifier, keeping R2 = 0,
because the silicon transistor is at cut-off if the base is
shorted to the emitter (VBE = 0).

Professor, IMU 3
Push-pull Principle
In order to minimize the disadvantages and achieve low
distortion, high efficiency and high output power, the
push-pull configuration is used in this class B amplifier.
Push-pull amplifier has two transistors in the circuit. One of
the transistors push the current towards output during
positive half-cycle of the input signal The other transistor
pulls the current towards the output during the negative
half-cycle of the input signal.Thus, the amplifier is called as
Push-pull Amplifier.
A push-pull amplifier is usually preferred to amplify the
signals without distortion.

Professor, IMU 4
Class B Push-Pull Amplifier
The circuit of a push-pull class B power amplifier is shown
below.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
It consists of two identical transistors T1 and T2 whose bases
are connected to the secondary of the center-tapped input
transformer Tr1.
The emitters are shorted and the collectors are given the VCC
supply through the primary of the output transformer Tr2.
Here the transistors are biased to be in cut off state.
Operation:
When no signal is applied at the input, the transistors T1 and
T2 are in cut off condition and hence no collector currents
flow. As no current is drawn from VCC, no power is wasted.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
When input signal is given, it is applied to the input
transformer Tr1 which splits the signal into two signals that
are 180o out of phase with each other.
These two signals are given to the two identical transistors T1

and T2.
For the positive half cycle, the base of the transistor T1

becomes positive and collector current flows.
At the same time, the transistor T2 has negative half cycle,

which throws the transistor T2 into cutoff condition and
hence no collector current flows.

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
Hence the waveform produced is shown below.
For the next half cycle, the transistor T1 gets into cut off condition
and the transistor T2 gets into conduction, to contribute the output.
Hence for both the cycles, each transistor conducts alternately. The
output transformer Tr3 serves to join the two currents producing an
almost undistorted output waveform.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
The efficiency of class B push-pull amplifier is increased to
78.5 % compared to class A amplifier.
But the main disadvantage in this circuit is use of bulky, heavy

and costly centre tapped transformers.
Inorder to overcome this demerit, complementary symmetry

push-pull amplifier is introduced.

Professor, IMU 9
Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull Class B Amplifier
The circuit diagram of complementary symmetry push-pull

amplifier is shown below.

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
The above circuit employs a NPN transistor and a PNP
transistor connected in push pull configuration.
When the input signal is applied, during the positive half cycle
of the input signal, the NPN transistor conducts and the PNP
transistor cuts off.
During the negative half cycle, the NPN transistor cuts off and
the PNP transistor conducts.
Hence NPN transistor amplifies during positive half cycle of
the input, while PNP transistor amplifies during negative half
cycle of the input.
As the transistors are both complement to each other, yet act
symmetrically while being connected in push pull
configuration of class B, this circuit is termed as
Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier.

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Advantages of Complementary symmetry push pull class B
amplifier:
◦ As there is no need of center tapped transformers, the weight
and cost are reduced.
◦ Equal and opposite input signal voltages are not required.
Disadvantages of Complementary symmetry push pull class

B amplifier:
◦ It is difficult to get a pair of transistors (NPN and PNP) that have
similar characteristics.
◦ We require both positive and negative supply voltages.

Professor, IMU 12
Crossover Distortion
In the push-pull configuration, the two identical transistors get
into conduction, one after the other and the output produced
will be the combination of both.
When the signal changes or crosses over from one transistor to
the other at the zero voltage point, it produces an amount of
distortion to the output wave shape. This is called crossover
distortion.
This is beacuse of the base emitter junction should exceed 0.7V
(cut off voltage) for a transistor to conduct.
Time taken for a transistor to get ON from OFF or to get OFF
from ON state is called the transition period.
During the transition period, it leads to the instances where
where both the transistors are OFF at a time. Such instances can
be called as Flat spot or Dead band on the output wave shape.
Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
The crossover distortion in the output waveform is shown
below.
This cross over distortion effect also reduces the overall peak
to peak value of the output waveform which in turn reduces
the maximum power output.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
The dead zone concept can be better understood from the
figure below.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
This cross-over distortion is less pronounced for large input
signals, where as it causes severe disturbance for small input
signals.
This cross over distortion can be eliminated if the conduction
of the amplifier is more than one half cycle, so that both the
transistors won’t be OFF at the same time.
This idea leads to the invention of class AB amplifier, which is
the combination of both class A and class B amplifiers.
As class A amplifier has the problem of low efficiency and
class B amplifier has distortion problem, this class AB is
emerged to eliminate these two problems, by utilizing the
advantages of both the classes.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
The circuit diagram of Class AB
amplifier is shown here.
The conduction angle of class AB
amplifier is somewhere between
180o to 360o depending upon the
operating point selected.
The small bias voltage given using
diodes D1 and D2, as shown in the
above figure, helps the operating
point to be above the cutoff point.
Class AB is a good compromise
between class A and class B in
terms of efficiency and linearity
having the efficiency reaching
about 50% to 60%.

Professor, IMU 5
Class C Power Amplifier
The class A, B and AB amplifiers, so far discussed, are called as
linear amplifiers.
When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of
the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class C
power amplifier.
The efficiency of class C amplifier is high while linearity is
poor.
The conduction angle for class C is less than 180o. It is
generally around 90o, which means the transistor remains idle
for more than half of the input signal.
So, the output current will be delivered for less time
compared to the application of input signal.
Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
The circuit diagram of Class C amplifier is shown below.
The negative supply voltage VBB connected to the base circuit

reverse biases the base- emitter junction so that it will
conduct only when input signal exceeds the reverse bias.

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
As a result,the collector current IC will be in the form of
pulses.
Hence the Class C amplifier is not used in the audio frequency
but used in the radio frequency range.
The tank circuit connected to the collector of the amplifier
restores the sine wave of the input signal.
The input and output waveforms of Class C amplifier is shown
below.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
The efficiency of Class C amplifier is very high. i.e. above 90%.
But this amplifier introduces heavy distortion in the output
signal.

Professor, IMU 9
Oscillators and Multivibrators
UNIT 4

Professor, IMU 1
Oscillators
Any circuit which is used to generate a periodic signal without
an AC input signal is called an Oscillator.
Alternatively it can be defined as the circuit which converts

DC energy into AC at a very high frequency.
Oscillators can also be considered as opposite to rectifiers

that convert a.c. to d.c. as these convert d.c. to a.c.
An amplifier with positive feedback can be realized as an

oscillator.

Professor, IMU 2
Amplifier vs Oscillator
An amplifier increases the signal strength of the input signal
applied.
An oscillator generates a signal without ac input signal, but it
requires dc for its operation.

Professor, IMU 3
Alternator vs. Oscillator
An alternator is a mechanical device that produces sinusoidal
waves without any input. This a.c. generating machine is used
to generate frequencies up to 1000Hz.
The output frequency depends on the number of poles and
the speed of rotation of the armature.
But oscillators differ from alternators in many ways as
follows:
◦ An alternator converts mechanical energy to a.c. energy, whereas the
oscillator converts d.c. energy into a.c. energy.
◦ An oscillator can produce higher frequencies of several MHz whereas
an alternator cannot.
◦ An alternator has rotating parts, whereas an electronic oscillator
doesn’t.
◦ It is easy to change the frequency of oscillations in an oscillator than in
an alternator.
Professor, IMU 4
Classification of Oscillators
Oscillators are classified mainly into the following two
categories:
Sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output
having a sine waveform are called sinusoidal or harmonic
oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies
ranging from 20 Hz to 1 GHz.
Non-sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an

output having a square, rectangular or saw-tooth waveform
are called non-sinusoidal or relaxation oscillators. Such
oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging from 0
Hz to 20 MHz.

Professor, IMU 5
Classification of Sinusoidal Oscillators
Sinusoidal oscillators can be classified in the following
categories:
Tuned Circuit Oscillators − These oscillators use a
tuned-circuit consisting of inductors (L) and capacitors (C) and
are used to generate high-frequency signals. Thus they are
also known as radio frequency R.F. oscillators. Examples:
Hartley, Colpitts, Clapp-oscillators, etc.
RC Oscillators − These oscillators use resistors and capacitors

and are used to generate low or audio-frequency signals.
Thus they are also known as audio-frequency (A.F.)
oscillators. Examples: Phase –shift and Wein-bridge
oscillators.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Crystal Oscillators − These oscillators use quartz crystals and
are used to generate highly stabilized output signal with
frequencies up to 10 MHz. The Piezo oscillator is an example
of a crystal oscillator.
Negative-resistance Oscillator − These oscillators use

negative-resistance characteristic of the devices such as
tunnel devices. A tuned diode oscillator is an example of a
negative-resistance oscillator.

Professor, IMU 7
Nature of Sinusoidal Oscillations
The nature of oscillations in a sinusoidal wave are generally of
two types. They are damped and undamped oscillations.
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on
decreasing with time are called as Damped Oscillations. The
frequency of the damped oscillations may remain constant
depending upon the circuit parameters.
Damped oscillations are generally produced by the oscillatory
circuits that produce power losses and doesn’t compensate.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd....
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant
with time are called as Undamped Oscillations. The frequency
of the Undamped oscillations remains constant.
Undamped oscillations are generally produced by the
oscillatory circuits that produce no power losses and follow
compensation techniques if any power losses occur.

Professor, IMU 9
Basic concepts of sinusoidal oscillators
An amplifier with positive feedback produces its output to be

in phase with the input and increases the strength of the
signal.
Positive feedback is also called as regenerative feedback or
direct feedback.
An amplifier with such a positive feedback makes an
oscillator.
The use of positive feedback results in a feedback amplifier
having closed-loop gain greater than the open-loop gain.
It results in instability and operates as an oscillatory circuit.
An oscillatory circuit provides a constantly varying amplified
output signal of any desired frequency.
Professor, IMU 10
Basic principle of LC tank circuit
An oscillatory circuit produces electrical oscillations of a
desired frequency. They are also known as tank circuits.
A simple tank circuit comprises of an inductor L and a
capacitor C both of which together determine the frequency
of the oscillatory circuit.
Consider the tank circuit given below.
Assume the capacitor in the circuit is already charged using
DC source.

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Now the capacitor is charged with positive charge on the
upper plate and negative charge on the negative plate as
shown in the figure above.
So, the capacitor holds some electrostatic energy and there is
a voltage across the capacitor.
When the switch S is closed, the capacitor discharges and the
current flows through the inductor.
Due to the inductive effect, the current builds up slowly
towards a maximum value.
Once the capacitor discharges completely, the magnetic field
around the coil is maximum.

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...
Once the capacitor is discharged completely, the magnetic
field begins to collapse and produces a counter EMF
according to Lenz’s law.
The capacitor is now charged with negative charge on the

upper plate and positive charge on the lower plate as shown
below.

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...
Once the capacitor is fully charged, it starts to discharge to
build up a magnetic field around the coil, as shown in the
following circuit diagram.
This continuation of charging and discharging results in

alternating motion of electrons or an oscillatory current.
The interchange of energy between L and C produce
continuous oscillations.

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
In an ideal circuit, where there are no losses, the oscillations
would continue indefinitely.
In a practical tank circuit, there occur losses such as resistive
and radiation losses in the coil and dielectric losses in the
capacitor. These losses result in damped oscillations.
Frequency of Oscillations:
The frequency of the oscillations produced by the tank circuit
are determined by the components of the tank circuit, the L
and the C.
The actual frequency of oscillations is the resonant frequency
(or natural frequency) of the tank circuit which is given by

Professor, IMU 15
Practical Oscillator Circuit
A Practical Oscillator circuit consists of a tank circuit, a
transistor amplifier, and a feedback circuit as shown below.
Tank Circuit for determing the frequency of oscillations,

Amplifier for increasing the output of the oscillations and
Feedback circuit for providing positive feedback.

Professor, IMU 16
Frequency Stability of an Oscillator
The frequency stability of an oscillator is a measure of its
ability to maintain a constant frequency, over a long time
interval.
But there will be drift in frequency from the previous set
value when the oscillator is operated for a long period of
time.
Reasons for change in oscillator frequency are given below:
◦ Deviaton in the operating point of the transistor from the linear
region
◦ Temperature dependency of the performance of circuit
components
◦ Changes in d.c. supply voltage applied to the active device
◦ Change in output load may cause a change in the Q-factor of the
tank circuit
◦ Presence of inter element capacitances and stray capacitances
Professor, IMU 17
The Barkhausen Criteria for Oscillations
Inorder to understand the Barkhausen criterion, let us derive the
gain of the feedback amplifier. Consider the feedback amplifier as
shown below.
Gain of the amplifier is represented as A. It is defined as the ratio of

output voltage Vo to the input voltage Vi.
The feedback network extracts a voltage Vf = β Vo from the output Vo
of the amplifier.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
For a positive feedback, Vi = Vs + Vf = Vs + β Vo
The output Vo must be equal to the input voltage (Vs + βVo)
multiplied by the gain A of the amplifier.
Hence Vo = A (Vs + βVo)
Vo - A βVo = A Vs
Vo (1 - A β) = A Vs
Therefore
Let Af be the overall gain (gain with the feedback) of the

amplifier. This is defined as the ratio of output voltage Vo to the
applied signal voltage Vs.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
where Aβ is the feedback factor or the loop gain.
If Aβ = 1, Af = ∞. Thus the gain becomes infinity, i.e., there is
output without any input. Hence the feedback amplifier with
positive feedback works as an oscillator.
This condition Aβ = 1 is called as Barkhausen Criterion of
oscillations.
Hence, the essential conditions for maintaining oscillations
are referred to as Barkhausen criterion. They are as follows:
◦ | Aβ | = 1, i.e. the magnitude of loop gain must be unity.
◦ The total phase shift around the closed loop is zero or 360
degrees.

Professor, IMU 3
Tuned Circuit Oscillators
Tuned circuit oscillators are also known as LC oscillators,
resonant circuit oscillators or tank circuit oscillators
Tuned circuit oscillators are the circuits that produce
oscillations with the help of tuning circuits. Tuning circuits
consist of an inductance L and a capacitor C.
These circuits can produce an output with frequencies
ranging from 1 MHz to 500 MHz. Hence these are also known
as R.F. Oscillators.
Tuned circuit oscillators consist of an amplifier (either BJT or
FET) and LC tank circuit.
By using amplifier and LC tank circuit, oscillations can be
sustained.

Professor, IMU 4
Types of LC Oscillators
Depending upon the way the feedback is used in the circuit,
the LC oscillators are divided into following types:
Tuned-collector or Armstrong Oscillator: uses inductive
feedback from collector to base of the transistor. LC circuit is
found at the collector circuit of the transistor.
Tuned base Oscillator: It also uses inductive feedback but LC
circuit is found in the base circuit of the transistor.
Hartley Oscillator: It also uses inductive feedback
Colpitts Oscillator: It uses capacitive feedback.
Clapp Oscillator: It also uses capacitive feedback.

Professor, IMU 5
Tuned Collector Oscillator
Tuned collector oscillators
are called so, because the
tuned circuit is placed in
the collector of the
transistor amplifier.
The circuit diagram of

tuned collector oscillator is
shown here.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Construction:
The resistors R1, R2 and RE are used to provide d.c. bias to the
transistor.
The capacitors CE and C are the by-pass capacitors.The parallel
combination of RE and CE in the emitter circuit is the stabilizing
circuit.
The secondary of the transformer (L2) provides a.c. feedback
voltage that appears across the base-emitter junction of R1 and R2.
The junction is at ac ground due to by-pass capcitor C.
If the capacitor C is not present there, then a part of the voltage
induced in L2 will drop across R2, instead of completely coupling to
the input of the transistor.
CE transisitor provides 180o phase shift and the transformer
provides 180o phase shift and hence total phase shift of 360o
between input and ouput voltages is achieved.
Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
Operation:
Once the supply is given, the collector current starts increasing
and capacitor C starts charging.
When the capacitor is fully charged, it discharges through the
primary winding L1.
As we have discussed already in LC tank circuit, the energy
transfer between L1 and C1 produces oscillations.
These oscillations induce some voltage in the secondary winding
L2 .
The frequency of voltage induced in the secondary winding is
same as that of the tank circuit.
The magnitude of induced voltage depends upon the number of
turns in secondary winding and coupling between both the
windings.
Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
The voltage induced in L2 is applied between base and emitter
and appears as the amplified form in the collector circuit,
thus overcoming the losses in the tank circuit.
Hence the oscillations are maintained at the output of the
circuit.
Tuned collector oscillators are widely used as the local
oscillator in radio receivers.

Professor, IMU 9
Tuned Base Oscillator
Tuned base oscillators
are called so, because
the tuned circuit is
found in the base of
the transistor
amplifier.

tuned base oscillator is
shown here.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
Construction:
The resistors R1 and R2 are used to provide d.c. bias to the
transistor.
The parallel combination of RE and CE in the emitter circuit is
the stabilizing circuit.
CC is the blocking capacitor. The capacitors CE and C1 are the
by-pass capacitors.
Primary coil (L1) of the transformer and the capacitor C1 forms
the tank circuit.
CE transisitor provides 180o phase shift and the transformer
provides 180o phase shift and hence total phase shift of 360o
between input and ouput voltages is achieved.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Operation:
When power supply is applied, the transistor Q1 starts
conducting and its collector current starts to rise.
This collector current actually flows through secondary coil L2.
This rise in current current through the secondary induces
some voltage across the primary coil L1 by virtue of mutual
induction.
The induced voltage across L1 charges the capacitor C1 to the
maximum.
Once the capacitor is fully charged, it starts discharging
through L1. Then the energy transfer occurs between L1 and C
and produces oscillations.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
These oscillations are coupled to the base the transistor
through capacitor Cc and it appears in amplified form across
the collector of the same transistor.
A portion of the collector voltage is inductively coupled to the
tank circuit by the secondary coil L2 for compensating the
losses in the tank circuit.
If the feedback is too low, the oscillations will die out in time
and if the feedback is too high the output will be distorted.
The feedback fraction can be adjusted by varying the turns
ratio of the transformer.
The frequency of oscillation is equal to the resonant
frequency of L.C. circuit.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
The main drawback of tuned-base oscillator circuit is that,
due to the low base-emitter resistance, which appears in
shunt with the tuned circuit, the tank circuit gets loaded.
This reduces its Q which in turn causes drift in oscillator

frequency.
Thus stability becomes poorer. Due to this reason, the tuned

circuit is not usually connected in base circuit.

Professor, IMU 5
Hartley Oscillator
A very popular local
oscillator circuit that is
mostly used in radio
receivers is the Hartley
Oscillator circuit.

Hartley oscillator is shown
here.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Construction:
The resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition
and bias stabilization for the circuit.
The capacitor Ce provides a.c. ground thereby providing any

signal degeneration.
The capacitors Cc1 and Cc2 are employed to block d.c. and to
provide an a.c. path.

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
Tank Circuit:
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant
circuit which consists of the inductors L1 and L2 along with a
variable capacitor C.
The junction of L1 and L2 are earthed.
The coil L1 has its one end connected to base via Cc1 and the
other to emitter via Ce.
So, L2 is in the output circuit. Both the coils L1 and L2 are

inductively coupled and together form an Auto-transformer.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
Operation:
When the power supply is switched ON the transistor starts
conducting and the collector current increases.
As a result the capcitor C starts charging and when the
capacitor C is fully charged it starts discharging through coil
L1.
This charging and discharging creates a series of damped
oscillations in the tank circuit.
The oscillations produced in the tank circuit is coupled to the
base of transistor and it appears in the amplified form across
the collector and emitter of the transistor.
The output voltage of the transistor (voltage across collector
and emitter) will be in phase with the voltage across inductor
L1.

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
Since the junction of two inductors is grounded, the voltage
across L2 will be 180° out of phase to that of the voltage
across L1.
The voltage across L2 is actually fed back to the base of
transistor.
Hence the feedback voltage is 180° out of phase with the
transistor.
The transistor itself will create another 180° phase shift.
Hence total phase difference between input and output is
360° and it is very important condition for creating sustained
oscillations.

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
The frequency of Hartley oscillator is given by
where
Here, LT is the total cumulatively coupled inductance.

L1 and L2 represent inductances of the coils and M represents mutual
inductance.
The condition for sustained oscillation is
Advantages:
◦ Instead of using a large transformer, a single coil can be used as an
auto-transformer.
◦ Frequency can be varied by employing either a variable capacitor
or a variable inductor.
◦ Less number of components are sufficient.
◦ The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed
frequency range.

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
◦ Disadvantages:
◦ It cannot be a low frequency oscillator.
◦ Harmonic distortions are present.
Applications:
◦ It is used to produce a sinewave of desired frequency.
◦ Mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
◦ It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.

Professor, IMU 12
Colpitts Oscillator
A Colpitts oscillator is similar
to Hartley oscillator but the
inductors and capacitors are
replaced with each other in
the tank circuit.
The circuit diagram of a

Colpitts oscillator is shown
here

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
Construction:
The resistors R1, R2 and Re provide necessary bias condition
and bias stabilization for the circuit.
The capacitor Ce provides a.c. ground thereby providing any

signal degeneration.
The capacitors Cc1 and Cc2 are employed to block d.c. and to
provide an a.c. path.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Tank Circuit:
The frequency determining network is a parallel resonant
circuit which consists of variable capacitors C1 and C2 along
with an inductor L.
The junction of C1 and C2 are earthed.
The capacitor C1 has its one end connected to base via Cc1 and
the other to emitter via CE.
The voltage developed across C1 provides the regenerative
feedback required for the sustained oscillations.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Operation:
When power supply is switched ON, capacitors C1 and C2
starts charging.
When they are fully charged they starts discharging through
the inductor L.
When the capacitors are fully discharged, the electrostatic
energy stored in the capacitors gets transferred to the
inductor as magnetic flux.
The the inductor starts discharging and capacitors gets
charged again.
This transfer of energy back and forth between capacitors
and inductor is the basis of oscillation.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Voltage across C2 is phase opposite to that of the voltage
across the C1.
The voltage across C2 is actually fed back to the transistor.
The feedback signal at the base of transistor appears in the
amplified form across the collector and emitter of the
transistor.
The energy lost in the tank circuit is compensated by the
transistor and the oscillations are sustained.
The tank circuit produces 180° phase shift and the transistor
itself produces another 180° phase shift. Hence it makes 360 o
phase shift between the input and output voltages.
Therefore, the input and output are in phase and it is a
necessary condition of positive feedback for maintaining
sustained oscillations.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
The frequency of oscillations of the Colpitts oscillator is given by
where CT is the total capacitance of C1 and C2 connected in series.

i.e.
The condition for sustaining oscillations is

Advantages:
It can generate sinusoidal signals of very high frequencies.
It can withstand high and low temperatures.
The frequency stability is high.
Frequency can be varied by using both the variable capacitors.
The amplitude of the output remains constant over a fixed
frequency range.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
The Colpitts oscillator is designed to eliminate the
disadvantages of Hartley oscillator and is known to have no
specific disadvantages.
Applications:
It can be used as High frequency sinewave generator.
This can be used as a temperature sensor with some
associated circuitry.
It is mostly used as a local oscillator in radio receivers.
It is also used as R.F. Oscillator.

Professor, IMU 7
RC Oscillators
Eventhough we have LC oscillators, they suffer from the following
drawbacks:
◦ Frequency instability
◦ Waveform is poor
◦ Cannot be used for low frequencies
◦ Inductors are bulky and expensive
In order to eliminate these drawbacks, RC Ocsillators are
developed. Theses RC oscillaors are of two types: RC Phase shift
oscillator and Wien Bridge oscillator.
By using RC oscillators, the frequency stability is improved and a
good quality waveform is obtained. It can also produce lower
frequencies and further, the circuits are neither bulky nor
expensive.

Professor, IMU 8
Principle of Phase-shift oscillators
Generally, the output voltage of an RC circuit for a sinewave
input leads the input voltage.
The phase angle by which it leads is determined by the value
of RC components used in the circuit.
A typical RC network is hown below

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
Let ϕ be the phase angle by which the output voltage V1’ leads
the input voltage V1.
If R is reduced to zero, then V1’ leads V1 by 90o. i.e.ϕ = 90o.
Making R to zero is not practically possible because it leads to
zero output voltage.
But it can be varied to make V1’ to lead V1 by 60o in a single RC
network.
So, combining three such RC sections as shown below, it is
possible to produce total phase shift of 180o. This is the basic
principle of RC phase shift oscillator.

Professor, IMU 10
RC Phase shift oscillator
The oscillator circuit
that produces a sine
wave using a
phase-shift network is
called as a Phase-shift
oscillator circuit.
It is an example for
Audio frequency
oscillator.

an RC phase-shift
oscillator is shown
below.

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Construction:
In the circuit diagram, resistor Rb and the resistor R3 gives a
voltage divider bias to the transistor.
RE is meant for thermal stability.
CE is the emitter by-pass capacitor and CC is the output DC
decoupling capacitor.
The circuit consists of a single transistor and a RC phase-shift
network.
The phase shift network in this circuit, consists of three RC
sections.
At the resonant frequency fo, the phase shift in each RC
section is 60o so that the total phase shift produced by RC
network is 180o.

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...
Operation:
The circuit when switched ON oscillates at the resonant
frequency fo.
The output Eo of the amplifier is fed back to RC feedback
network.
This network produces a phase shift of 180o and a voltage Ei
appears at its output.
This voltage is applied to the transistor amplifier.
CE configuration produces a 180o phase shift.
The phase shift produced by network and the transistor add
to form a phase shift around the entire loop which is 360o.

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...
The frequency of RC phase shift oscillator is given by
where N is the number of RC phase shift stages, R1=R2=R3=R

and C1=C2=C3=C.
Since we have 3 stages of RC networks,

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
Advantages:
◦ It does not require transformers or inductors.
◦ It can be used to produce very low frequencies.
◦ The circuit provides good frequency stability.
Disadvantages:
◦ Starting the oscillations is difficult as the feedback is
small.
◦ The output produced is small.

Professor, IMU 15
Wien Bridge Oscillator
Another type of popular audio frequency oscillator is

the Wien bridge oscillator circuit.
The main advantage of this oscillator is that the

frequency can be varied in the range of 10Hz to about
1MHz whereas in RC oscillators, the frequency is not
varied.
The circuit diagram of Wien bridge oscillator is shown

below.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Construction:
It is a two-stage amplifier with RC bridge circuit. The bridge circuit
has the arms R1C1, R3, R2C2 and R4.
Resistance R3 and R4 are used to stabilize the amplitude of the
output.
A balanced bridge is used as the feedback network which has no
need to provide any additional phase shift.
The feedback network consists of a lead-lag network (R1 – C1 and R2
– C2) and a voltage divider (R3 – R4).
The lead-lag network provides a positive feedback to the input of the
first stage and the voltage divider provides a negative feedback to
the emitter of Q1.
By employing Wien-bridge feedback network, frequency stability is
increased.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
In this arrangement the output of the second stage is
supplied back to the feedback network and the voltage across
the parallel combination C2 R2 is fed to the input of the first
stage.
Transistor Q1 serves as an oscillator and amplifier whereas

the transistor Q2 as an inverter to cause a phase shift of 180°.
The two transistors Q1 and Q2 thus cause a total phase shift of

360° and ensure proper positive feedback.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Operation:
When the circuit is switched ON, the bridge circuit produces
oscillations.
The two transistors produce a total phase shift of 360o so that
proper positive feedback is ensured. The negative feedback in
the circuit ensures constant output.
If the amplitude of the output increases, more current is
produced and more negative feedback is achieved. Due to
this, the output would return to the original value.
Whereas, if the output tends to decrease, reverse action
would take place.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
The frequency of oscillations is determined by the series
element R1C1 and parallel element R2C2 of the bridge.
The continuous frequency variation in this oscillator can be

obtained by varying the two capacitors C1 and C2
simultaneously.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Advantages:
◦ The circuit provides good frequency stability.
◦ It provides constant output.
◦ The operation of circuit is quite easy.
◦ The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
◦ The frequency of oscillations can be changed easily.
Disadvantages:
◦ The circuit cannot generate very high frequencies.
◦ Two transistors and number of components are required
for the circuit construction.

Professor, IMU 7
Crystal Oscillators
Whenever an oscillator is under continuous operation, its
frequency stability gets affected.
The main factors that affect the frequency of an oscillator are
◦ Power supply variations
◦ Changes in temperature
◦ Changes in load or output resistance
In RC and LC oscillators the values of resistance, capacitance
and inductance vary with temperature and hence the
frequency gets affected.
In order to avoid this problem, the piezo electric crystals are
being used in oscillators.
The use of piezo electric crystals in parallel resonant circuits
provide high frequency stability in oscillators. Such oscillators
are called as Crystal Oscillators.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
The principle of crystal oscillators depends upon the Piezo
electric effect.
The crystal exhibits the property that when a mechanical

stress is applied across one of the faces of the crystal, a
potential difference is developed across the opposite faces of
the crystal. Conversely, when a potential difference is applied
across one of the faces, a mechanical stress is produced along
the other faces. This is known as Piezo electric effect.
Examples for piezo electric crystals are Rochelle salt, quartz

and tourmaline. Quartz is the most commonly used piezo
electric crystal because it is inexpensive and readily available
in nature.

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
If an AC voltage is applied, the crystal starts vibrating at the
frequency of the applied voltage.
However, if the frequency of the applied voltage is made

equal to the natural frequency of the crystal, resonance takes
place and crystal vibrations reach a maximum value.
This natural frequency is almost constant.
Hence an alternating voltage applied to a crystal causes it to

vibrate at its natural frequency.

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
Equivalent circuit of a crystal is shown below.
The above equivalent circuit consists of a series R-L-C circuit

in parallel with a capacitance Cm.
When the crystal mounted across the AC source is not
vibrating, it is equivalent to the capacitance Cm. When the
crystal vibrates, it acts like a tuned R-L-C circuit.

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
The frequency response of a crystal is as shown below.
It is evident that the crystal has two closely spaced resonant

frequencies.
Professor, IMU 12
Contd...
The first one is the series resonant frequency (fs), which
occurs when reactance of the inductance (L) is equal to the
reactance of the capacitance C.
In this case, the impedance of the equivalent circuit is equal

to the resistance R and the frequency of oscillation is given by
The second one is the parallel resonant frequency (fp), which

occurs when the reactance of R-L-C branch is equal to the
reactance of capacitor Cm.

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...
At this frequency, the crystal offers a very high impedance to
the external circuit and the frequency of oscillation is given by
where CT = C+ Cm
The value of Cm is usually very large as compared to C.

Therefore, the value of CT is approximately equal to C and
hence the series resonant frequency is approximately equal
to the parallel resonant frequency (i.e., fs = fp).

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
The circuit diagram shown below is transistor pierce crystal
oscillator.

Professor, IMU 15
Contd...
In this circuit, the crystal is connected as a series element in
the feedback path from collector to the base.
The resistors R1, R2 and RE provide a voltage-divider stabilized
d.c. bias circuit.
The capacitor CE provides a.c. bypass of the emitter resistor
and RFC (radio frequency choke) coil provides for d.c. bias
while decoupling any a.c. signal on the power lines from
affecting the output signal.
The coupling capacitor C has negligible impedance at the
circuit operating frequency. But it blocks any d.c. between
collector and base.

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...
The frequency of oscillation is set by the series resonant frequency
of the crystal and is given by
It may be noted that the changes in supply voltage, transistor device

parameters etc. have no effect on the circuit operating frequency,
which is held stabilized by the crystal.
Advantages:
They have a high order of frequency stability.
The quality factor (Q) of the crystal is very high.
Disadvantages:
They are fragile and can be used in low power circuits.
The frequency of oscillations cannot be changed appreciably.

Professor, IMU 17
IC 555 Timer
The IC 555 timer was introduced in the year 1970 by Signetic
Corporation and gave the name SE/NE 555 timer.
It is basically a monolithic timing circuit that produces accurate and
highly stable time delays or oscillation.
Compared to the applications of an op-amp, 555 IC is also equally
reliable and is cheap in cost.
Main applications of 555 IC are astable, monostable and bistable
multivibrator.
It can also be used in dc-dc converters, digital logic probes,
waveform generators, analog frequency meters and tachometers,
etc.
SE 555 can be used for temperature ranges between -55°C and 125°
C. The NE 555 can be used for a temperature range between 0° and
70°C.

Professor, IMU 1
Features of the IC 555 timer

Professor, IMU 2
IC 555 Pin Configuration
The 555 Timer IC is available as an 8-pin metal can, an 8-pin
mini DIP (dual-in-package) or a 14-pin DIP.
An 8-pin mini DIP is shown below
Pin 1: Grounded Terminal
Pin 2: Trigger Terminal
Pin 3: Output Terminal
Pin 4: Reset Terminal
Pin 5: Control Voltage Terminal
Pin 6: Threshold Terminal
Pin 7 : Discharge Terminal
Pin 8: Supply Terminal

Professor, IMU 3
Block Diagram of IC 555 Timer
The functional block diagram of a 555 timer is shown below

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
A 555 timer has two comparators, which are basically 2
op-amps), an R-S flip-flop, two transistors and a resistive
network.
Resistive network consists of three equal resistors of 5KΩ and
hence the name IC555. This network acts as a voltage divider.
It provides two reference voltages of +2/3Vcc and +1/3Vcc.
These reference voltages are applied to the comparators
constructed using opamps.
IC 555 consists of two comparators named as threshold
comparator and trigger comparator.
Threshold comparator is non-inverting type and it has
reference voltage of +2/3Vcc.
Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
Pin no.6 (threshold input) is the input terminal of threshold
comparator.
When the threshold voltage is greater than reference voltage
of 2/3Vcc, it produces high output voltage and when
threshold voltage is less than reference voltage of 2/3Vcc, it
produces low output voltage.
Trigger comparator is an inverting comparator and it has a
refernce voltage of 1/3Vcc. The pin no.2 (Trigger input) is the
input terminal of trigger comparator.
When the trigger voltage is less than reference voltage of
1/3Vcc, it produces high output voltage and when trigger
voltage is greater than reference voltage of 1/3Vcc, it
produces low output voltage.
The outputs of both comparators are given to R-S flip flop.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
The output of threshold comparator is connected to S input
of the flip flop and the output of trigger comparator is
connected to R input of the flip flop. Flip flop has two outputs
Q and Q’.
When the threshold input voltage is less than reference
voltage of 2/3Vcc, threshold comparator produces low output
voltage, given to S input makes S=0.
When the trigger input voltage is less than reference voltage
of 1/3Vcc, trigger comparator produces high output voltage,
given to R input makes R=1. Hence the flip flop gets in Reset
condition and produces output Q=0 and Q’=1.

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
When threshold voltage is greater than reference voltage of
2/3Vcc, threshold comparator produces high output voltage,
given to S input of flip flop (S=1).
When the trigger input voltage is greater than reference
voltage of 1/3Vcc, the trigger comparator produces low
output voltage, given to R input (R=0).
The above conditions make the flip flop in set condition and
produces Q=1 and Q’=0.
The flip flop output Q is connected to the base terminal of
transistor called discharge transistor and Q’ output is taken
outside as the actual output (Pin no.3) of IC 555.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
When the flip flop is in Set condition (Q=1), base of the transistor
goes high and operates in saturation condition.
The transistor works as a closed switch and provides a discharging
path for an externally connected capacitor through it.
When the flip flop is in Reset condition (Q=0), base of the transistor
goes low and operates in cutoff condition.
Now, the transistor works as a open switch and does not provide a
discharging path for an externally connected capacitor through it.
So, the capacitor charges towards Vcc.
Reset pin (Pin no.4) is used to reset the IC 555, independent of the
comparators output. A low voltage(< 0.7V) applied to the reset pin
causes output (Pin no.3) to go low. Normally, it is connected to Vcc
when not in use.

Professor, IMU 9
Modes of IC 555 Timer
IC 555 timer can be operated in three modes namely
◦ Astable Multivibrator
◦ Monostable Multivibrator
◦ Bistable Multivibrator
◦ Multivibrators belong to a family of oscillators commonly

called “Relaxation Oscillators“.
◦ They are mostly used to produce a symmetrical or
asymmetrical square wave. Hence they are also called as
square wave generators.

Professor, IMU 1
555 Timer Astable Multivibrator
An Astable Multivibrator can
be designed by adding two
resistors (RA and RB in
circuit diagram) and a
capacitor (C in circuit
diagram) to the 555 Timer
IC, as shown in the diagram.
The capacitor 0.01μF is
connected to pin number 5
(Control Voltage Terminal)
when it is not used. This
capacitor is used to avoid
noise problems that could
arise in the circuit if that pin
is left open.
It has quasi-stable states. i.e.
no stable states.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Pin 1 is grounded and pins 4 and 8 are shorted and then tied
to supply +Vcc.
Output (Vout) is taken from pin 3.
Pin 2 and 6 are shorted and then connected to ground
through the capacitor C to ground terminal.
Pin 7 is connected to supply + VCC through a resistor RA; and
between pin 6 and 7 a resistor RB is connected.
At pin 5, either a bypass capacitor (to bypass noise signals) of
0.01uF is connected or modulation input is applied.
The output pulse width from the timer circuit depends upon
the values of RA, RB and C.

Professor, IMU 3
Operation as Astable Multivibrator
The operation of IC555 timer as astable mutlivibrator can be better
understood by considering the internal circuit diagram as shown below.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
The basic objective of an astable multivibrator is to switch the
output status (from HIGH to LOW and from LOW to HIGH) at
the desired time intervals, without any external intervention.
Hence astable mutlivibrator is also called free running
multivibrator.
Once the supply is switched ON, the output of non-inverting
amplifier is initially low and hence flip-flop is in reset
condition and hence Q is low. When Q is low, the timer
output Vout will be high.
Further, Q is connected to the base of the discharge
transistor. So the low Q makes transitor in cut off state. In this
state, Capacitor C is directly connecred to Vcc through
resistors RA and RB.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
Now the capacitor starts charging towards Vcc through RA
and RB. The charging time constant is defined by RA and RB,
i.e. (RA+RB)*C.
The charging action of capacitor increases the threshold
voltage and when the capacitor charges beyond 2/3Vcc, the
threshold voltage at Pin 6 forces the output of comaprator 1
to go HIGH.
Since the output of comaprator 1 is connected to SET input of
flip flop, the output Q will turn from LOW to HIGH. Hence the
output of timer goes LOW.
When Q is HIGH, the transistor at Pin 7 is turned on now and
gets saturated. Hence the transitor provides path for the
capacitor to discharge via resitor RB.
Therfore, the discharging time constant is RB*C.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Due this discharging action of capacitor, the voltage
decreases at Pin 2 (Trigger terminal).
Once the capacitor discharges to a below 1/3Vcc, the voltage
at the Pin 2 gose below 1/3Vcc. Hence the output of
comparator 2 goes HIGH.
Since the output of comparator 2 is connected to RESET input
of flip flop, the output Q of flip flop goes from HIGH to LOW.
Therefore, the output of timer Vout is HIGH.
This cycle is repeated until the power supply is ON.
Thus an automatic transition from HIGH to LOW and then
from LOW to HIGH is achieved and IC555 timer acts as
Astable Multivibrator.

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
The output voltage and capacitor voltage waveforms are
shown below

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
ON Time – is the time for which the timer output Vout has
remained in HIGH State.(THIGH)
OFF Time – is the time for which the timer output Vout has
remained in LOW state. (TLOW)
ON Time and OFF Time are dependent on the values of RA, RB
and C.
The time during which the capacitor C charges from 1/3 Vcc
to 2/3 Vcc is equal to the time for which the output is high
and is given as THIGH = 0.693 * (RA + RB) * C
The time during which the capacitor discharges from +2/3 Vcc
to +1/3 Vcc is equal to the time for which the output is low
and is given as TLOW = 0.693 * RB * C

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
Then the overall period of oscillations,
T = THIGH + TLOW
T = 0.693 * (RA+ 2RB) * C
The frequency of oscillations is
f = 1/T = 1.44/((RA+2RB) * C)
The duty cycle is defined as the ratio of ON time to the total
time. i.e.
% duty cycle, D = (THIGH / T )* 100 = [(RA + RB) / (RA + 2RB)] * 100

Professor, IMU 10
Applications of Astable Multivibrator
The astable multivibrator is used as the wave generator.

Used in the applications like pulse position modulation,
frequency modulation, etc.
It is used as voltage-frequency converter.
It is used in pulse synchronization.
Since it produces square waves, it is a source of production of
a harmonic frequency of higher order.
It is used in the construction of voltmeter and SMPS.
It can be operated as an oscillator over a wide range of audio
and radio frequencies.

Professor, IMU 11
555 Timer Monostable Multivibrator
A monostable multivibrator (MMV) often called a one-shot
multivibrator, is a pulse generator circuit in which the
duration of the pulse is determined by the R-C
network,connected externally to the 555 timer.
In such a vibrator, one state of output is stable while the
other is quasi-stable (unstable).
The transition of output from quasi-stable state to stable
state occurs automatically whereas the transistion of output
from stable state to quasi-stable state requires external
triggering.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
The schematic of a 555 timer in monostable mode of
operation is shown below.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Pin 1 is grounded.
Trigger input is applied to pin 2. In quiescent condition of
output, this input is kept at + VCC. To obtain transition of output
from stable state to quasi-stable state, a negative-going pulse of
narrow width is applied to pin 2.
Output is taken from pin 3.
Pin 4 is usually connected to + VCC to avoid accidental reset.
Pin 5 is grounded through a 0.01 u F capacitor to avoid noise
problem.
Pin 6 (threshold) is shorted to pin 7.
A resistor RA is connected between pins 6 and 8. At pin 7, a
discharge capacitor is connected. Pin 8 is connected to supply
VCC.

Professor, IMU 3
Operation of Monostable Multivibrator
The operation of monostable multivibrator can be better
understood by considering the internal circuit diagram as
shown below

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Initially, when the output at pin 3 is LOW i.e. the circuit is in a
stable state, the transistor is ON and capacitor C is shorted to
ground.
When a negative pulse is applied to pin 2, the trigger input
falls below +1/3 VCC, the output of comparator goes HIGH
which resets the flip-flop and consequently the transistor
turns OFF and the output at pin 3 goes HIGH.
This is the transition of the output from stable to quasi-stable
state.
As the discharge transistor is cutoff, the capacitor C begins
charging toward +VCC through resistance RA with a time
constant equal to RA*C.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
When the capacitor voltage increases beyond 2/3Vcc, the
output of comparator 1 goes HIGH, which sets the flip flop.
The transistor goes to saturation, thereby discharging the
capacitor C and the output of the timer goes LOW.
Thus the output retruns back to stable state from quasi-stable
state automatically.
The output of the Monostable Multivibrator remains LOW
until a trigger pulse is again applied.
When the trigger pulse is applied, then the cycle repeats.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Trigger input, output voltage and capacitor voltage
waveforms are shown in figure below.

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
In monostable multivibrator, the output pulse width is
determined by the circuit components RA and C.
The time during which the timer output remains high is given
as THIGH = 1.0986*RA* C
Here, the pulse width is taken as THIGH.
Applications:
◦ used as delay and timing circuits
◦ used for temperory memories
◦ use to trigger another pulse generator

Professor, IMU 8
Problems in Oscillators
Problem 1: In the Hartley oscillator, L2 = 0.4 mH and C =
0.004 μF. If the frequency of the oscillator is 120 kHz, find the
value of L1. Neglect the mutual inductance.
Solution:
Therefore

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
Problem 2: In a transistorized Hartley oscillator, the two
inductances are 2 mH and 20 μH while the frequency is to be
changed from 950 kHz to 2050 kHz. Calculate the range over
which the capacitor is to be varied.
Solution:

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Problem 3: In a Hartley oscillator, the value of the capacitor
in the tuned circuit is 500 pF and the two sections of coil have
inductances 38 μH and 12 μH. Find the frequency of
oscillations and the feedback factor β.
Solution:
The frequency of Hartley oscillator is
where
Therefore
Feedback factor,

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Problem 4: In the Colpitts oscillator, C1 = 0.2 μF and C2 = 0.02
μF. If the frequency of the oscillator is 10 kHz, find the value
of the inductor.
Solution:
The frequency of Colpitts oscillator is
where = 0.018 μF
Therefore, L = 1/(4*π2*fo2*C) = 13.9 mH

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Problem 5: In a Colpitts oscillator, the values of the inductors
and capacitors in the tank circuit are L = 40 mH, C1 = 100 pF and
C2 = 500 pF.
(i) Find the frequency of oscillations.
(ii) If the output voltage is 10 V, find the feedback voltage.
(iii) Find the minimum gains if the frequency is changed by
changing L alone.
(iv) Find the value of C1 for a gain of 10.
(v) Also, find the new frequency.
Solution:
i) The frequency of oscillations in Colpitts oscillator is

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
ii)The output potential is across C1 and is proportional to XC1,

and the feedback voltage is across C2 and proportional to XC2.
Therefore

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
iii) Since the gain depends upon C1 and C2 only and is
independent of L, Gain = C2/C1
iv)When the gain is equal to 10,

Therefore
v) The new frequency of oscillation is

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
Problem 6: For the Colpitts oscillator using BJT in self bias
having R = 1500Ω and the feedback elements C1 = 0.018 μF,
C2 = 0.16 μF, find the values of (a) feedback fraction and (b)
minimum gain to sustain oscillations.
Solution:
a) Feedback fraction,β = C1/C2 = 0.11
b) W.k.t the Barkhausen criteria, Aβ = 1
A= 1/β = 1/0.11 = 9

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
Problem 7: In an RC phase shift oscillator, if R1 = R2 = R3 =
200 KΩ and C1 = C2 = C3 = 100 pF. Find the frequency of
oscillations.
Solution:
The frequency of an RC phase shift oscillator is given by

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
Problem 8: Find the value of C in RC phase shift oscillator
using BJT designed for a frequency of 1 kHz having value of R
is 10 KΩ .
Solution:
The frequency of RC phase shift oscillator is given by

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
Problem 9: In a Wien-bridge oscillator, if the value of R is 100
KΩ , and frequency of oscillation is 10 kHz, find the value of
capacitor C.
Solution:
The operating frequency of a Wien-bridge oscillator is given
by

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Problem 10: In a monostable multivibrator, if a 10μF timing
capacitor is used, calculate the value of the resistor required
to produce a minimum output time delay of 500ms.
Solution:
W.k.t the time constant is t = 1.1RC
R = t/1.1C
= 0.5/(1.1x10 x 10-6)
= 45.5 KΩ

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...
Problem 11: An Astable 555 Oscillator is constructed using
the following components, R1 = 1kΩ, R2 = 2kΩ and capacitor
C = 10μF. Calculate the output frequency from the 555
oscillator and the duty cycle of the output waveform.
Solution:
Let t1 be the ON time. It is calculated as
t1 = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C = 21 ms
Let t2 be the OFF time. It is calculated as
t2 = 0.693 R2 C = 14 ms
Total time, T = t1 + t2 = 35 ms
The output frequency, f = 1/T = 28.6 Hz
Duty cycle = [(R1 + R2)/(R1+2R2)] * 100 = 60 %

Professor, IMU 13
Digital Electronics
UNIT 5

Professor, IMU 1
Logic Gates
Digital electronic circuits operate with voltages of two logic
levelsnamely Logic Low and Logic High. The range of voltages
corresponding to Logic Low is represented with ‘0’. Similarly, the
range of voltages corresponding to Logic High is represented
with ‘1’.
The basic digital electronic circuit that has one or more inputs
and single output is known as Logic gate. Hence, the Logic gates
are the building blocks of any digital system.
We can classify these Logic gates into the following three
categories.
◦ Basic gates
◦ Universal gates
◦ Special gates

Professor, IMU 2
Basic gates
The basic gates are AND, OR & NOT gates.
AND gate:
An AND gate is a digital circuit that has two or more inputs
and produces an output, which is the logical AND of all those
inputs. It is optional to represent the Logical AND with the
symbol ‘.’(dot)
Truth table of 2-input AND gate

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Here A, B are the inputs and Y is the output of two input AND
gate. If both inputs are ‘1’, then only the output, Y is ‘1’. For
remaining combinations of inputs, the output, Y is ‘0’.
Symbol of an AND gate:
OR gate:
An OR gate is a digital circuit that has two or more inputs and
produces an output, which is the logical OR of all those
inputs. This logical OR is represented with the symbol ‘+’.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Truth table of 2-input OR gate:
Here A, B are the inputs and Y is the output of two input OR

gate. If both inputs are ‘0’, then only the output, Y is ‘0’. For
remaining combinations of inputs, the output, Y is ‘1’.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
Symbol of an OR gate:
NOT gate:
A NOT gate is a digital circuit that has single input and single
output. The output of NOT gate is the logical inversion of
input. Hence, the NOT gate is also called as inverter.
Truth table of NOT gate:

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Symbol of NOT gate:
Universal gates
A universal gate is a gate which can implement any Boolean
function without need to use any other gate type.
NAND & NOR gates are called as universal gates. Because we
can implement any Boolean function, which is in sum of
products form by using NAND gates alone.
Similarly, we can implement any Boolean function, which is in
product of sums form by using NOR gates alone.

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
NAND gate:
NAND gate is a digital circuit that has two or more inputs and
produces an output, which is the inversion of logical AND of all those
inputs.
Truth table of 2-input NAND gate:
Here A, B are the inputs and Y is the output of two input NAND gate.
When both inputs are ‘1’, the output, Y is ‘0’. If at least one of the
input is zero, then the output, Y is ‘1’. This is just opposite to that of
two input AND gate operation.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
Symbol of NAND gate:
NAND gate operation is same as that of AND gate followed by

an inverter.

Professor, IMU 9
Implementation of NOT,AND and OR gates using NAND
gate

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
Truth table of 2-input NOR gate:
Here A, B are the inputs and Y is the output. If both inputs are
‘0’, then the output, Y is ‘1’. If at least one of the input is ‘1’,
then the output, Y is ‘0’. This is just opposite to that of two
input OR gate operation.

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
NOR gate
NOR gate is a digital circuit that has two or more
inputs and produces an output, which is the inversion
of logical OR of all those inputs.
Symbol of NOR gate:
NOR gate operation is same as that of OR gate

followed by an inverter.

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...
Special Gates
Ex-OR & Ex-NOR gates are called as special gates. Because,
these two gates are special cases of OR & NOR gates.
Ex-OR gate
The full form of Ex-OR gate is Exclusive-OR gate. Its function is
same as that of OR gate except for some cases, when the
inputs having even number of ones.
Truth table of 2-input Ex-OR gate:

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...
Here A, B are the inputs and Y is the output of two input
Ex-OR gate. The truth table of Ex-OR gate is same as that of
OR gate for first three rows except fourth row.
Symbol of Ex-OR gate:
The output of Ex-OR gate is ‘1’, when odd number of ones

present at the inputs. Hence, the output of Ex-OR gate is also
called as an odd function.

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
Ex-NOR gate:
The full form of Ex-NOR gate is Exclusive-NOR gate. Its function is same as
that of NOR gate except for some cases, when the inputs having even
number of ones.
Truth table of 2-input Ex-NOR gate:
Here A, B are the inputs and Y is the output. The truth table of Ex-NOR
gate is same as that of NOR gate for first three rows. The only
modification is in the fourth row. That means, the output is one instead of
zero, when both the inputs are one.

Professor, IMU 15
Contd...
Symbol of Ex-NOR gate:
The output of Ex-NOR gate is ‘1’, when even number of ones

present at the inputs. Hence, the output of Ex-NOR gate is
also called as an even function.

Professor, IMU 16
Two level logic
The maximum number of levels that are present between
inputs and output is two in two level logic.
In two level logic, the outputs of first level Logic gates are
connected as inputs of second level Logic gates.
Consider the four Logic gates AND, OR, NAND & NOR. Since,
there are 4 Logic gates, we will get 16 possible ways of
realizing two level logic.
These two level logic realizations can be classified into the
following two categories.
◦ Degenerative form
◦ Non-degenerative form

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...
Degenerative Form:
If the output of two level logic realization can be obtained by
using single Logic gate, then it is called as degenerative form.
AND-AND Logic
AND-NAND Logic
OR-OR Logic
OR-NOR Logic
NAND-NOR Logic Outputs of first level logic gates as
NOR-NAND Logic Y1=AB and Y2=CD
Ouput of second level logic is Y = Y1 Y2
Y = ABCD

Professor, IMU 18
Contd...
Non-degenerative Form:
If the output of two level logic realization can’t be obtained
by using single logic gate, then it is called as non-degenerative
form.
They are AND-OR, AND-NOR, OR-AND, OR-NAND, NAND-AND,
NANDOR, NAND-NAND, NOR-AND, NOR-OR, NOR-NOR.
The outputs of first level logic gates as Y1=AB and Y2=CD.

Output of this OR gate is Y=Y1+Y2 = AB+CD

Professor, IMU 19
Contd...
Boolean functions in either SOP or POS forms can be
implemented using 2-Level implementations.
For SOP forms, AND gates will be in the first level and a
single OR gate will be in the second level.
For POS forms, OR gates will be in the first level and a
single AND gate will be in the second level.
For example, Implement the following SOP function
F = XZ + Y’Z + X’YZ

Professor, IMU 20
Contd...
Implement the following POS function

F = (X+Z) (Y’+Z) (X’+Y+Z)

Professor, IMU 21
Multiple Input Gates

Professor, IMU 22
Boolean Algebra
Boolean Algebra is an algebra, which deals with binary
numbers & binary variables. Hence, it is also called as Binary
Algebra or logical Algebra.
A mathematician, named George Boole had developed this
algebra in 1854. The variables used in this algebra are also
called as Boolean variables.
The range of voltages corresponding to Logic ‘High’ is
represented with ‘1’ and the range of voltages corresponding
to logic ‘Low’ is represented with ‘0’.

Professor, IMU 23
Contd...
Boolean Postulates:
Consider the binary numbers 0 and 1, Boolean variable x and
its complement xʹ. Either the Boolean variable or complement
of it is known as literal.
The four possible logical OR operations among these literals
and binary numbers are shown below.
x+0=x
x+1=1
x+x=x
x + x’ = 1

Professor, IMU 24
Contd...
Similarly, the four possible logical AND operations among those
literals and binary numbers are shown below.
x.1 = x
x.0 = 0
x.x = x
x.x’ = 0
Basic Laws of Boolean Algebra:

There are three basic laws of Boolean Algebra namely Commutative
law, Associative law and Distributive law.
Commutative Law:
If any logical operation of two Boolean variables give the same result
irrespective of the order of those two variables, then that logical
operation is said to be Commutative.

Professor, IMU 25
Contd...
The logical OR & logical AND operations of two Boolean
variables x & y are shown below
x+y=y+x
x.y = y.x
The symbol ‘+’ indicates logical OR operation. Similarly, the
symbol ‘.’ indicates logical AND operation .
Associative Law:
If a logical operation of any two Boolean variables is
performed first and then the same operation is performed
with the remaining variable gives the same result, then that
logical operation is said to be Associative.

Professor, IMU 26
Contd...
The logical OR & logical AND operations of three Boolean
variables x, y & z are shown below.
x + y+z = z+y+x
x.y.z = z.y.x
Distributive Law:
If any logical operation can be distributed to all the terms
present in the Boolean function, then that logical operation is
said to be Distributive.
The distribution of logical OR & logical AND operations of
three Boolean variables x, y & z are shown below.
x.(y+z) = x.y + x.z
x + y.z = (x+y).(x+z)

Professor, IMU 27
Theorems of Boolean Algebra
Two theorems are used in Boolean
algebra namely Duality theorem
and DeMorgan’s theorem.
Duality Theorem:
This theorem states that the dual of
the Boolean function is obtained by
interchanging the logical AND
operator with logical OR operator
and zeros with ones. For every
Boolean function, there will be a
corresponding Dual function.
We can understand from the
following table.

Professor, IMU 28
Contd...
DeMorgan’s Theorem:
This theorem is useful in finding the complement of Boolean
function. It states that the complement of logical OR of at
least two Boolean variables is equal to the logical AND of
each complemented variable.
DeMorgan’s theorem with 2 Boolean variables x and y can be
represented as
(x+y)’ = x’.y’
The dual of the above Boolean function is
(x.y)’ = x’ + y’

Professor, IMU 29
Contd...

Professor, IMU 30
Contd...

Professor, IMU 31
Contd...
Inorder to prove (x+y)’ =x’.y’
we need to prove A+A’ = 1 and A.A’=0

Professor, IMU 32
Contd...
In order to prove (x.y)’ = x’ + y’

Professor, IMU 33
BOOLEAN ANALYSIS OF LOGIC
CIRCUITS
Boolean Expression for a Logic Circuit:
To derive the Boolean expression for a given logic circuit,
begin at the leftmost inputs and work toward the final
output, writing the expression for eac gate. For example,
A logic circuit showing the development of the Boolean

expression for the output.

Professor, IMU 34
Contd...
Once the Boolean expression for a given logic circuit has been
determined, a truth table that shows the output for all
possible values of the input variables can be developed.

Professor, IMU 35
Implementation of circuits
Given expression y = AC+BC’+ A’BC

Professor, IMU 36
SIMPLIFICATION USING BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
A simplified Boolean expression uses the fewest gates possible to
implement a given expression.
Example: AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C)
Step 1: Apply the distributive law to the second and third terms in the
expression, as follows:
AB + AB + AC + BB + BC
Step 2: Apply rule 7 (BB = B) to the fourth term.
AB + AB + AC + B + BC
Step 3: Apply rule 5 (AB + AB = AB) to the first two terms.
AB + AC + B + BC
Step 4: Apply rule 10 (B + BC = B) to the last two terms.
AB + AC + B
Step 5: Apply rule 10 (AB + B = B) to the first and third terms.
B+AC

Professor, IMU 37
Contd...

Professor, IMU 38
Combinational Circuits
Combinational circuits consist of Logic gates. These circuits
operate with binary values. The outputs of combinational
circuit depends on the combination of present inputs. The
following figure shows the block diagram of combinational
circuit.

Professor, IMU 39
Contd...
Design procedure of Combinational circuits:
◦ Find the required number of input variables and outputs from
given specifications.
◦ Formulate the Truth table. If there are ‘n’ input variables, then
there will be 2n possible combinations. For each combination
of input, find the output values.
◦ Find the Boolean expressions for each output. If necessary,
simplify those expressions.
◦ Implement the above Boolean expressions corresponding to
each output by using Logic gates.

Professor, IMU 40
Binary Adder
The most basic arithmetic operation is addition. The circuit,
which performs the addition of two binary numbers is known
as Binary adder.
First, let us implement an adder, which performs the addition
of two bits using Half Adder.
Half Adder:
Half adder is a combinational circuit, which performs the
addition of two binary numbers A and B are of single bit. It
produces two outputs sum, S & carry, C.

Professor, IMU 41
Contd...

Professor, IMU 42
Contd...
Let, sum, S is the Least significant bit and carry, C is the Most
significant bit of the resultant sum.
For first three combinations of inputs, carry, C is zero and the
value of S will be either zero or one based on the number of
ones present at the inputs.
But, for last combination of inputs, carry, C is one and sum, S
is zero, since the resultant sum is two.
From Truth table, we can directly write the Boolean functions
for each output as
S=A ⊕B and C=AB

Professor, IMU 43
Contd...
We can implement the above functions with 2-input Ex-OR
gate & 2-input AND gate. The circuit diagram of Half adder is
shown in the following figure.
In the above circuit, a two input Ex-OR gate & two input AND
gate produces sum, S & carry, C respectively. Therefore,
Half-adder performs the addition of two bits.

Professor, IMU 44
Full Adder
Full adder is a combinational
circuit, which performs the
addition of three bits A, B and Cin.
Where, A & B are the two parallel
significant bits and Cin is the carry
bit, which is generated from
previous stage.
This Full adder also produces two
outputs sum, S & carry, Cout,
which are similar to Half adder.
The Truth table of Full adder is
shown here.

Professor, IMU 45
Contd...
Let, sum, S is the Least significant bit and carry, Cout is the
Most significant bit of resultant sum.
It is easy to fill the values of outputs for all combinations of
inputs in the truth table.
Just count the number of ones present at the inputs and write
the equivalent binary number at outputs.
If Cin is equal to zero, then Full adder truth table is same as
that of Half adder truth table.

Professor, IMU 46
Contd...
Boolean functions for each output after simplification are
S=A⊕B⊕Cin and Cout=AB+(A⊕B)Cin
The circuit diagram of Full adder is shown in the following
figure.
For implementing one Full adder, we require two Half adders

and one OR gate.
If Cin is zero, then Full adder becomes Half adder.
Professor, IMU 47
Decoder
Decoder is a combinational circuit that has ‘n’ input lines and
maximum of 2n output lines.
Example: 2 to 4 Decoder
Let 2 to 4 Decoder has two inputs A1 & A0 and four outputs
Y3, Y2, Y1 & Y0. The block diagram of 2 to 4 decoder is shown
in the following figure.
One of these four outputs will be ‘1’ for each combination of

inputs when enable, E is ‘1’.

Professor, IMU 48
Contd...
Truth table of 2 to 4 decoder is shown below.
Boolean functions for each output as Y3=E.A1.A0

Y2=E.A1.A0′
Y1=E.A1′.A0
Y0=E.A1′.A0′

Professor, IMU 49
Contd...
Circuit diagram of 2 to 4 decoder is shown in the following
figure.

Professor, IMU 50
Encoder
An Encoder is a combinational circuit that performs the
reverse operation of Decoder. It has maximum of 2n input
lines and ‘n’ output lines.
Example: 4 to 2 Encoder
Let 4 to 2 Encoder has four inputs Y3, Y2, Y1 & Y0 and two
outputs A1 & A0. The block diagram of 4 to 2 Encoder is

Professor, IMU 51
Contd...
Truth table of 4 to 2 encoder is shown below.

Professor, IMU 52
Contd...
The circuit diagram of 4 to 2 encoder is shown in the
following figure.

Professor, IMU 53
Multiplexer
Multiplexer is a combinational circuit that has maximum of 2 n
data inputs, ‘n’ selection lines and single output line.
Multiplexer is also called as Mux.
Example: 4x1 Multiplexer
4x1 Multiplexer has four data inputs I3, I2, I1 & I0, two
selection lines s1 & s0 and one output Y. The block diagram of
4x1 Multiplexer is shown in the following figure.

Professor, IMU 54
Contd...
One of these 4 inputs will be connected to the output based
on the combination of inputs present at these two selection
lines.
Truth table of 4x1 Multiplexer is shown below.

Professor, IMU 55
Contd...
The circuit diagram of 4x1 multiplexer is shown in the
following figure.

Professor, IMU 56
Contd...
Another example: 8x1 Multiplexer
Let the 8x1 Multiplexer has eight data inputs I7 to I0, three
selection lines s2, s1 & s0 and one output Y. The Truth table
of 8x1 Multiplexer is shown below.

Professor, IMU 57
Contd...
Block diagram of 8x1 Multiplexer is shown in the following
figure.

Professor, IMU 58
Contd...
The same selection lines, s1 & s0 are applied to both 4x1
Multiplexers. The data inputs of upper 4x1 Multiplexer are I7 to I4
and the data inputs of lower 4x1 Multiplexer are I3 to I0. Therefore,
each 4x1 Multiplexer produces an output based on the values of
selection lines, s1 & s0.
The outputs of first stage 4x1 Multiplexers are applied as inputs of
2x1 Multiplexer that is present in second stage. The other selection
line, s2 is applied to 2x1 Multiplexer.
If s2 is zero, then the output of 2x1 Multiplexer will be one of the 4
inputs I3 to I0 based on the values of selection lines s1 & s0.
If s2 is one, then the output of 2x1 Multiplexer will be one of the 4
inputs I7 to I4 based on the values of selection lines s1 & s0.
Therefore, the overall combination of two 4x1 Multiplexers and
one 2x1 Multiplexer performs as one 8x1 Multiplexer.

Professor, IMU 59
Demultiplexer
De-Multiplexer is a combinational circuit that performs the
reverse operation of Multiplexer. It has single input, ‘n’
selection lines and maximum of 2n outputs.
De-Multiplexer is also called as De-Mux.
Example: 1x4 De-Multiplexer
1x4 De-Multiplexer has one input I, two selection lines, s1 &
s0 and four outputs Y3, Y2, Y1 &Y0. The block diagram of 1x4
De-Multiplexer is shown in the following figure.

Professor, IMU 60
Contd...
Truth table of 1x4 De-Multiplexer is shown below.
Boolean functions for each output as

Y3=s1s0I
Y2=s1s0ʹI
Y1=s1ʹs0I
Y0=s1ʹs0ʹI

Professor, IMU 61
Contd...
Circuit diagram of 1x4 De-Multiplexer is shown in the
following figure.

Professor, IMU 62
Contd...
Another example: 1x8 De-Multiplexer
Truth table of 1x8 De-Multiplexer is shown below.

Professor, IMU 63
Contd...
Block diagram of 1x8 Demux is shown below.

Professor, IMU 64
Contd...
The common selection lines, s1 & s0 are applied to both 1x4
De-Multiplexers.
The outputs of upper 1x4 De-Multiplexer are Y7 to Y4 and
the outputs of lower 1x4 De-Multiplexer are Y3 to Y0.
The other selection line, s2 is applied to 1x2 De-Multiplexer.
If s2 is zero, then one of the four outputs of lower 1x4
De-Multiplexer will be equal to input, I based on the values
of selection lines s1 & s0.
Similarly, if s2 is one, then one of the four outputs of upper
1x4 DeMultiplexer will be equal to input, I based on the
values of selection lines s1 & s0.

Professor, IMU 65
Sequential Circuits
Block diagram of sequential circuit is shown below.
This sequential circuit contains a set of inputs and outputs.

The outputs of sequential circuit depends not only on the
combination of present inputs but also on the previous outputs.
Previous output is nothing but the present state.
Therefore, sequential circuits contain combinational circuits along
with memory storage elements. Some sequential circuits may not
contain combinational circuits, but only memory elements.

Professor, IMU 66
Differences between combinational and sequential
circuits

Professor, IMU 67
Flip-flops
A flip-flop is a device which stores a single bit (binary digit) of
data; one of its two states represents a "one" and the other
represents a "zero".
We can implement flip-flops in two methods.
In first method, cascade two latches in such a way that the
first latch is enabled for every positive clock pulse and second
latch is enabled for every negative clock pulse. So that the
combination of these two latches become a flip-flop.
In second method, we can directly implement the flip-flop,
which is edge sensitive.
Flip-flops using second method are SR Flip-Flop, D Flip-Flop,
JK Flip-Flop and T Flip-Flop.

Professor, IMU 68
SR Flip-Flop
SR flip-flop operates with only positive clock transitions or
negative clock transitions, whereas, SR latch operates with
enable signal. The circuit diagram of SR flip-flop is shown in
the following figure.

Professor, IMU 69
Contd...
This circuit has two inputs S & R and two outputs Q & Q’. The
operation of SR flipflop is similar to SR Latch.
But, this flip-flop affects the outputs only when positive
transition of the clock signal is applied instead of active
enable.
The following table shows the state table of SR Flip-Flop.

Professor, IMU 70
Contd...
Here, Q(t) & Q(t+1) are present state & next state
respectively. So, SR flip-flop can be used for one of these
three functions such as Hold, Reset & Set based on the input
conditions, when positive transition of clock signal is applied.
Characteristic table of SR flip-flop is shown below.
Simplified expression for next

state Q(t+1) is
Q(t+1)=S+R′Q(t)

Professor, IMU 71
JK Flip-Flop
JK flip-flop is the modified version of SR flip-flop.
It operates with only positive clock transitions or negative
clock transitions.
The circuit diagram of JK flip-flop is shown in the following
figure.

Professor, IMU 72
Contd...
The following table shows the state table of JK flip-flop.

Professor, IMU 73
Contd...
The following table shows the characteristic table of JK
flip-flop.
The simplified expression for next state Q(t+1) is

Q(t+1)=JQ(t)ʹ+KʹQ(t)

Professor, IMU 74
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Modulation and Demodulation
UNIT 6

Modulation
Communication is the transfer of information from one place
to another place through any medium.The medium is called
channel, which may be wired or wireless.
Based on the nature of the baseband signal, there are two
types of communication: Analog and Digital Communication.
The block diagram of a communication system is shown
below

Contd...
Modulation is the process of changing the parameters
of the carrier signal, in accordance with the
instantaneous values of the modulating signal.
Need for Modulation:
The message signals have a very low frequency due to
which these signals cannot be transmitted over long
distances. Hence such low-frequency message signals
are modulated over the high-frequency carrier signal
due to the following reasons:

Contd...
◦ Antenna size gets reduced.
◦ No signal mixing occurs.
◦ Communication range increases.
◦ Multiplexing of signals occur.
◦ Adjustments in the bandwidth is allowed.
◦ Reception quality improves.

Signals in the modulation process
Message or Modulating Signal: The signal which contains a

message to be transmitted, is called as a message signal. It is a
baseband signal, which has to undergo the process of modulation,
to get transmitted. Hence, it is also called as the modulating signal.
Carrier Signal: The high frequency signal which has a certain phase,
frequency, and amplitude but contains no information, is called a
carrier signal. It is an empty signal. It is just used to carry the signal
to the receiver after modulation.
Modulated Signal:The resultant signal after the process of

modulation, is called as the modulated signal. This signal is a
combination of the modulating signal and the carrier signal.
Types of modulation

Contd...
In the continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine
wave is used as a carrier wave.
If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied

in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal, then such a technique is called as
Amplitude Modulation.
If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with

the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Angle Modulation.

Contd...
If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal, then such a technique is called as
Frequency Modulation.
If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is

varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of
the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Phase Modulation.

Contd...
In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is
used as a carrier wave.
If the amplitude, duration or position of a pulse is varied in

accordance with the instantaneous values of the baseband
modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Pulse
Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width Modulation
(PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation (PPM).
In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code

Modulation (PCM) where the analog signal is converted into digital
form of 1s and 0s.

Time and Frequency domain
representation of signals
Consider two signals with 1 kHz and 2 kHz frequencies. Both
of them are represented in time and frequency domain as

Amplitude Modulation
If the amplitude of the carrier
signal varies in accordance
with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating
signal, then the process is
called amplitude modulation.
This AM technique can be well

understood from the figures
shown.

Contd...

Contd...
In the AM wave, it is observe that a line which follows the
positive and negative peaks of carrier wave. The line is called
envelope. It is nothing but the message signal.
Mathematical Analysis of AM waves:
Let the modualting signal be m(t) = Am cos(2πfmt) and the
carrier signal be c(t) = Ac cos(2πfct).
Am and Ac are the amplitudes of the modulating signal and
carrier signal respectively.
fm and fc are the frequencies of the modulating signal and
carrier signal respectively.
Then the Amplitude modulated signal is given by
s(t) = [Ac+Amcos(2πfmt)] cos(2πfct)
s(t) = Ac [1+ka m(t)] cos(2πfct)
Modulation Index
Modulation index or Modulation depth is defined as the level
of modulation that a carrier wave undergoes.
Rearranging the AM wave equation as
where 𝝁 is Modulation index and it is equal to the ratio of Am

and A𝒄. i.e. 𝝁 = Am/Ac.
Am and Ac can be calculated from the maximum
amplitude(Amax) and minimum amplitude(Amin) of AM wave.

Contd...
We will get the maximum amplitude of the modulated wave,
when cos(2πfmt) is 1. i.e.
Amax = Ac + Am ... (1)
We will get the minimum amplitude of the modulated wave,
when cos(2πfmt) is -1. i.e.
Amin = Ac - Am ... (2)
Adding the above the equations(1) and (2), we get
Amax + Amin = 2 Ac
Therefore, Ac = (Amax + Amin)/2 ...(3)
Similarly, subtracting the equations(1) and (2), we get
Am = (Amax - Amin)/2 ...(4)

Contd...
Finding the ratio of equations(3) and (4), we get
Often, the modualtion index is expressed in percentage. So it

is called as Percentage of modulation.
For a perfect modulation, the value of modulation index
should be 1, which implies the percentage of modulation
should be 100%.

Contd...
Based on the level of modulation done, it can be classified as
follows:
If the value of modulation index is less than one, then it is
called Under modulation. It is shown in figure below.

Contd...
If the modulation index is greater than one, then it is called
Over modulation. It is shown in figure below.
As the value of the modulation index increases, the carrier

experiences a 180° phase reversal, which causes additional
sidebands.
Hence, the wave gets distorted. Such an over-modulated
wave causes interference, which cannot be eliminated.

Bandwidth of AM Wave
Bandwidth (BW) is the difference between the highest and
lowest frequencies of the signal. Mathematically, it can be
written as 𝑩𝑾 = fmax - fmin.
Consider the AM wave,
using the formula,
Hence, the amplitude modulated wave has three frequencies:

Carrier freuqency fc, upper sideband frequency fc+fm and
lower sideband frequency fc-fm.

Contd...
Here fmax = fc + fm and fmin = fc - fm
Therefore BW = fc + fm - fc + fm = 2 fm
Hence the BW of AM wave is twice the frequency of the
modulating signal.
Figure 1 represents AM wave in Frequency domain (Spectrum
of AM wave)

Power calculations of AM wave
Consider the equation of AM wave,
Power of AM wave is equal to the sum of powers of carrier,

upper sideband, and lower sideband frequency components.
i.e. Pt = Pc + PUSB+PLSB
In general, the power for cosine signal is
Carrier power,
Upper sideband power,

Contd....
Similarly, lower sideband power,
Adding all these powers, we get the power of AM wave.
Hence the power of AM wave can be determined if the carrier

power and modulation index are known.
Further, if μ=1, then the power required for transmitting an AM
wave is 1.5 times the carrier power.

Problems in AM
Problem 1: A modulating signal m(t) = 10 cos(2π x103 t) is
amplitude modulated with a carrier signal c(t) = 50 cos(2π
x105 t). Find the modulation index, the carrier power, and the
power required for transmitting AM wave.
Solution:
Given m(t) = 10 cos(2π x103 t) where Am = 10 V and fm = 103
Hz.
and c(t) = 50 cos(2π x105 t) where Ac = 50 V and fc = 105 Hz.
i) Modulation index , μ = Am/Ac = 10/50 =0.2
Hence the percentage of modulation is 20%.
ii) Carrier power, Pc is given by

Contd....
Assume R=1 Ω, the carrier power is
iii) Power required for transmitting AM wave is given by

Contd...
Problem 2: The equation of amplitude modulated wave is
given by s(t) = 20 [1 + 0.8 cos(2π x 103 t)] cos(4π x 105 t). Find
the carrier power, the total sideband power, and the band
width of AM wave.
Solution:
Given AM wave, s(t) = 20 [1 + 0.8 cos(2π x 103 t)] cos(4π x 105 t)
Comparing with general equation of AM wave,
we get
Ac = 20 V, μ = 0.8, fm = 103 Hz and fc = 2 x 105 Hz

Contd...
i) Carrier power, Pc is given by
Assume R = 1Ω, then Pc = 200 W.
ii) W.k.t and
Hence the total side band power is
iii) BW of AM wave is BW = 2 fm = 2 x 103 = 2000 Hz = 2 KHz

AM Modulators
There are two methods by which AM wave is generated. They
are as follows:
◦ Square law modulator
◦ Switching modulator
Square law modualtor: The block diagram of square law
modulator is shown below.

Contd...
The modulating and carrier signals are applied as inputs to
the summer (adder) block.
The output of the summer is V1(t) = m(t) + Ac cos(2πfct).
Then this V1(t) is given as input to the square law device like
diode. Then the output of the square law device is
V2(t) = k1V1(t) + k2V12(t)
where k1 and k2 are constants.
Substituting V1(t) in V2(t) equation, we get

Contd...
The last term of the above equation represents the desired
AM wave and the first three terms of the above equation are
unwanted.
In order to eliminate the unwanted three terms and retain
the last AM wave term, a bandpass filter is used at the final
stage of the block diagram.
Therefore, the output of square law modulator is
Comparing the above equation with standard AM wave

equation
We infer that k1 is the scaling factor and amplitude sensitivity,

ka = 2k2/k1.

Switching Modulator
The block diagram of switching modulator is shown below.
Switching modulator is similar to the Square law modulator

except the diode is operated as an ideal switch.
The modulating and carrier signals are applied to the
summer. The output of summer is
V1(t) = m(t) + c(t) = m(t) + Accos(2πfct)

Contd...
The output of summer V1(t) is applied as input to the diode.
ON and OFF action of diode is controlled by carrier signal c(t)
because it is assumed that magnitude of carrier signal is very
large compared to that of modulating signal.
Hence the output of diode is
The above equation can be approximated as V2(t) = V1(t) x(t)

where x(t) is a periodic pulse train with time period T = 1/fc.

Contd...
By substituting V1(t) and Fourier series representation of x(t)
in the equation of V2(t) and simplifying, we get desired AM
wave term and other unwanted terms.
The other unwanted terms are eliminated witht the use of
bandpass filter.
Finally AM wave is obtained as the output of switching
modulator and is given by
Comparing with standard AM wave equation, we get scaling

factor as 0.5 and amplitude sensitivity ka = 4/(πAc).

AM Demodulators
The process of extracting an original message signal
from the modulated wave is known as detection or
demodulation.
The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave
is known as the demodulator.
There are two demodulators used for AM wave
detection. They are as follows:
◦ Square Law Demodulator
◦ Envelope Detector

Square Law Demodulator
Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM
wave.
The block diagram of square law demodulator is shown
below.
It consists of a square law device and a low pass filter.

AM wave is given as input to this demodulator.
Let V1(t) be the AM wave input to the demodulator.

Contd...
The standard AM wave is given by
The output of square law device is

Contd...
From the above equation, it is inferred that the two terms are
extracted from V2(t) by passing it through a low pass filter.
Among the two terms, the desirable term k2 Ac2 ka m(t) is the
scaled version of the message signal. Finally the desired term
alone can be extracted by removing the DC term k2Ac2/2 with
the help of a coupling capacitor.

Envelope Detector
Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) high level
AM wave.
The block diagram of envelope detector is shown below.
This envelope detector consists of a diode and low pass filter.

It is also called as the diode detector.
The low pass filter contains a parallel combination of the
resistor and the capacitor.

Contd...
AM wave is given as input to the detector as shown in the
circuit diagram.
During the positive half cycle of AM wave, the diode becomes

forward biased and conducts.
Then the capacitor charges to the peak value of AM wave.
When the value of AM wave is less than this value, the diode
will be reverse biased.

Contd...
Thus, the capacitor will discharge through resistor R till the
next positive half cycle of AM wave.
When the value of AM wave is again greater than the
capacitor voltage, the diode conducts and the process will be
repeated.
We should select the component values in such a way that
the capacitor charges very quickly and discharges very slowly.
As a result, we will get the capacitor voltage waveform same
as that of the envelope of AM wave, which is almost similar to
the modulating signal.

Contd...
In case of envelope detection, the following condition is to be
satisfied for smooth recovery of modulating signal from AM
wave. i.e.
where Rs is source resistance and RL is the load resistance.

Unless the above stated condition is satisfied, a severely
distorted version of modulating signal appears at the output
of envelope detector. This distortion is called Diagonal
Clipping.

Problems in AM
Problem 3:
Solution:

Contd...
Problem 4:
Solution:

High-Level and Low-Level Modulation
In a transmitter, modulation of the carrier may be performed
either at a low carrier power level or at a high carrier power
level.
Based on this, modulation can be classified into two types
namely Low level and High level modulation.
As the modulated signal is produced at a low carrier level in
the case of low-level modulation, the modulated signal so
produced will have to be raised to the required power level
using a chain of power amplifiers. (either class-A or class-AB
tuned power amplifiers)
In the case of high-level modulation, the carrier signal
produced by an oscillator is first amplified using a series of
tuned power amplifiers. (Class C power amplifiers).

Contd...
Advanatages of low level modulation:
The modulation circuit is relatively simple as the power levels to be
handled are low.
The power required to be supplied by the modulating signal
amplifier is very low. Hence, it is especially useful when the
modulating signal is a video signal, since it is difficult to get large
amounts of video power, as in the case of TV transmitters.
Disadvantages:
Low efficiency Class A or Class AB tuned power amplifiers are used.
Advanatages of high level modulation:
High efficiency Class C power amplifier is used.
Disadvantages:
Large amounts of modulating signal power will be needed.

Frequency Modulation
Angle Modulation is the process in which the frequency or the
phase of the carrier signal varies according to the message
signal.
The standard equation of the angle modulated wave is
s(t) = Ac cosθi(t)
where Ac is the amplitude of modulated wave, same as the
amplitude of carrier wave and θi(t) is the angle of the modulated
wave.
Angle modulation is further divided into frequency modulation
and phase modulation.
Frequency Modulation is the process of varying the frequency of
the carrier signal linearly with the message signal.
Phase Modulation is the process of varying the phase of the
carrier signal linearly with the message signal.
Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
The process by which the frequency of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal is called Frequency Modulation.
However, the amplitude and the phase of
the carrier signal remains constant.
The frequency of the modulated wave
increases, when the amplitude of the
modulating or message signal increases.
Similarly, the frequency of the modulated
wave decreases,when the amplitude of the
modulating signal decreases.
Note that, the frequency of the modulated
wave remains constant and it is equal to the
frequency of the carrier signal,when the
amplitude of the modulating signal is zero.

Professor, IMU 2
Mathematical Representation of FM
The equation for instantaneous frequency fi in FM
modulation is fi = fc + kf m(t).
where fc is the carrier frequency, kf is the frequency sensitivity
and m(t) is the message signal.
We know the relationship between angular frequency ωi and
angle θi(t) as

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
The difference between FM modulated frequency
(instantaneous frequency) and normal carrier frequency is
termed as Frequency Deviation. It is denoted by Δf, which is
equal to the product of kf and Am.
FM can be divided into Narrowband FM and Wideband FM
based on the values of modulation index 𝛃.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
Note:
For Narrowband FM, Bandwidth BW = 2fm
For Wideband FM, Bandwidth BW = 2(β+1) fm (Carson’s rule)

Professor, IMU 6
Spectrum of FM
Carson’s rule:

Professor, IMU 7
Problems in FM
Problem 1: A sinusoidal modulating waveform of amplitude 5
V and a frequency of 2 KHz is applied to FM generator, which
has a frequency sensitivity of 40 Hz/volt. Calculate the
frequency deviation, modulation index and BW.
Solution:
Given Am = 5 V, fm = 2 KHz and kf = 40 Hz/V.
i) Frequency deviation is Δf = kf Am= 40 x 5 = 200 Hz.
ii) Modulation index is β = Δf/fm = 200/(2 x 103) = 0.1
Since the modulation index β is less than 1, it ia Narrowband
FM.
iii) BW = 2fm = 2 x 2 x 1000 = 4000 Hz = 4KHz.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
Problem 2: An FM transmitter has a frequency deviation
constant of 100 Hz/volt. To the modulator of this transmitter,
a sinusoidal modulating signal of rms value 2 volts and a
frequency of 1 kHz, is applied. Determine the peak frequency
deviation and the deviation ratio.
Solution:

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
Problem 3:
Solution:
Comparing the given equation with standard equation of FM
wave

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
Problem 4: An FM signal with single-tone modulation has a
frequency deviation of 15 kHz and a bandwidth of 50 kHz.
Find the frequency of the modulating signal.
Solution:

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Problem 5: An FM wave is given by s(t) = 20 cos(8π x 106 t +9
sin(2π x 103 t)). Calculate the frequency deviation,
transmission bandwidth, and power of FM wave.
Solution:

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
Problem 6: A signal x(t), whose Fourier transform X(f) is
shown in Figure is normalized so that |x(t)| ≤ 1. This signal is
to be transmitted using FM with a frequency deviation
constant kf = 60 kHz per volt. What will be the bandwidth
required for transmission?

Professor, IMU 15
FM Modulators
Generation of NBFM:

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Here, the integrator is used to integrate the modulating signal m(t).
The carrier signal Ac cos(2πfct) is the phase shifted by -900 to get Ac
sin(2πfct) with the help of -900 phase shifter.
The product modulator has two inputs ∫m(t) dt and Ac sin(2πfct). It
produces an output, which is the product of these two inputs.
This is further multiplied with 2πkf by placing a block 2πkf in the
forward path. The summer block has two inputs, which are nothing
but the two terms of NBFM equation.
Positive and negative signs are assigned for the carrier signal and the
other term at the input of the summer block. Finally, the summer
block produces NBFM wave.

Professor, IMU 3
Generation of WBFM
There are two methods to generate WBFM wave:
◦ Direct method
◦ Indirect method
Direct method:
It is called so because WBFM wave is generated directly in
this method.
Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is used in this method to
generate WBFM.
VCO produces an output signal, whose frequency is
proportional to the input signal voltage.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
The block diagram of generation of WBFM signal is shown in
figure below.
The ouput WBFM signal from VCO, whose instantaneous

frequency is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating
signal. i.e. fi α m(t)
fi = fc + kf m(t)

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
In direct method, the approach is to vary the frequency of an
LC oscillator in accordance with the variations in the
amplitude of the message or the modulating signal.
This is accomplished by placing an additional reactance across

the tank circuit of the oscillator and making this reactance
vary with the amplitude of the message.
There are two methods for creating this variable reactance.
One is to use a ‘varactor’, or a reactance diode and the other

is to use a reactance modulator.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Theblock diagrams of generation of WBFM using varactor
diode and reactance modulator are shown in figures below.

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
Among the two methods, reactance modulator offers better
stability than varactor diode circuit.
However, both methods suffer from poor carrier frequency
stability because of using LC oscillator.
This makes it necessary to use some Automatic Frequency
Control (AFC) wherein the carrier frequency of the WBFM
signal is controlled by a crystal oscillator.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
Indirect or Armstrong Method:
In this method, wide band FM wave is generated indirectly.
This means, NBFM wave is first generated and then with the
help of frequency multipliers, WBFM wave is generated.
The block diagram of generation of WBFM wave using this
indirect method is shown in the following figure.

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
The modulating signal x(t) and a low-frequency carrier signal
produced by a crystal oscillator are given as input signals and it
uses these two signals to produce a narrowband angle-modulated
signal with a carrier frequency of fc.
A low-frequency carrier is used for producing the narrowband
signal.
The next stage is a frequency multiplier used for converting the
narrowband signal into a wideband signal and it raises the carrier
frequency from fc to nfc.
The frequency multiplier stage consists of a non-linear device
whose output is tuned to the desired harmonic of fc.
Generally, a class-C amplifier whose output circuit is a tank circuit
tuned to nfc serves as a ‘Xn’ frequency multiplier.

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
After frequency multiplier, wideband angle-modulated signal is
generated. However, it will not be the correct desired carrier
frequency at which it is to be transmitted.
Hence mixer is used with properly chosen local oscillator frequency
fo inorder to get the desired carrier frequency.
Usually, the output of mixer are sum frequency and difference
frequency.
So, finally a BPF is used with its centre frequency equal to either sum
frequency or difference frequency (whichever is needed) and also
designed with passband to accomodate the effective BW of
Wideband signal.
The main advantage of this method is having high stability because
of using crystal oscillator for obtaining the carrier frequency.

Professor, IMU 11
Professor, IMU 12
FM Demodulators
FM demodulation or FM detection is the process of recovering the
original modulating signal from a frequency-modulated signal.
The electronic circuits which perform the frequency demodulation
process are known as FM demodulators or Frequency
Discriminators.
There are mainly two steps involved to extract the modulating
signal from FM signal:
◦ Firstly, it converts FM signal into a corresponding AM signal with
the help of frequency discriminator circuits whose output voltage
depends upon input frequency.
◦ Secondly, the original modulating signal is then recovered from
this AM signal by linear diode or envelope AM detector.

Professor, IMU 13
Professor, IMU 14
Essential requirements of FM
Demodulators
It must convert frequency variations present in
frequency-modulated signal into amplitude variations.
The conversion from frequency variations to amplitude variations
must be linear as well as efficient.
The FM demodulator circuit should be insensitive to amplitude
variations (due to noise and interference) present in
frequency-modulated signal.
It should respond to the frequency changes only.
It should be easy to operate and simple to tune.

Professor, IMU 15
Types of FM demodulators
A simple R-L circuit or a tuned L-C circuit may be used as a FM discriminator

called Tuned Circuit Frequency Discriminator. But this type of circuit has a very
poor sensitivity, so it is generally not used.

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...
The following two familiar methods are used to demodulate
FM wave:
◦ Frequency discrimination method
◦ Phase discrimination method
FrequencyDiscrimination Method:
◦ The following figure shows the block diagram of FM
demodulator using frequency discrimination method.

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...
This block diagram consists of the differentiator and the
envelope detector.
Differentiator is used to convert the FM wave into a AM
wave . This means, it converts the frequency variations of FM
wave into the corresponding voltage (amplitude) variations of
AM wave.
We know the operation of the envelope detector. It produces
the demodulated output of AM wave, which is nothing but
the modulating signal.

Professor, IMU 18
Contd...
Phase Discrimination Method:
The following figure shows the block diagram of FM
demodulator using phase discrimination method.

Professor, IMU 19
Contd...
This block diagram consists of the multiplier, the low pass
filter, and the Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO).
VCO produces an output signal v(t), whose frequency is
proportional to the input signal voltage d(t).
Initially, when the signal d(t) is zero, adjust the VCO to
produce an output signal v(t), having a carrier frequency and
−900 phase shift with respect to the carrier signal.
FM wave s(t) and the VCO output v(t) are applied as inputs of
the multiplier.
The multiplier produces an output, having a high frequency
component and a low frequency component.

Professor, IMU 20
Contd...
Low pass filter eliminates the high frequency component and
produces only the low frequency component as its output.
This low frequency component contains only the term-related
phase difference. Hence, we get the modulating signal m(t)
from this output of the low pass filter.

Professor, IMU 21
Slope Detector
The principle of operation of slope detector for FM
demodulation depends upon the slope of the frequency
response characteristics of a frequency-selective network.
There are two types of slope detector namely

◦ Single-tuned or simple slope detector
◦ Stagger-tuned or balanced slope detector

Professor, IMU 22
Simple Slope FM Detector
The basic circuit diagram of simple slope detector is shown
below.
A FM signal is applied at the input of the tuned circuit.

The first tuned circuit comprising of C1 and L1 is tuned to FM
intermediate frequency ( fIF).

Professor, IMU 23
Contd...
The second tuned circuit comprising of L2 and C2 is tuned to
(fIF + Δf), where Δf is the frequency deviation.
This circuit converts the FM signal into an AM signal.
The output voltage of the tank circuit is then applied to a

simple diode envelope detector with an RC load having an
appropriate time constant.
At the output of envelope detector, the modulating signal is

obtained

Professor, IMU 24
Contd...

Professor, IMU 25
Contd...
Advantages of slope detector:
◦ simple design
◦ inexpensive
Disadvantages of slope detector:

◦ The slope detector characteristic curve is linear only over a
limited frequency range.
◦ The nonlinear characteristics of this circuit produce
harmonic distortion.
◦ This circuit does not eliminate the amplitude variations.
◦ The output is sensitive to any amplitude variations present
in the input FM signal, which is not acceptable at all.
◦ It is relatively difficult to tune primary and secondary
windings of the same transformer to slightly different
frequencies ( fIF) and ( fIF + Δf ) respectively.

Professor, IMU 26
Stagger-tuned or Balanced Slope FM Detector
The circuit diagram of stagger-tuned or balanced slope
detector for FM demodulation is shown below.
It is also called Round Travis Detector.

Professor, IMU 27
Contd...
The balanced slope detector consists of two simple slope
detector circuits, constructed around diode D1 and D2.
The input transformer has a center tapped secondary output.
Hence the input signals to two slope detector circuits are 180°
out of phase.
There are basically three tuned circuits:
◦ The primary is tuned to FM intermediate frequency, fIF
◦ The upper tuned circuit of secondary transformer (T1) is tuned at
( fIF + Δf )
◦ The lower tuned circuit of secondary transformer (T2) is tuned at
( fIF – Δf )
R1C1 and R2C2 serves as filters to bypass the RF ripples.

Professor, IMU 28
Contd...
Let Vo1 and Vo2 are the respective output voltages of upper
and lower slope detector circuits respectively.
Then, Vo = Vo1 - Vo2.
Case I: At ( fIF – Δf) < fin < fIF; Vo1 < Vo2; Then Vo is -ve. (This
means that as fin goes nearer to ( fIF – Δf ), the -ve output
voltage increases.)
Case II: At fin = fIF; Vo1 = Vo2; Then Vo = 0
Case III: At fIF < fin < ( fIF + Δf ); Vo1 > Vo2; Then Vo is +ve. (This
means that as fin increases from fIF to (fIF + Δf), the +ve output
voltage increases.)
Professor, IMU 29
Contd...
The characteristics curve of the balanced slope detector is shown in
Figure below, and is called S-curve.
If the output frequency goes outside the range of ( fIF – Δf ) to ( fIF + Δf

), the output voltage will fall due to the reduction in tuned circuit
response.

Professor, IMU 30
Contd...
Advantages of Balanced slope detector:
◦ Better linearity
◦ More efficient
Disadvantages of Balanced slope detector:
◦ The range of linearity is still not enough.
◦ This circuit is more difficult to be properly tuned since three
tuned circuits are to be tuned at different frequencies, that
is, at ( fIF), ( fIF + Δf ), and ( fIF – Δf ).
◦ Amplitude limiting is also not provided.

Professor, IMU 31
Foster-Seeley FM Discriminator
The Foster–Seeley FM discriminator also consists of two
simple slope detector circuits, constructed around diode D1
and D2.
But both primary and secondary windings of the input

transformer are tuned to the same center frequency, fIF
present at its input.
The circuit diagram of Foster-Seeley FM discriminator is

shown below. It is also sometimes called as center-tuned or
phase FM discriminator.

Professor, IMU 32
Contd...

Professor, IMU 33
Contd...
The voltages applied to diodes D1 and D2 are not constant
but varies depending on the frequency of the input signal.
This is due to the change in phase shift between the primary

and secondary windings depending on input signal frequency.
R3C3 and R4C4 serves as filters to bypass the RF ripples.
Let Vo1 and Vo2 are the respective output voltages of upper
and lower slope detector circuits constructed around diodes
D1 and D2 respectively.
Then we have following three conditions:

Professor, IMU 34
Contd...
Case I: At ( fIF – Δf ) < fin < fIF; the phase shift between primary and
secondary winding is more than 90°, and the output of D1 is less
than the output of D2 or Vo1 <Vo2; Then Vo is –ve. (This means that
as fin goes nearer to ( fIF – Δf ), the -ve output voltage increases.)
Case II: At fin = fIF; the phase shift between primary and secondary
winding is exactly 90°, and the output of D1 is equal to the output
of D2 or Vo1 = Vo2; Then Vo = 0.
Case III: At fIF < fin < (fIF + Δf); the phase shift between primary and
secondary winding is less than 90°, and the output of D1 is more
than the output of D2 or Vo1 > Vo2; Then Vo is +ve. (This means that
as fin increases from fIF to ( fIF + Δf ), the +ve output voltage
increases.)

Professor, IMU 35
Contd...
The characteristics curve of the Foster-Seeley FM
discriminator is same as that of balanced slope detector, and
is called S-curve.
Advantages:
◦ better linearity than balanced slope detector
◦ simplified tuning.
Disadvantages:
It does not provide any amplitude limiting. So in the presence
of noise, errors are produced at its output.

Professor, IMU 36
Ratio Detector
The ratio FM detector is a modified Foster-Seeley FM
discriminator circuit in order to achieve the
amplitude-limiting action.
The S-type characteristics curve and the explanation of its
operation is identical to that of Foster-Seeley FM
discriminator.
Hence the circuit is similar to that of Foster-Seeley FM
discriminator except with following changes:
◦ The direction of diode D2 is reversed.
◦ A large value capacitor C5 is included at the final output.
◦ The output is taken across different point in the circuit.

Professor, IMU 37
Contd...
The circuit diagram of ratio FM detector is shown below.

Professor, IMU 38
Contd...
The operation of ratio FM detector is briefly described as
follows:
The ratio FM detector output voltage is equal to half of the
difference between the output voltages from the individual
diodes.
The amplitude limiting takes place in ratio FM detector.
If FM input voltage V1 increases, the secondary voltage also
increases which in turn increases the load current.
But the voltage across capacitor C5 will increase very gradually
or can be considered as almost constant.
Hence load impedance effectively decreases which will
counteract the increase in FM input signal voltage.

Professor, IMU 39
Contd...
Similarly if amplitude of FM input signal voltage decreases,
the load impedance will increase and thus compensate for
reduction in amplitude.
This type of amplitude limiting is called Diode Variable
Damping.
Advantages:
◦ Very good linearity due to linear-phase relationship
between primary and secondary windings
◦ Easier tuning
◦ Inherent amplitude limiting capabilities

Professor, IMU 40
Contd...
Disadvantages:
The time constant of load resistor in parallel with large
capacitor is quite long.
The response of the circuit to fast amplitude changes may be
extremely slow or almost negligible.
The circuit will also respond to the slower changes in
amplitude due to spurious AM which necessitates the
provision of additional AGC circuits.

Professor, IMU 41
Pre-emphasis
In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating
frequencies. This effect can be reduced by increasing the
value of modulation index (mf ) for higher modulating
frequencies (fm).
This can be done by increasing the deviation Δf and Δf can be

increased by increasing the amplitude of modulating signal at
higher modulating frequencies.
Thus, if we boost the amplitude of higher frequency

modulating signals artificially then it will be possible to
improve the noise immunity at higher modulating
frequencies.
Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies is
called as pre-emphasis.
FM transmitter including the pre-emphasis

Professor, IMU 2
De-emphasis
The process that is used at the receiver end to nullify or
compensate the artificial boosting given to the higher
modulating frequencies in the process of pre-emphasis is
called De-emphasis.
The artificially boosted high frequency signals are brought to
their original amplitude using the de-emphasis circuit.
The 75 μsec de-emphasis circuit is standard and it is as shown
in figure below.

Professor, IMU 3
Points to remember
Standard AM range: 550 KHz - 1650 KHz
Standard Intermdiate Frequency in AM: 455 KHz
Standard FM range: 88 MHz - 108 MHz

Standard Intermdiate Frequency in FM: 10.7 MHz
Common Frequency deviation in FM: 75 KHz

Professor, IMU 4
Radio Receivers & Satellite
Communication
UNIT 7

Professor, IMU 1
AM Transmitters
Transmitters that transmit AM signals are known as AM
transmitters.
These transmitters are used in medium wave (MW) and short
wave (SW) frequency bands for AM broadcast.
The MW band has frequencies between 550 KHz and 1650
KHz, and the SW band has frequencies ranging from 3 MHz to
30 MHz.
The two types of AM transmitters that are used based on
their transmitting powers are: high level and low level AM
transmitters.
High level transmitters use high level modulation, and low
level transmitters use low level modulation.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
In broadcast transmitters, where the transmitting power may
be of the order of kilowatts, high level modulation is
employed.
In low power transmitters, where only a few watts of
transmitting power are required , low level modulation is
used.

Professor, IMU 3
High Level AM Transmitter
The block diagram of high level AM transmitter is shown
below.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Carrier oscillator: The carrier oscillator generates the carrier signal,
which lies in the RF range. The frequency of the carrier is always very
high.
Buffer Amplifier: It performs dual role, i.e. first, it matches the
output impedance of the carrier oscillator with the input impedance
of the frequency multiplier and second, it isolates the carrier
oscillator and frequency multiplier.
Frequency Multiplier: The frequency multiplier is a tuned circuit that
can be tuned to the requisite carrier frequency that is to be
transmitted.
Power Amplifier: The power of the carrier signal is then amplified in
the power amplifier stage. This is the basic requirement of a
high-level transmitter. A class C power amplifier gives high power
current pulses of the carrier signal at its output.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
Audio Chain: It consists of audio power amplifier followed by
audio driver amplifier. A class A or a class B power amplifier
amplifies the power of the audio signal.
Modulated Class C Amplifier: This is the output stage of the
transmitter. The modulating audio signal and the carrier
signal, after power amplification, are applied to this
modulating stage. The modulation takes place at this stage.
The class C amplifier also amplifies the power of the AM
signal to the reacquired transmitting power. This signal is
finally passed to the antenna., which radiates the signal into
space of transmission.

Professor, IMU 6
Low level AM Transmitter
The block diagram of low level AM transmitter is shown in
figure below.
The low-level AM transmitter is similar to a high-level

transmitter, except that the powers of the carrier and audio
signals are not amplified.
These two signals are directly applied to the modulated class
C power amplifier.
Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
Modulation takes place at the stage, and the power of
the modulated signal is amplified to the required
transmitting power level.
Finally, the transmitting antenna then transmits the
signal.

Professor, IMU 8
FM Transmitter
The block diagram of FM transmitter is shown below.
The audio signal from the output of the microphone is sent to

the preemphasis, which boosts the level of the modulating
signal.
The preemphasized signal is further passed to the FM
modulator circuit.

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
The oscillator circuit generates a high frequency carrier,
which is sent to the modulator along with the modulating
signal.
Several stages of frequency multiplier are used to increase
the operating frequency.
Even then, the power of the signal is not enough to transmit.
Hence, a RF power amplifier is used at the end to increase the
power of the modulated signal.
This FM modulated output is finally transmitted into the
space using antenna.

Professor, IMU 10
Radio Receivers
In radio communications, a radio receiver, also known as a
receiver, a wireless or simply a radio, is an electronic circuit
that receives radio waves and converts the information
carried by them to a usable form.
Alternatively, it can be defined as “A radio receiver has the

function of selecting the desired signal from all other
unwanted signals, amplifying, demodulating it and finally
producing it in the desired manner.”

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Radio receivers can classsified into many types namely
◦ Straight receiver
◦ Regenerative receiver
◦ Super regenerative receiver
◦ Tuned Radio Frequency(TRF) receiver
◦ Superheterodyne receiver
◦ Double conversion receiver

Professor, IMU 12
Requirements of a Receiver
AM receiver receives AM wave and demodulates it by using
the envelope detector. Similarly, FM receiver receives FM
wave and demodulates it by using the Frequency
Discrimination method.
The requirements of both AM and FM receiver are as follows:

◦ It should be cost-effective.
◦ It should receive the corresponding modulated waves.
◦ The receiver should be able to tune and amplify the desired
station.
◦ It should have an ability to reject the unwanted stations.
◦ Demodulation has to be done to all the station signals,
irrespective of the carrier signal frequency.

Professor, IMU 13
A simple (or) straight radio receiver
The functional block diagram of a simple radio receiver is
shown in figure below.
The receiving antenna receives the radiowaves from different

broadcasting stations.
The desired radiowave is selected by the radio frequency
amplifier, which employs a tuned parallel circuit.

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
The tuned RF amplifier amplifies this selected radiowave. The
amplified radiowave is fed to the detector circuit which consists of a
PN diode.
This circuit extracts the audio signal from the radiowave. The output
of the detector is the audio signal, which is amplified by one or more
stages of audio amplification.
The amplified audio signal is given to the loud speaker for sound
reproduction.
Disadvantages:
Simple radio receiver circuit has
1. poor sensitivity
2. poor selectivity

Professor, IMU 15
Regenerative receivers
The regenerative radio (Regen Radio) was developed
by Edwin H. Armstrong and patented in 1914.
The receiver uses a single vacuum tube for both
amplification and detection, utilizing positive
feedback to both increase the gain from a single
vacuum tube and to improve the selectivity of the
receiver.
The schematic of the regenerative receiver is shown
below.

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...
The incoming RF signal is taken from the antenna and passed
through a tunable band-pass filter tank so as to select the
desired channel.
The signal is then amplified by a triode or other device. The
amplifier's output signal is then fed back into the resonant
tank via the tickler coil where it is once again filtered by the
tank and amplified by the tube.
The reuse of the same vacuum tube through the positive
feedback loop greatly increases the gain of the system.
The two effects of positive feedback--increased in gain and
bandwidth sharpening--are easily understood through
simplified analysis of the system.

Professor, IMU 18
Contd...
With positive feedback enabled, the signal is passed through
the circuit multiple times, each pass increasing the selectivity
of the filter and the passband gain of the receiver.
The passband gain and the selectivity of the circuit system are
both extremely high, but remain finite as a result of
diminishing returns in the feedback loop.
The nonlinear response of the single vacuum tube is also used
to demodulate the signal.
The original AM signal is passed through the distorting
nonlinearity of the tube, which applies different levels of
distortion to positive and negative swinging signals.

Professor, IMU 19
Contd...
Sending this distorted signal through a simple low pass filter
is enough to recover the desired signal.
It is necessary to properly select the amount of positive
feedback to apply to the system. i.e. too little will not provide
enough gain and selectivity and too much will cause entire
circuit to oscillate.
Because of these oscllations, it is not only able to receive the
signal with the device and also reradiation take place via
antenna.
Further, any nearby receivers attempting to tune to the same
channel will be saturated by those oscillations.

Professor, IMU 20
Super Regenerative Receiver
The super regenerative radio receiver was able to provide
significant improvements in performance over the
regenerative radio.
It was invented by Armstrong in 1922 and widely used in
vacuum tube circuits until the 1950’s.
It was used for many years, particularly at VHF and UHF
where it was able to offer simplicity of the circuitry and
relatively high levels of performance.
It is based on simpler regenerative radio. It uses a second
lower frequency oscillation within the regeneration loop that
interrupts or quenches the main RF oscillation.

Professor, IMU 21
Contd...
The second or quench oscillation typically operates at
frequencies above the audio range, e.g. 25 kHz to 100 kHz.
In operation, the circuit has sufficient positive feedback to
bring it to oscillation.
The block digaram of super regenrative receiver is shown
below.

Professor, IMU 22
Contd...

Professor, IMU 23
Contd...
When the circuit is operated with feedback such that the
oscillator runs sufficiently into the region of oscillation, a
secondary lower frequency oscillation occurs.
The secondary oscillation breaks up the much higher
frequency RF oscillation – periodically breaking up or
quenching the main oscillation.
By the action of the quenching oscillation, RF signals are able
to build up to very high levels. Gain levels can often approach
a million or so in a single stage.

Professor, IMU 24
Contd...
Advantages:
◦ Small number of components allow for high integration
◦ Low power
◦ High energy efficiency
Disadvantages:
◦ poor sensitivity
◦ poor selectivity
◦ low data-rate
◦ limited demodulation capability

Professor, IMU 25
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
A TRF receiver simply consists of a chain of two or three
single-tuned r.f. amplifiers, all of them tuned to the same
frequency, following a detector, an audio voltage amplifier
and an audio power amplifier that feeds the loudspeaker as
shown in the block diagram below.
TRF receiver is a receiver where the tuning, i.e. selectivity is

provided by the radio frequency stages.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
The simplest tuned radio frequency receiver is a simple
crystal set.
Tuning is provided by a tuned coil / capacitor combination,
and then the signal is presented to a simple crystal or diode
detector where the amplitude modulated signal, in this case,
is recovered.
The recovered modulating signal is then passed straight to
the headphones.
Typically a TRF receiver would consist of three main sections:
Tuned radio frequency stages: This consisted of one of more
amplifying and tuning stages. Early sets often had several
stages, each proving some gain and selectivity.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Signal detector: The detector enabled the audio from the
amplitude modulation signal to be extracted. It uses a form of
detection called envelope detection.
Audio amplifier: Audio stages to provide audio amplification

were normally, but not always included.
TRF receivers are quite simple and inexpensive.
But they suffer from several severe disadvantages, however

the main disadvantage is poor adjacent channel selectivity.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Because of this, when the receiver is tuned to a particular
station, say carrier frequency fc, signals radiated by stations
operating on adjacent channels having carrier frequencies of
fc ± 10 kHz, are also received, although they are attenuated
to some extent. This is called adjacent channel interference.
Further, as all the amplification (of the received signal)

required for proper operation of the detector, has to be at
the signal frequency, there exists the possibility of instability
of the RF amplifiers.
Also, it has to be ensured that the RF amplifiers are all tuned

to exactly the same frequency as the receiver is tuned to
different stations.

Professor, IMU 4
Superheterodyne AM Broadcast Receivers
Selectivity is the ability of selecting a particular signal, while

rejecting the others. Sensitivity is the capacity of detecting RF
signal and demodulating it, while at the lowest power level.
Earlier receivers have poor sensitivity and selectivity.
The superheterodyne receiver overcomes the drawbacks in
TRF reeciver.
Principle of Superheterodyne Receivers: Almost all the gain
of a TRF receiver is obtained in the RF amplifiers, at signal
frequency; and this gain varies quite a bit as the receiver is
tuned to different stations.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
In a superheterodyne receiver, by a process of mixing, the
message-bearing received AM signal, whatever may be its
carrier frequency, is converted into an AM signal carrying the
same message signal at a fixed carrier frequency called the
Intermediate Frequency (IF), which is lower than the lowest
carrier frequency covered by the receiver.
About 70–75% of the gain of the receiver is obtained through
amplification at this fixed frequency IF by using a fixed-tuned
high gain amplifier, called the IF amplifier.
This signal is then detected and the extracted message signal
is then amplified and fed to the loudspeaker. This way, the
superheterodyne receiver overcomes all the disadvantages of
the TRF receiver.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
The block diagram of an AM superheterodyne broadcast
receiver is shown below.

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
RF Amplifier: It is a tuned voltage amplifier that selects and
amplifies the signal induced in the antenna having a carrier
frequency corresponding to the frequency to which it is
tuned. Its bandwidth is 10 kHz.
It is not only designed to give a high gain and its main
functions are the following:
◦ To ensure that the receiver has a good overall
signal-to-noise ratio
◦ To give good image frequency rejection and IF rejection
capability to the receiver
◦ To give some amount of adjacent channel selectivity

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
Local Oscillator: This is an LC oscillator which produces a
sinusoidal signal of frequency f0 which is such that f0 - fc = IF,
the pre-determined fixed frequency called the intermediate
frequency.
fc is the frequency of the carrier of the station to which the
receiver is tuned.
The receiver may be tuned to any frequency from 550 kHz to
1650 kHz.
But whatever may be the frequency to which the receiver is
tuned, the local oscillator frequency tracks it in such a way as
to always maintain the local oscillator frequency above the
signal frequency by an amount of 455 kHz, the usual IF used
in AM broadcast receivers.

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...
Mixer: The received AM signal with a carrier frequency fc,
amplified by the RF amplifier, is fed as one of the inputs to
the mixer, the other input signal being the output of the local
oscillator, a sinusoidal signal of frequency f0 = fc + fif.
Mixing is a non-linear process and it results in generation of

the sum and difference frequency components in addition to
the original frequency components of the two input signals.
The output circuit of the mixer—a tank circuit tuned to the

difference frequency, i.e., the intermediate frequency, rejects
all other frequency components.

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
Thus, the output of the mixer is an AM signal whose carrier
frequency is the intermediate frequency fif (455 kHZ).
Thus, the mixer and local oscillator convert the received AM

signal with a carrier frequency fc into another AM signal with
fif as the carrier frequency.
IF Amplifier(s): One or two stages of IF amplifiers are

generally used. These are fixed-tuned voltage amplifiers of
high gain.
These IF amplifiers provide a 3 dB bandwidth of 10 kHz

centered on the intermediate frequency.
They provide good sensitivity and selectivity to the receiver.

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Detector: This extracts the modulating signal from the AM
signal. In commercial AM broadcast receivers, envelope
detectors are used.
They are designed so as to provide linear operation and avoid

distortions: diagonal clipping and negative peak clipping.
The envelope detector can be used to provide a dc voltage of

appropriate polarity for automatic gain control(AGC).
An arrangement for automatic gain control, or AGC, is

necessary in radio receivers for the following reasons.

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...
i) When the receiver is tuned from one station to another, difference
in signal strengths of the two stations causes an unpleasantly loud
output.
Usually, we need to keep volume control very low when we move
form one station to another station. But keeping volume control
every time before attempting to retune the receiver is difficult.
ii) Even if we are not retuning to another station, signal strength

from the station to which the receiver is tuned can go on fluctuating
due to signal fading.
Because of above reasons, it requires an arrangement by which the

overall gain of the receiver can be made to automatically vary when
the signal strength changes, so as to keep the audio output
reasonably constant.

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...
Audio Voltage amplifier: The demodulator output is the
message signal. But it is very weak and cannot be used
directly to actuate a loudspeaker.
So the audio signal coming out from the detector stage is first
amplified using a voltage amplifier.
Audio Power amplifier: Class-A audio power amplifier is the

next stage, used to raise the power level of the signal.
It is usually a transfomer coupled one, which can directly
couple to loudspeaker.
This output transformer is also called the matching
transformer since it provides good matching between the
high output impedance of the power amplifier and the low
impedance of the loudspeaker.

Professor, IMU 14
Image Frequency Rejection and IFRR
Suppose the receiver is tuned to a station with a carrier
frequency fc.
Then the tuned circuits in the RF stage are tuned to the signal
frequency fc and the local oscillator frequency f0 will
therefore be (fc + fif).
Now, if there is another station operating with a carrier

frequency of (f0 + fif) = (fc + 2fif) and if that signal passes
through the RF stage and the mixer, it will also produce an
output at the intermediate frequency, since it also differs
from the local oscillator frequency by fif.

Professor, IMU 15
Contd...
So, this undesired signal also gets amplified in the IF stages along
with the desired signal and causes interference at the destination.
Hence, if a receiver is tuned to a desired signal having a carrier

frequency fc, the signal with a carrier frequency of (fc + 2fif) can
cause interference and it is called the image signal for the desired
signal with carrier frequency fc.
This image signal should not therefore be allowed to reach the input
of the mixer stage. Of course, it is not possible to completely
eliminate it, but it should be attenuated heavily in the RF stage.
The extent to which the image frequency signal is rejected by the

receiver is generally expressed in terms of what is referred to as the
Image Frequency Rejection Ratio (IFRR).

Professor, IMU 16
Double Heterodyne Receivers
The fact is that the attenuation of image signals depends
upon Q of the tuned circuits in RF stage and the value of IF.
Higher the Q value, better is the image frequency rejection.
Similarly, Higher the vaue of IF, better is the image frequency
rejection.
But a low value of IF is required for good sensitivity and
selectivity.
Always there is a trade off in choosing the value of IF to
compromise between these two conflicting requirements.
The solution to the above problem is double heterodyne or
double conversion receivers that provides good image
rejection as well as good selectivity.

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...
The block diagram of double heterodyne receiver is shown
below.
The idea is simple—use a high first IF to get good image

rejection and a low second IF to get good gain (sensitivity)
and adjacent channel (selectivity), by resorting to double
conversion.

Professor, IMU 18
Contd...
The first IF is chosen higher than the signal frequency upper
limit and the LO frequency is chosen to be IF—signal
frequency.
In that case, the filter in the output of the first mixer selects
the sum frequency.
The LO for the second mixer is generally a crystal oscillator.
Since the second IF is chosen quite low, the second IF
amplifier is designed to give almost all the required sensitivity
(gain).

Professor, IMU 19
Important terminologies in receivers
Sensitivity of the receiver is the ability to detect

even weaker RF signal in the noisy enivronment.
Selectivity of the receiver is the ability to select the
desired signal from the other signals.
Fidelity of the reciver is the ability to produce the
exact replica of the modulating signal with very little
distortion.
Noise figure of the receiver is defined as the ratio of
the input signal-to-noise ratio to the output
signal-to-noise ratio.
Professor, IMU 20
Comparision of FM receiver with AM receiver
AM Superheterodyne receiver FM Superheterodyne receiver

Professor, IMU 21
RADAR Communication
UNIT 7 - Part 3

Professor, IMU 1
Introduction
RADAR is an electromagnetic based detection system that works by
radiating electromagnetic waves and then studying the echo or the
reflected back waves.
RADAR stands fo RAdio Detection And Ranging.
Detection refers to whether the target is present or not.
The target can be stationary or movable.
Radars can be used for various applications on ground, on sea and in
space.
The applications of Radars are as follows:
◦ Controlling the Air Traffic
◦ Ship safety
◦ Sensing the remote places
◦ Military applications

Professor, IMU 2
Basic Principle of Radar
Radar is used for detecting the objects and finding their
location. The basic principle of RADAR can be understood
from the block diagram, given below.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Radar mainly consists of a transmitter and a receiver. It uses the
same Antenna for both transmitting and receiving the signals.
The function of the transmitter is to transmit the Radar signal in the
direction of the target present.
Target reflects this received signal in various directions. The signal,
which is reflected back towards the Antenna gets received by the
receiver.
The receiving antenna collects the returned energy and delivers it to
a receiver, where it is processed to detect the presence of the target
and to extract its location and relative velocity.
The distance to the target is determined by measuring the time
taken for the radar signal to travel to the target and back.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
The direction, or angular position, of the target may be
determined from the direction of arrival of the reflected wave
front.
If relative motion exists between target and radar, the shift in
the carrier frequency of the reflected wave (doppler effect) is
a measure of the target's relative (radial) velocity and may be
used to distinguish moving targets from stationary objects.

Professor, IMU 5
Terminology of Radar Systems
Range:
The distance between Radar and target is called Range of the
target or simply range, R.
We know that Radar transmits a signal to the target and
accordingly the target sends an echo signal to the Radar with
the speed of light, C.
Let the time taken for the signal to travel from Radar to target
and back to Radar be ‘T’.
The two way distance between the Radar and target will be
2R.
The formula for range of the target is R = CT/2.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
Pulse Repetition Frequency:
Radar signals should be transmitted at every clock pulse.
The duration between the two clock pulses should be
properly chosen in such a way that the echo signal
corresponding to present clock pulse should be received
before the next clock pulse.
A typical Radar wave form is shown in the following figure.

Professor, IMU 7
Contd...
The time interval between the successive clock pulses is
called pulse repetition time, Tp.
The reciprocal of pulse repetition time is called pulse
repetition frequency, fp. i.e. fp = 1/Tp.
Pulse repetition frequency is nothing but the frequency at
which Radar transmits the signal.
Maximum Unambiguous Range:
If we select a shorter duration between the two clock pulses,
then the echo signal corresponding to present clock pulse will
be received after the next clock pulse.
Due to this, the range of the target seems to be smaller than
the actual range.

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...
So, we have to select the duration between the two clock pulses in
such a way that the echo signal corresponding to present clock pulse
will be received before the next clock pulse starts.
Then, we will get the true range of the target and it is also called
maximum unambiguous range of the target or simply, maximum
unambiguous range.
The formula for maximum unambiguous range is
Run = CTp/2 or Run = C/2fp
Minimum Range: We will get the minimum range of the target, when
we consider the time required for the echo signal to receive at Radar
after the signal being transmitted from the Radar as pulse width.It is
also called the shortest range of the target.
The formula for minimum range is Rmin = Cτ/2.

Professor, IMU 9
Block Diagram of Pulse Radar
This radar is used for detecting stationary targets. It utilizes
the same antenna for both Transmission and reception.

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...
Pulse Modulator − It produces a pulse-modulated signal and it is
applied to the Transmitter.
Transmitter − It transmits the pulse-modulated signal, which is a
train of repetitive pulses.
Duplexer − It is a microwave switch, which connects the Antenna to
both transmitter section and receiver section alternately. Antenna
transmits the pulse-modulated signal, when the duplexer connects
the Antenna to the transmitter. Similarly, the antenna receives the
signal, when the duplexer connects the Antenna to Low Noise RF
Amplifier.
Low Noise RF Amplifier − It amplifies the weak RF signal, which is
received by Antenna. The output of this amplifier is connected to
Mixer.
Local Oscillator − It produces a signal having stable frequency. The
output of Local Oscillator is connected to Mixer.
Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Mixer − We know that Mixer can produce both sum and difference
of the frequencies that are applied to it. Among which, the
difference of the frequencies will be of Intermediate Frequency (IF)
type.
IF Amplifier − IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF)
signal. The IF amplifier shown in the figure allows only the
Intermediate Frequency, which is obtained from Mixer and
amplifies it. It improves the Signal to Noise Ratio at output.
Detector − It demodulates the signal, which is obtained at the
output of the IF Amplifier.
Video Amplifier − It amplifies the video signal, which is obtained at
the output of detector.
Display − In general, it displays the amplified video signal on CRT
screen.

Professor, IMU 12
Doppler effect
If the target is not stationary, then there will be a change in
the frequency of the signal that is transmitted from the Radar
and that is received by the Radar. This effect is known as the
Doppler effect.
According to the Doppler effect,
◦ the frequency of the received signal will increase, when the
target moves towards the direction of the Radar.
◦ the frequency of the received signal will decrease, when
the target moves away from the Radar.
The formula for Doppler frequency is fd = 2Vrf/C
where f is the frequency of transmitted signal, C is the speed
of light and Vr is the relative velocity.

Professor, IMU 13
Block Diagram of CW Radar
The Radar, which
operates with
continuous signal (wave)
for detecting
non-stationary targets, is
called Continuous Wave
Radar or simply CW
Radar. This Radar
requires two Antennas:
one for transmission and
another for reception.

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
CW Transmitter − It produces an analog signal having a frequency of fo.
The output of CW Transmitter is connected to both transmitting Antenna
and Mixer-I.
Local Oscillator − It produces a signal having a frequency of fl. The output

of Local Oscillator is connected to Mixer-I.
Mixer-I − Mixer can produce both sum and difference of the frequencies
that are applied to it. i.e. fo+fl and fo-fl.
Side Band Filter: It allows a particular side band frequencies. Here it

produces only upper side band frequency fo+fl.
Mixer-II: The signals having frequencies of fo+fl and fo±fd are applied to
Mixer-II. So, the Mixer-II will produce the output having frequencies of
2fo+fl±fd or fl±fd.

Professor, IMU 15
Contd...
IF Amplifier: It amplifies only fl±fd.
Detector − It detects the signal, which is having Doppler

frequency, fd.
Doppler Amplifier − It amplifies the signal, which is having

Doppler frequency, fd.
Indicator − It indicates the information related relative

velocity and whether the target is inbound or outbound.

Professor, IMU 16
Radar Range Equation
We know that power density is nothing but the ratio of power
and area.
The power density, Pdi at a distance R from the Radar is given
as
where Pt is the amount of power transmitted by the Radar

transmitter. This equation is valid for isotropic antenna.
For directional antennas used in Radar, the power density is

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...
The amount of power, which is reflected back towards the
Radar depends on its cross section. Hence the power density
Pde of echo signal at Radar is given as
Substituting Pdd in above equation gives
where σ is radar cross section of target, measure in m2.
The amount of power, Pr received by the Radar depends on

the effective aperture, Ae of the receiving Antenna. i.e.

Professor, IMU 18
Contd...
Substituting Pde in the above equation of Pr , we get

Professor, IMU 19
Advantages of RADAR
RADAR can penetrate mediums such as clouds, fogs, mist, and snow.
RADAR signal can penetrate insulators.
It can give the exact position of an object.
It can determine the velocity of a target.
It can measure the distance of an object.
It can tell the difference between stationary and moving targets.
RADAR signals do not require a medium of transportation.
RADAR signals can target several objects simultaneously.
It is cheaper as compared to other systems.
It covers a wider geographical area.
It can get data from some of the remotest areas of the planet.

Professor, IMU 20
Disadvantages of RADAR systems
RADAR takes more time to lock on an object.
RADAR has a wider beam range.
It has a shorter range(200ft).
It cannot track if an object is decelerating at more the 1mph/s.
Large objects that are close to the Transmitter can saturate the receiver.
Readings may be falsified if the object is handheld.
RADAR can be interfered with by several objects and mediums in the air.
It cannot distinguish or resolve multiple targets.
It cannot differentiate the color of the object.
It cannot resolve targets that are deep in the sea.
It cannot resolve targets that are obstructed by a conducting material.
It is not very accurate.
It cannot be used beyond the ionosphere.

Professor, IMU 21
Altimeters
Altimeters are devices designed to calculate the height of an aircraft
above the surface directly below it. This height may be Above
Ground Level (AGL) or Above Sea Level (ASL).
Different types of altimeter use different technologies to calculate

this height, including pressure-density to altitude relationship and
the propagation and reflection of electromagnetic waves etc.
There are four main types of altimeter:

◦ Barometric altimeter.
◦ Radio altimeter.
◦ GNSS (GPS, Galileo, etc).
◦ Laser altimeter.

Professor, IMU 22
BAROMETRIC ALTIMETERS
Altitude can be calculated by comparing the atmospheric pressure
at the current height with the pressure at sea level.
In general terms, the greater the altitude the lower the pressure.
Air pressure may also fluctuate due to changes in the weather.
So weather conditions should be taken into account for obtaining
accurate reading from a barometric altimeter.
A simple barometric altimeter includes a sealed metal chamber, a
spring, and a pointer that shows altitude in meters or feet.
The chamber expands as air pressure decreases and contracts as it
increases, bending the spring and moving the pointer.
An altimeter can be mounted on an aircraft’s instrument panel or
worn on a person’s wrist.

Professor, IMU 23
Contd...

Professor, IMU 24
RADIO ALTIMETERS
Radio altimeters are based on the principle of reflection of
electromagnetic wave pulses by the surface of the earth or sea.
These waves fall within the radio spectrum range.
Although they are affected by surface irregularities generating
deviations in the radio signal, radio altimeters provide a reliable
and accurate method of measuring height.
Altitude is calculated by measuring the time taken by the
wavefront to travel from the aircraft to the surface and back again.
Radio altimeters are also referred to as Radar altimeters.
In order to understand how a radio altimeter works, consider a
radio pulse emanating from a radio beacon to a flat surface.

Professor, IMU 25
Contd...
Radio altimeter calculations us the Pythagorean theorem:

Professor, IMU 26
GNSS
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers can also
determine altitude by trilateration with four or more satellites.
To make this calculation, the time of flight of radio waves from a
known point to another is again used.
Altitude calculated using GNSS is, however, not accurate or reliable.
Errors in height calculation using GNSS are typically in the region of
5 meters.

Professor, IMU 27
LASER ALTIMETER
This type of altimeter works by using
electromagnetic waves within the visible
range of the spectrum instead of radio waves.
Laser altimeters work in a similar way to radio
altimeters. Again, the time taken for the
emitted signal to travel from the transmitter
to the surface and back again is measured.
Once reflected, the beam of light is received
and collected using a series of mirrors and
lenses which focus the beam onto a photocell
detector which is sensitive to infrared light.
In aviation, altimeters are generally used for
maintaining a constant altitude, whether
during routine flight, reduced visibility
maneuvers or for automatic actions.
They may also be used during critical phases
of flight, such as landing.

Professor, IMU 28
Radio Direction Finding (RDF)
A radio direction finder (RDF) is a device for finding the
direction, or bearing, to a radio source.
The act of measuring the direction is known as radio direction

finding or sometimes simply direction finding (DF).
Using two or more measurements of known transmitters, the

location of a vehicle can be determined.
RDF is widely used as a radio navigation system, especially

with boats and aircraft.

Professor, IMU 29
Contd...
Definition Of Direction Finding:
Direction finding refers to the use of specialized instruments,

antennas,and methodologies to determine the physical
location of a source of RF energy or “targets”

Professor, IMU 30
Contd...
Tasks of radio Direction Finding:
To find the
◦ location of a transmitter in a distress situation.
◦ location of an unauthorized transmitter.
◦ location of an interfering transmitter which cannot be identified
by other means.
◦ determination of the site of a source of harmful interference of
reception.
◦ identification of transmitters, both known and unknown.

Professor, IMU 31
Contd...
Direction Finding Techniques:
DF techniques are roughly grouped in three categories:
• amplitude sensitive
• phase sensitive
• combined phase and amplitude sensitive

Professor, IMU 32
Contd...
Requirements on DF system:
◦ High accuracy
◦ High sensitivity
◦ Sufficient large-signal (adjacent signals ) immunity
◦ Immunity to multipath propagation
◦ Immunity to polarization errors
◦ Determination of elevation in shortwave range
◦ Stable response in case of non-coherent co-channel interferers
◦ DF of short-duration signals
◦ high scanning speed and probability of intercept (POI)

Professor, IMU 33
Contd...
Error sources:
The DF accuracy is affected by a number of influences:
◦ Wave propagation (usually disturbed by obstacles)
◦ Signals radiated by the emitters are modulated, limited in time

and their carrier frequency is often unknown
◦ Received field is additionally superimposed by noise, co-channel

interferers
◦ Tolerances and noise in the DF system

Professor, IMU 34
Contd...
Components of a DF system:
Antenna
◦ Design usually specific to a given DF methodology
• Receiver(s) and processing unit
◦ One or more receive channels with analog-to-digital conversion
◦ Integrated or separate digital signal processing
• User interface
◦ Software for display and control
◦ Position fix and map display software

Professor, IMU 35
Contd...
DF Antennas:
◦ Beam/Yagi Antenna
◦ Log-Period Antenna
◦ Loop Antenna
◦ Ferrite Rod Antennas
◦ Phased Arrays and Adcocks

Professor, IMU 36
Contd...
Classic DF methods:
◦ Manual Direction Finding.
◦ Doppler direction finder.
◦ Watson-Watt principle.
◦ AOA (Angle of Arrival)
◦ Interferometer.
◦ TDOA (Time Difference Of Arrival)
◦ Correlative Interferometry

Professor, IMU 37
Manual DF

Professor, IMU 38
Contd...
Evaluating the receive voltage is the simplest way of direction
finding.
Manual direction finding involves the use of a receiver and

hand-held directional antenna : usually some type of yagi /
log-periodic.
The antenna is moved / rotated until the point of maximum

signal strength is determined.
Rotation can also be performed using an antenna mounted

on a rotor or swivel.

Professor, IMU 39
Contd...
Benefits of this DF method:
◦ High sensitivity due to the directivity
◦ Simple and Low-cost, no need for dedicated DF receiver or
complex antennas
◦ Same antenna can be used for direction finding and
monitoring
◦ Effectiveness depends strongly on the skill level of the
operator.

Professor, IMU 40
Doppler DF Concept
• Typically four to eight antennas are arranged in a circular
array and are RF combined in a way that simulates rotation.
• As we move closer to a signal, the received frequency will
shift upwards (or vice-versa). This shift can be detected and
used to determine if we are moving in the right direction.

Professor, IMU 41
Contd...
Bearing Calculation:

Professor, IMU 42
Contd...
Advantages:
Low cost compared to other DF systems .
Works while stationary or when moving.
Normally works best on VHF/UHF frequencies (< 1 GHz).
Disadvantages:
Cannot handle multiple signals.
Require a constant (CW) type signal.
Antenna sensitivity : Low.
Doesn’t work well for horizontally polarized signals (Doppler
antennas usually vertically polarized)

Professor, IMU 43
Watson-Watt DF Principle
This DF method is based on two directional antennas pairs
and one omni-directional antenna.
The response of the two pairs are proportional to sine and

cosine of the arrival signal.
Watson-Watt DF consists of three phase-matched receivers

and displays angle of arrival in terms of sine and cosine
functions utilizing third omni-directional channel to solve
ambiguity.

Professor, IMU 44
Contd...

Professor, IMU 45
Contd...
Benefits:
• minimum signal duration is sufficient.
• simple implementation.
• Little space required (small aperture antenna array).
Drawbacks:
• Small aperture system (D/λ<0.2) leading to errors in case of
multipath propagation.
• large DF errors in case of skywaves with steep elevation
angles

Professor, IMU 46
Contd...
Advantages :
• Improved error tolerances for skywave reception
• Implementation of wider apertures to avoid errors in case of multipath
reception

Professor, IMU 47
Angle of Arrival
AOA simply measures the angle(s) at which a signal arrives at
an antenna array : not the phase or time differences of the
signal at different elements.
To determine if a signal is “arriving” at an antenna, we make a
determination of the power of the incoming signal at one or
more antennas, so AOA is sometimes also called “power of
arrival” (POA).
AOA antennas are typically circular array of (somewhat)
directional antennas.
Resolution / bearing accuracy is increased with an increasing
number of antenna faces.

Professor, IMU 48
Interferometer Based DF
This concept is based on phase measurement between a
subset of possible pairs of antennas with minimum of two
coherent receiver channels.
Phase measurement for a specific pair can be used for arrival
angle determination, based on knowledge of relative antenna
distance.
When more then one pair is used, elevation calculation is
possible.

Professor, IMU 49
Time Difference of Arrival (TDOA)
Three or more receivers at different locations receive a signal
from the target.
Usually the paths between the transmitter and the receivers
are of different length, so there are differences in the time of
arrival at the different receiver locations.
The time differences can be represented as hyperbolae which
cross at the location of the transmitter of interest.

Professor, IMU 50
Contd...
• Once we have computed the time difference, Δt, between
the times the signal was received at two stations, we can then
compute / plot a hyperbola representing this distance
between them.
• The intersection of multiple hyperbolae yields the
estimated target location.
TDOA requires small aperture antenna array and single
channel receiver.
It cannot handle multiple signals.
Antenna sensitivity is low. Azimuth accuracy is σ = 3o.

Professor, IMU 51
Correlative Interferometry Technique
It can use any multi-port antenna

array
Requires two or more receiver
channels
Minimizes effect of signal
modulation and fading
Measures amplitude and phase
It can solve multimode
interference with two-channel
receiver

Professor, IMU 52
Satellite Communication
UNIT 7 - Part 4

Professor, IMU 1
Introduction
A satellite is a smaller object that revolves around a larger
object in space
If the communication takes place between any two earth
stations through a satellite, then it is called as satellite
communication.
In this communication, electromagnetic waves are used as
carrier signals.
These signals carry the information such as voice, audio,
video or any other data between ground and space and
vice-versa.
Soviet Union had launched the world's first artificial satellite
named, Sputnik 1 in 1957.
Nearly after 18 years, India also launched the artificial
satellite named, Aryabhata in 1975.

Professor, IMU 2
Need for Satellite Communication
The following two kinds of propagation are used earlier for
communication up to some distance.
Ground wave propagation − Ground wave propagation is
suitable for frequencies up to 30MHz. This method of
communication makes use of the troposphere conditions of
the earth.
Sky wave propagation − The suitable bandwidth for this type

of communication is broadly between 30–40 MHz and it
makes use of the ionosphere properties of the earth.
The maximum hop or the station distance is limited to

1500KM only in both ground wave propagation and sky wave
propagation.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Satellites provide communication for long distances, which is
well beyond the line of sight.
Since the satellites locate at certain height above earth, the

communication takes place between any two earth stations
easily via satellite.
So, it overcomes the limitation of communication between

two earth stations due to earth’s curvature.

Professor, IMU 4
How satellite communication occurs?
A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a
particular path.
A communication satellite is nothing but a microwave
repeater station in space.
It is helpful in telecommunications, radio and television along
with internet applications.
A repeater is a circuit, which increases the strength of the
received signal and then transmits it.
But in the context of satellite, receiver works as transponder
which changes the frequency band of the transmitted signal
from the received one.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite
through a channel is called as uplink. Similarly, the
transmission of signal from satellite to second earth station
through a channel is called as downlink.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
The frequency with which, the signal is sent into the
space is called as Uplink frequency. Similarly, the
frequency with which, the signal is sent by the
transponder is called as Downlink frequency.
Satellite's footprint is the area which receives a signal

of useful strength from the satellite.

Professor, IMU 7
Advantages of Satellite Communication
Area of coverage is more than that of terrestrial systems
Each and every corner of the earth can be covered
Transmission cost is independent of coverage area
More bandwidth and broadcasting possibilites

Professor, IMU 8
Disadvantages of Satellite Communication
Launching of satellites into orbits is a costly process.
Propagation delay of satellite systems is more than that of

conventional terrestrial systems.
Difficult to provide repairing activities if any problem occurs

in a satellite system.
Free space loss is more
There can be congestion of frequencies.

Professor, IMU 9
Applications of Satellite Communication
Radio broadcasting and voice communications
TV broadcasting such as Direct To Home (DTH)
Internet applications such as providing Internet connection

for data transfer, GPS applications, Internet surfing, etc.
Military applications and navigations
Remote sensing applications
Weather condition monitoring & Forecasting

Professor, IMU 10
Satellite Orbits
The path of satellite revolving around the earth is known as
orbit.
Orbital mechanics is the study of the motion of the satellites
that are present in orbits.
Orbital Elements are the parameters, which are helpful for
describing the orbital motion of satellites. They are
◦ Semi major axis
◦ Eccentricity
◦ Mean anomaly
◦ Argument of perigee
◦ Inclination
◦ Right ascension of ascending node

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...
Semi major axis: The length of Semi-major axis (a) defines the
size of satellite’s orbit. It is half of the major axis. This runs
from the center through a focus to the edge of the ellipse. So,
it is the radius of an orbit at the orbit's two most distant
points.

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...
Eccentricity: The value of Eccentricity (e) fixes the shape of
satellite’s orbit. This parameter indicates the deviation of the
orbit’s shape from a perfect circle.
If the lengths of semi major axis and semi minor axis of an
elliptical orbit are a & b, then the mathematical expression
for eccentricity (e) will be
The value of eccentricity of a circular orbit is zero, since both

a & b are equal. Whereas, the value of eccentricity of an
elliptical orbit lies between zero and one.

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...
From the above figure, it is understood that the satellite orbit

corresponding to eccentricity (e) value of zero is a circular orbit.
And, the remaining three satellite orbits are of elliptical
corresponding to the eccentricity (e) values 0.5, 0.75 and 0.9.

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
Mean Anomaly: For a satellite, the point which is closest
from the Earth is known as Perigee. Mean anomaly (M) gives
the average value of the angular position of the satellite with
reference to perigee.

Professor, IMU 15
Contd...
Argument of Perigee:
Satellite orbit cuts the equatorial plane at two points. First
point is called as descending node, where the satellite passes
from the northern hemisphere to the southern hemisphere.
Second point is called as ascending node, where the satellite
passes from the southern hemisphere to the northern
hemisphere.
Argument of perigee (ω) is the angle between ascending
node and perigee. If both perigee and ascending node are
existing at same point, then the argument of perigee will be
zero degrees.

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...
Inclination: The angle between orbital plane and earth’s
equatorial plane is known as inclination (i).
It is measured at the ascending node with direction being
east to north. So, inclination defines the orientation of the
orbit by considering the equator of earth as reference.
There are four types of orbits based on the angle of

inclination.
◦ Equatorial orbit − Angle of inclination is either zero degrees or 180
degrees.
◦ Polar orbit − Angle of inclination is 90 degrees.
◦ Prograde orbit − Angle of inclination lies between zero and 90 degrees.
◦ Retrograde orbit − Angle of inclination lies between 90 and 180
degrees.

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...
Right Ascension of Ascending node:
We know that ascending node is the point, where the satellite
crosses the equatorial plane while going from the southern
hemisphere to the northern hemisphere.
Right Ascension of ascending node (Ω) is the angle between
line of Aries and ascending node towards east direction in
equatorial plane. Aries is also called as vernal and equinox.

Professor, IMU 18
Orbital Equations
A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a pulling
force from the earth due to earth’s gravitational force. This force is
known as Centripetal force (F1) because this force tends the satellite
towards it. It is given as
Where,
G is universal gravitational constant and it is equal to 6.673 x 10 -11
N·m2/kg2.
M is mass of the earth and it is equal to 5.98 x 1024 Kg.
m is mass of the satellite.
R is the distance from satellite to center of the Earth.

Professor, IMU 19
Contd...
A satellite, when it revolves around the earth, it undergoes a
pulling force from the sun and the moon due to their
gravitational forces. This force is known as Centrifugal force
(F2) because this force tends the satellite away from earth.
It is given as
Where, v is the orbital velocity of satellite.

Satellite doesn’t deviate from its orbit and moves with certain
velocity in that orbit, when both Centripetal and Centrifugal
forces are balance each other.

Professor, IMU 20
Contd...
i.e.
where v is called orbital velocity of satellite.

Professor, IMU 21
Keplerian Laws
Many scientists have given different types of theories from
early times. But, only Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was one
of the most accepted scientist in describing the principle of a
satellite that moves around the earth.
He formulated three laws which are popularly known as
Kepler’s Laws.
Kepler’s First Law: Kepler’s first law states that the path
followed by a satellite around its primary (the earth) will be
an ellipse.

Professor, IMU 22
Contd...
Center of mass of the earth will always present at one of the

two foci of the ellipse.
Eccentricity "e" of this system can be written as
where, a & b are the lengths of semi major axis and semi
minor axis of the ellipse respectively.
The value of e always lies between 0 and 1.

Professor, IMU 23
Contd...
Kepler’s Second Law: Kepler’s second law states that for
equal intervals of time, the area covered by the satellite will
be same with respect to center of mass of the earth.

Professor, IMU 24
Contd...
Kepler’s Third Law: Kepler’s third law states that, the square
of the periodic time of an elliptical orbit is proportional to
the cube of its semi major axis length. i.e.

Professor, IMU 25
Orbits
The orbits, which are assigned to satellites with respect to
earth are called as Earth Orbits. The satellites present in
those orbits are called as Earth Orbit Satellites.
There are three important types of Earth orbit satellites:
◦ Geosynchronous Earth Orbit Satellites
◦ Medium Earth Orbit Satellites
◦ Low Earth Orbit Satellites
Geosynchronous Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellites: It is the one
which is placed at an altitude of 22,300 miles above the
Earth.
It appears stationary when observed from the Earth. These
satellites are used for satellite Television.

Professor, IMU 26
Contd...
The same geo-synchronous orbit, if it is circular and in the
plane of equator, then it is called as Geostationary orbit.
These Satellites are placed at 35,900kms (same as
Geosynchronous) above the Earth’s Equator and they keep on
rotating with respect to earth’s direction (west to east).
Hence, these satellites are considered as stationary with
respect to earth.
Geostationary Earth Orbit Satellites are used for weather
forecasting, satellite TV, satellite radio and other types of
global communications.

Professor, IMU 27
Contd...
Every Geostationary orbit is a Geo-synchronous orbit. But, the

converse need not be true.

Professor, IMU 28
Contd...
Medium Earth Orbit Satellites: It will orbit at distances of
about 8000 miles from earth's surface.
Transmission delay can be defined as the time it takes for a
signal to travel up to a satellite and back down to a receiving
station.
For example, the signals undergo round trip delay of 540 ms
in GEO satellites whereas MEO satellite has a delay of 100 ms.
MEOs operate in the frequency range of 2 GHz and above.
These satellites are used for High speed telephone signals.
Ten or more MEO satellites are required in order to cover
entire earth whereas three GEO satellites are enough to cover
the entire earth.

Professor, IMU 29
Contd...
Low Earth Orbit Satellites: Low Earth Orbit LEO) satellites
are mainly classified into three categories. Those are little
LEOs, big LEOs, and Mega-LEOs. LEOs will orbit at a distance
of 500 to 1000 miles above the earth's surface.
These satellites are used for satellite phones and GPS.
This relatively short distance reduces transmission delay to
only 0.05 seconds.
Twenty or more LEO satellites are required to cover entire
earth.
Little LEOs will operate in the 800 MHz (0.8 GHz) range. Big
LEOs will operate in the 2 GHz or above range, and
Mega-LEOs operates in the 20-30 GHz range.

Professor, IMU 30
Contd...
The figure below represents the different orbits very clearly

Professor, IMU 31
Launching of Satellites
The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known as
launching process. During this process, from earth stations we can
control the operation of satellite.
Mainly, there are four stages in launching a satellite. They are
◦ First Stage − The first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets and fuel
for lifting the satellite along with launch vehicle from ground.
◦ Second Stage − The second stage of launch vehicle contains smaller
rockets. These are ignited after completion of first stage. They have
their own fuel tanks in order to send the satellite into space.
◦ Third Stage − The third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is connected
to the satellite fairing. This fairing is a metal shield, which contains the
satellite and it protects the satellite.
◦ Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the upper stage of launch
vehicle, when it has been reached to out of Earth's atmosphere. Then,
the satellite will go to a “transfer orbit”. This orbit sends the satellite
higher into space.

Professor, IMU 32
Satellite Launch Vehicles
Satellite launch vehicles launch the
satellites into a particular orbit based on
the requirement. Satellite launch vehicles
are nothing but multi stage rockets.
There are two types of SLV: Expendable
Launch Vehicles (ELV) and Reusable
Launch Vehicles (RLV).
Expendable launch vehicles (ELV) get
destroyed after leaving the satellites in
space.

Professor, IMU 33
Contd...
Reusable Launch Vehicles can be used multiple times for
launching satellites. Generally, this type of launch vehicles will
return back to earth after leaving the satellite in space.
It is also known as space shuttle.

Professor, IMU 34
Satellite Constrution
A satellite communication consists of mainly two segments:
Space segment and Earth segment.
Space Segment Subsystems: The subsystems present in space
segment are called as space segment subsystems.
They are AOC Subsystem, TTCM Subsystem, Power and
Antenna Subsystems and Transponders.
Earth Segment Subsystems: The subsystems present in the
ground segment have the ability to access the satellite
repeater in order to provide the communication between the
users.
Earth segment performs mainly two functions: Transmission
of a signal to the satellite and Reception of signal from the
satellite.

Professor, IMU 35
Contd...
Telemetry, Tracking, Commanding and Monitoring (TTCM)
subsystem is present in both satellite and earth station.
TTCM subsystem is very much necessary for any

communication satellite in order to operate it successfully.
With the help of TTCM subsystem, a satellite can be

controlled through out its life time, after it is placed in the
proper orbit.
TTCM subsystem comprises Telemetry and Monitoring

Subsystem, Tracking Subsystem and Commanding Subsystem.

Professor, IMU 36
Contd...
Telemetry and Monitoring Subsystem:
Telemetry means measurement at a distance
Generally, the following operations are done by a telemetry
system:
◦ Generation of an electrical signal, which is proportional to
the quantity to be measured.
◦ Encoding the electrical signal.
◦ Transmitting this code to a far distance.
Telemetry subsystem present in the satellite performs mainly
two functions −
◦ receiving data from sensors, and
◦ transmitting that data to an earth station.

Professor, IMU 37
Contd...
Satellites have quite a few sensors to monitor different
parameters such as pressure, temperature, status and etc., of
various subsystems.
In general, the telemetry data is transmitted as FSK or PSK.
Telemetry subsystem is a remote controlled system. It sends
monitoring data from satellite to earth station.
Generally, the telemetry signals carry the information related
altitude, environment and satellite.
Tracking Subsystem:
Tracking subsystem is useful to know the position of the satellite
and its current orbit.
Satellite Control Center (SCC) monitors the working and status
of space segment subsystems with the help of telemetry
downlink. Also, it controls those subsystems using command
uplink.

Professor, IMU 38
Contd...
Tracking subsystem is also present in an earth station. It
mainly focusses on range and look angles of satellite.
The tracking subsystem that is present in an earth station
keeps tracking of satellite, when it is released from last stage
of Launch vehicle.
It performs the functions like, locating of satellite in initial
orbit and transfer orbit.
Change in the orbital position of satellite can be identified by
using the data obtained from velocity and acceleration
sensors that are present on satellite.

Professor, IMU 39
Contd...
Commanding Subsystem:
Commanding subsystem is necessary in order to launch the
satellite in an orbit and its working in that orbit.
This subsystem adjusts the altitude and orbit of satellite,
whenever there is a deviation in those values. It also controls
the communication subsystem.
This commanding subsystem is responsible for turning ON /
OFF of other subsystems present in the satellite based on the
data getting from telemetry and tracking subsystems.
In general, control codes are converted into command words.
These command words are used to send in the form of TDM
frames.

Professor, IMU 40
Contd...
Initially, the validity of command words is checked in the
satellite. After this, these command words can be sent back
to earth station. Here, these command words are checked
once again.
If the earth station also receives the same (correct) command
word, then it sends an execute instruction to satellite. So, it
executes that command.
Functionality wise, the Telemetry subsystem and
commanding subsystem are opposite to each other because
the first one transmits the satellite’s information to earth
station and second one receives command signals from earth
station.

Professor, IMU 41
Contd...
Transponder:
The subsystem, which provides the connecting link between
transmitting and receiving antennas of a satellite is known as
Transponder. It is one of the most important subsystem of
space segment subsystems.
Transponder performs the functions of both transmitter and
receiver (Responder) in a satellite.
Transponder performs mainly two functions: amplifying the
received input signal and translating the frequency of it.
In general, different frequency values are chosen for both
uplink and down link in order to avoid the interference
between the transmitted and received signals.

Professor, IMU 42
Contd...
The block diagram of transponder is shown in below figure.

Professor, IMU 43
Contd...
Duplexer is a two-way microwave gate. It receives uplink
signal from the satellite antenna and transmits downlink
signal to the satellite antenna.
Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies the weak received signal.
Carrier Processor performs the frequency down conversion of

received signal (uplink). This block determines the type of
transponder.
Power Amplifier amplifies the power of frequency down

converted signal (down link) to the required level.

Professor, IMU 44
Satellite Frequency bands

Professor, IMU 45
Contd...
FSS stands for Fixed Satellite Service,BSS stands for Broadcast

Satellite Service and MSS stands for Mobile Satellite Service.

Professor, IMU 46
Contd...
Fixed Satellite Services (FSS), which use ground equipment at set locations to
receive and transmit satellite signals. FSS satellites support the majority of our
domestic and international services, from international internet connectivity to
private business networks.
Mobile Satellite Services (MSS), which use a variety of transportable receiver

and transmitter equipment to provide communication services for land mobile,
maritime and aeronautical customers
Broadcast Satellite Services (BSS), which offer high transmission power for
reception using very small ground equipment. BSS is best known for
direct-to-consumer television and broadband applications such as DIRECTV.

Professor, IMU 47
Contd...

Professor, IMU 48
Contd...
Commercial satellite services primarily use Four radio frequency
bands:
C-band, which provides lower transmission power over wide
geographic areas and generally requires larger ground equipment
for reception.
Ku-band, which offers higher transmission power over smaller
geographic areas and can be received with smaller ground
equipment.
Ka-band, which offers higher transmission power than Ku-band and
generally is used for high-bandwidth services such as high-speed
internet, video conferencing and multimedia applications.
L-band, which is used for mobile applications, such as maritime and
aeronautical communications, employing a variety of ground
equipment.

Professor, IMU 49
Contd...
The most popular frequency bands available on satellite are L
band, S band, C band, X band, Ku band, k band and Ka bands.

Professor, IMU 50
Contd...
Practical way of writing the uplink and downlink frequencies
in C band : 6/4 GHz
Practical way of writing the uplink and downlink frequencies

in Ku band :14/12 GHz

Professor, IMU 51
Domestic satellites in India

Professor, IMU 52
Contd...

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Contd...

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Contd...

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Contd...

Professor, IMU 56
Contd...

Professor, IMU 57
Contd...

Professor, IMU 58
Contd...

Professor, IMU 59
Contd...
The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is one of the largest
domestic communication satellite systems in Asia-Pacific region with nine
operational communication satellites placed in Geo-stationary orbit.
Established in 1983 with commissioning of INSAT-1B, it initiated a major
revolution in India’s communications sector and sustained the same later.
GSAT-17 joins the constellation of INSAT System consisting 15
operational satellites, namely - INSAT-3A, 3C, 4A, 4B, 4CR and GSAT-6,
7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16 and 18.
The INSAT system with more than 200 transponders in the C, Extended C
and Ku-bands provides services to telecommunications, television
broadcasting, satellite newsgathering, societal applications, weather
forecasting, disaster warning and Search and Rescue operations.

Professor, IMU 60
Microprocessor & Programming
UNIT 8

Professor, IMU 1
Introduction to Microprocessor
A microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer,
fabricated on a small chip capable of performing Arithmetic
Logical Unit (ALU) operations and communicating with the
other devices connected to it.
Alternatively, microprocessor is a programmable device that
takes in numbers, performs on them arithmetic or logical
operations according to the program stored in memory and
the produces other numbers as a result.
Program means sequence of instructions defining the
microprocessor what it should execute.
Each microprocessor is designed to execute a specific group
of operations. This group of operations is called an instruction
set.

MIcroprocessor based system
A simple mcroprocessor based system is shown above.

It consists of central processing unit (CPU), input device,
output device and memory.
Here CPU is a processor in very small size and it is called
microprocessor.
It has the ability to process the inputs as per the instructions.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Input device: It provides the input data to the processor.
Outut device: It gives information to the user.
Memory: It stores instruction code and input & output data.
The above system can be simply understood by taking this analogy
how a samll organization works.

Professor, IMU 4
Contd...
Managing body gives step by step procedure to implement a task.
Manager interprets the instructions given by managing body and
executes the task with the help of his subordinates.
Here manager and his subordinates belong to the central
processing unit.
They request for raw materials to stores. Here stores refer to the
memory. If it is not available in stores, then they can request for
raw materials to incoming unit (Input device).
After processing the raw material, processed product can be
dispatched via dispatching unit (Output device) or it can be stored
again in the stores.
The idea of microprocessor based system has been evolved if
human beings are replaced with some electronic devices to mimic
the above operations.

Contd...
In the simple microprocessor based system, CPU is called
microprocessor, which consists of ALU, Register array and a Control
unit.
ALU performs arithmetical and logical operations on the data
received from the memory or an input device.
Register array consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D,
E, H, L and accumulator.
The control unit controls the flow of data and instructions within
the computer.

How does a μP works?
It works based on three cycle instruction execution model.
To execute a program, microprocessor reads each instruction
from memory, interprets it and then executes it.
These operations of microprocessor are named under three
cycles as follows:
❖ Fetch
❖ Decode
❖ Execute
This sequence is continued till all instructions are performed.

Professor, IMU 7
Machine and Assembly language
Machine (Microprocessor) can understand only the binary
language since it is a digital programmable device.
However, it is difficult to enter the bit patterns correctly.
Hence entering the instructions in microprocessor is usually
done in hexadecimal code(OPCODE) system.
It is still difficult to understand the program written in
hexadecimal codes and hence each company defines a
symbolic code for the instructions. These codes are called
mnemonics.
For eg: Adding the content of B register to the content of
accumulator can be done by giving binary pattern 1000 0000.
The equivalent hexadecimal code is 80h. The corresponding
Mnemonics is ADD B.

Professor, IMU 8
Terminologies used in μP
Instruction Set − It is the set of instructions that the microprocessor
can understand.
Bandwidth − It is the number of bits processed in a single instruction.
Clock Speed − It determines the number of operations per second the
processor can perform. It is expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz
(GHz).It is also known as Clock Rate.
Word Length − It depends upon the width of internal data bus,
registers, ALU, etc. An 8-bit microprocessor can process 8-bit data at a
time. The word length ranges from 4 bits to 64 bits depending upon
the type of the microcomputer.
Data Types − The microprocessor has multiple data type formats like
binary, BCD, ASCII, signed and unsigned numbers.

Professor, IMU 9
Classification of μP
RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. It is designed to reduce

the execution time by simplifying the instruction set of the computer.
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. It is designed to
minimize the number of instructions per program, ignoring the number of
cycles per instruction.
Special Processor are the processors which are designed for some special
purposes.

Professor, IMU 10
8085 Microprocessor
It is an 8-bit microprocessor designed by Intel in 1977 using
NMOS technology.
It has the following configuration:
◦ 8-bit data bus
◦ 16-bit address bus, which can address upto 64KB
◦ A 16-bit program counter
◦ A 16-bit stack pointer
◦ Six 8-bit registers arranged in pairs: BC, DE, HL
◦ Requires +5V supply to operate at 3.2 MHZ single phase
clock

Professor, IMU 11
Pin Configuration of 8085 μP
8085 μP has 40 pins. Pin diagram of 8085 μP is shown below .

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...
The pins or signals of a 8085 microprocessor can be classified into
seven groups:
Address bus: A15-A8, it carries the most significant 8-bits of
memory/IO address.
Data bus: AD7-AD0, it carries the least significant 8-bit address and
data bus.
Control and Status signals: There are 3 control signal and 3 status
signals. Three control signals are RD, WR & ALE.
RD(Active low): This signal indicates the reading of data either from
memory or IO device and readyness of data on the data bus.
WR(Active low): This signal indicates that the data on the data bus is
to be written into a memory or IO location.
ALE: It is a positive going pulse generated when a new operation is
started by the microprocessor. When the pulse goes high, it
indicates address. When the pulse goes down it indicates data.

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...
Three status signals are IO/M, S0 & S1.
IO/M: This signal is used to differentiate between IO and
Memory operations, i.e. when it is high indicates IO operation
and when it is low then it indicates memory operation.
S1 & S0: These signals are used to identify the type of current
operation.

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...
Power supply: There are 2 power supply signals − VCC & VSS.
VCC indicates +5v power supply and VSS indicates ground
signal.
Clock signals: There are 3 clock signals, i.e. X1, X2, CLK OUT.
X1, X2: A crystal (RC, LC) is connected at these two pins and is
used to set frequency of the internal clock generator. This
frequency is internally divided by 2.
CLK OUT: This signal is used as the system clock for devices
connected with the microprocessor.

Professor, IMU 15
Contd...
Interrupts & externally initiated signals: Interrupts are the
signals generated by external devices to request the
microprocessor to perform a task.
There are 5 interrupt signals, i.e. TRAP, RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST
5.5, and INTR. Apart fro these hardware interrupts, we have
software defined interrupts in 8085 processor.
INTA: It is an interrupt acknowledgment signal.
RESET IN: This signal is used to reset the microprocessor by
setting the program counter to zero.
RESET OUT: This signal is used to reset all the connected
devices when the microprocessor is reset.

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...
READY: This signal indicates that the device is ready to send
or receive data. If READY is low, then the CPU has to wait for
READY to go high.
HOLD: This signal indicates that another master is requesting

the use of the address and data buses.
HLDA (HOLD Acknowledge): It indicates that the CPU has

received the HOLD request and it will relinquish the bus in the
next clock cycle. HLDA is set to low after the HOLD signal is
removed.

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...
Serial I/O signals: There are 2 serial signals, i.e. SID and SOD
and these signals are used for serial communication.
SOD (Serial output data line): Serial data is given out of the
microprocessor via SOD line. The output SOD is set/reset as
specified by the SIM instruction.
SID (Serial input data line): Serial data is read by the
microprocessor via SID line. The data on this line is loaded
into accumulator whenever a RIM instruction is executed.

Professor, IMU 18
Interrupts in 8085 μP
Interrupt are classified into following groups based on their
parameter:
Vector interrupt: In this type of interrupt, the interrupt address is
known to the processor. For example: RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5,
TRAP.
Non-Vector interrupt: In this type of interrupt, the interrupt
address is not known to the processor so, the interrupt address
needs to be sent externally by the device to perform interrupts. For
example: INTR.
Maskable interrupt: In this type of interrupt, we can disable the
interrupt by writing some instructions into the program. For
example: RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5.
Non-Maskable interrupt: In this type of interrupt, we cannot
disable the interrupt by writing some instructions into the program.
For example: TRAP.
Professor, IMU 19
Contd...
Software interrupt: In this type of interrupt, the programmer has
to add the instructions into the program to execute the interrupt.
There are 8 software interrupts in 8085, i.e. RST0, RST1, RST2,
RST3, RST4, RST5, RST6, and RST7.
Hardware interrupt: There are 5 interrupt pins in 8085 used as
hardware interrupts, i.e. TRAP, RST7.5, RST6.5, RST5.5, INTA.
TRAP: NMI and takes highest priority. In case of failure, it executes
as ISR and sends the data to backup memory. This interrupt
transfers the control to the location 0024H.
RST7.5: MI and second highest priority among all interrupts. When
this interrupt is executed, the processor saves the content of the
PC register into the stack and branches to 003CH address.

Professor, IMU 20
Contd...
RST 6.5: MI and third highest priority among all interrupts.When
this interrupt is executed, the processor saves the content of the
PC register into the stack and branches to 0034H address.
RST 5.5: It is also MI and comes in the next hierarchy. When this
interrupt is executed, the processor saves the content of the PC
register into the stack and branches to 002CH address.
INTR: It is a maskable interrupt, having the lowest priority among
all interrupts. It can be disabled by resetting the microprocessor.

Professor, IMU 21
8085 Architecture

Professor, IMU 22
Contd...
8085 μP is an 8-bit microprocessor, and it was launched by
the Intel team in the year of 1976 with the help of NMOS
technology.
The configurations of 8085 microprocessor mainly include
data bus-8-bit, address bus-16 bit, program counter-16-bit,
stack pointer-16 bit, registers 8-bit, +5V voltage supply, and
operates at 3.2 MHz single segment CLK.
8085 consists of the following functional units:
Accumulator: It is an 8-bit register used to perform
arithmetic, logical, I/O & LOAD/STORE operations. It is
connected to internal data bus & ALU.
Arithmetic and logic unit: As the name suggests, it performs

arithmetic and logical operations like Addition, Subtraction,
AND, OR, etc. on 8-bit data.

Professor, IMU 23
Contd...
General purpose register: There are 6 general purpose registers in
8085 processor, i.e. B, C, D, E, H & L. Each register can hold 8-bit
data.
These registers can work in pair to hold 16-bit data and their pairing
combination is like B-C, D-E & H-L.
Program counter: It is a 16-bit register used to store the memory
address location of the next instruction to be executed. PC always
points to the memory address of the next instruction that is going to
be executed.
Stack pointer: It is also a 16-bit register works like stack, which is
always incremented/decremented by 2 during push & pop
operations.
Temporary register: It is an 8-bit register, which holds the
temporary data of arithmetic and logical operations.

Professor, IMU 24
Contd...
Flag register: It is an 8-bit register having five 1-bit flip-flops,
which holds either 0 or 1 depending upon the result stored in
the accumulator. Sign flag (S), Zero flag (Z), Auxiliary Carry
Flag (AC), Parity Flag (P) and Carry Flag (C) are the set of 5
filp-flops.
Sign flag is set if the result is negative and reset if positive.

Zero flag is set if the resut obtained after an operation is 0.
Carry flag is set if there is a carry or borrow from arithmetic
operation.
AC flag is set if there is a carry out of bit 3.
Parity flag is set if parity is even and reset if parity is odd.

Professor, IMU 25
Contd...

Professor, IMU 26
Contd...
Instruction register and decoder: It is an 8-bit register. When an
instruction is fetched from memory then it is stored in the
Instruction register. Instruction decoder decodes the information
present in the Instruction register.
Timing and control unit: It provides timing and control signal to the
microprocessor to perform operations. Timing and control signals
are
◦ Control Signals: READY, RD’, WR’, ALE
◦ Status Signals: S0, S1, IO/M’
◦ DMA Signals: HOLD, HLDA
◦ RESET Signals: RESET IN, RESET OUT

Professor, IMU 27
Contd...
◦ Interrupt control: As the name suggests it controls the
interrupts during a process. When a microprocessor is
executing a main program and whenever an interrupt occurs,
the microprocessor shifts the control from the main program
to process the incoming request. After the request is
completed, the control goes back to the main program.
◦ There are 5 interrupt signals in 8085 microprocessor: INTR,
RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5, TRAP.
◦ Serial Input/output control: It controls the serial data

communication by using these two instructions: SID (Serial
input data) and SOD (Serial output data).

Professor, IMU 28
Contd...
Address buffer and address-data buffer: The content stored
in the stack pointer and program counter is loaded into the
address buffer and address-data buffer to communicate with
the CPU.
Address bus and data bus: Data bus carries the data to be
stored. It is bidirectional, whereas address bus carries the
location to where it should be stored and it is unidirectional.
It is used to transfer the data & Address.

Professor, IMU 29
Demultiplexig Address and Data bus
In an execution of instruction, there will be fetch and read

operation and sometimes write operation may also be
required.
All operations require address fetching as the first operation,
which in turn requires address bus. During that time,
demultiplexing address and data bus operation is to be done.
This can be accomlished when ALE is high intially.
A latching circuit is used for this purpose to separate address
bus from data bus.
IC 74LS373 - an 8-bit latch, having 8 D flip-flops, is used to
demux the address and data bus.

Professor, IMU 30
Contd...
In the above circuit, when ALE goes high for initial time, clock
will be high.
It enables the transfer of input to output and hence address
on multiplexed bus will be transferred to output. i.e A0 - A7
Professor, IMU 31
Contd...
Now A0 - A7 along with A8 - A15 provides the 16-bit address.
After getting address for fetching instruction or data from
memory, ALE goes low.
Then the multiplexed bus AD0 - AD7 acts as data bus for data
read or write from or to the memory.

Professor, IMU 32
Generation of control signals
Control signals such as are used to initiate read and
write operation in microprocessor. They are active low
signals.
But it is necessary to differentiate the memory read/write
from I/O read/write operations.
This can be accomplished with the help of
When the signal is low, it indicates memory operation.
When the signal is high, it indicates I/O operation.
Hence, it is possible to
generate four control signals:

Professor, IMU 33
Contd...
Generation of these 4 control signals can be well understood
from the circuit:
Practically, a 3:8 decoder is used to generate these signals as

shown below.

Professor, IMU 34
Instruction Set of 8085 μP
Instructions in 8085 can be categorized into five groups
namely
◦ Data transfer operations
◦ Artihmetic operations
◦ Logical operations
◦ Branch operations
◦ Stack, Input/Output and Machine control operations
Data transfer operations: It refers to the transfer of data

from source to destination. Source may be the content of
register or memory location whereas destination can be
either register or memory location. During this data transfer,
flag register will not be affected.

Professor, IMU 1
Contd...
Arithmetic operations: It includes addition, subtraction,
increment and decrement operations.
Addition may be 8-bit or 16 bit addtion. In case of 8-bit
addition, any 8-bit number or content of register or memory
location is added to the content of accumulator(Acc) and the
result is stored in Acc. In case of 16-bit addition, HL register
pair is used instead of Acc.
In case of subtraction, any 8-bit number or content of register
or memory location is subtracted from the content of
accumulator(Acc) and the result is stored in Acc.
Increment/decrement instructions are used to increment or
decrement the content of register/register pair/memory
location by 1.

Professor, IMU 2
Contd...
Logical operations: They are used to perform logical, rotate,
compare and complement operations.
Logical: Any 8-bit nmber or content of register or memory
location is logically ANDed, ORed or Exclusive-ORed with the
content of Acc and the result is stored in Acc.
Rotate: It allows shifting of each bit in Acc either left or right
by 1 bit position.
Compare: Any 8-bit number or content of register or memory
location can be compared with the content of Acc.
Complement: In this operation, the content of Acc is
complemented. i.e. replacing 0s by 1s and 1s by 0s.

Professor, IMU 3
Contd...
Branching operations: These instructions alter the sequence
of the program either conditionally or unconditionally. They
include branch instructions, subroutine call instructions and
return instructions and also restart instructions.
Stack, Input/Output and Machine control operations:
◦ Stack instructions allow the transfer of data from register pair to stack
memory and vice versa.
◦ I/O instructions allow the transfer of 8-bit data to I/O port.
◦ Machine instructions control machine operations such as interrupt,
halt, etc.

Professor, IMU 4
Instruction and Data Formats
Each instruction of 8085 μP has an opcode and operands.
Operation code(OPCODE): specifies the operation to be
performed. For eg. opcode for the instruction ADD B is 80H.
Operands: Operand may be an immediate data or register or
memory location or an address. It is entirely based on
addressing modes of 8085 processor.
Addressing modes: Way of specifying data to be operated by
an instruction. There are 5 addressing modes:
Immediate addressing mode: In this mode, the 8/16-bit data
is specified in the instruction itself as one of its operand. eg.
MVI A, 05H.

Professor, IMU 5
Contd...
Register addressing mode: In this mode, the data is copied
from one register to another. eg. MOV A,B.
Direct addressing mode: In this mode, 16-bit address is
direclty given in the instruction and the data from the address
can be accessed. eg. STA 8000H
Indirect addressing mode: In this mode, instead of giving
address directly, the address is pointed by register pair and
the data can be accessed. eg. LXI H, 8000 and MOV A,M. Here
M is the memory location pointed by HL register pair and the
data in the location can then be accessed.
Implied addressing mode: This mode doesn’t require any
operand; the data is specified by the opcode itself. eg. CMP,
STC.

Professor, IMU 6
Contd...
In general, all 8085 instructions fall under any one of these
formats:
One byte instruction: eg. MOV A,B. Its opcode is 78H.
Two byte instruction: eg. MVI B, 02H. Its opcode is 06H and
this instruction contains another byte 02H data.
Three byte instruction: eg. STA 8050H. Its opcode is 32H.

Further it contains 16-bit address 8050H (two bytes).

Professor, IMU 7
Instrcution Set of 8085 μP
Data Transfer Instructions:

Professor, IMU 8
Contd...

Professor, IMU 9
Contd...

Professor, IMU 10
Contd...

Professor, IMU 11
Contd...

Professor, IMU 12
Contd...

Professor, IMU 13
Contd...
Arithmetic instructions:

Professor, IMU 14
Contd...

Professor, IMU 15
Contd...

Professor, IMU 16
Contd...
Logical Instructions:

Professor, IMU 17
Contd...

Professor, IMU 18
Contd...

Professor, IMU 19
Contd...
Branching instructions:

Professor, IMU 20
Contd...

Professor, IMU 21
Contd...

Professor, IMU 22
Contd...

Professor, IMU 23
Contd...
Control instructions:

Professor, IMU 24
Programming Techniques
Looping:
It is used to instruct the microprocessor unit to repeat
tasks.A loop is set up by instructing MPU to change
sequence of execution and perform the task given.This
is accomplished by Jump Instructions.
Loops are of 2 types:
◦ Continuous(repeats a task continuously)
◦ Conditional(repeats a task until certain data conditions are
met)

Professor, IMU 25
Contd...

Professor, IMU 26
Contd...

Professor, IMU 27
Contd...
Indexing:
It means counting or referencing objects with sequential
numbers.Data bytes are stored in memory location,and those
data bytes are referred to by their memory location.
Counters:
This programming technique uses INR or DCR instructions.A
loop is established to update count and each count is checked
to determine whether it has reached final number and if not
reached,then the loop is repeated.

Professor, IMU 28
Contd...
Time Delay:
It is a similar programming technique used to set up a
counter.
Register is loaded with a number depending on the time
delay required and then register is decremented until it
reached zero.
Register works on the principle of time delay within setting
up a loop with a conditional jump instruction and the loop
causes delay depending upon lock period of system. It is
achieved by two methods:
◦ Using a register
◦ Using a register pair.

Professor, IMU 29
Simple Assemble Language Programs (ALP)
Program 1: Storing 8-bit data in memory
Algorithm:
Get the data into ACC using immediate addressing mode.
Store the data into a memory location.
Terminate the program.
Mnemonics Description
MVI A, 52H Load the data 52H into the ACC 52H
Accumulator
STA 2000H Store the content of
2000 52H
Accumulator into a memory
location 2000H
HLT Terminate program execution

Professor, IMU 30
Contd...
Program 2: Storing 8-bit data in memory
Algorithm:
Load HL register pair with 2000H.
Store the data 52H into memory location pointed by HL pair
Terminate the program.
LXI H, 2000H Initialize HL reg. pair with address H L 20 00

2000H
MVI M, 52H Store the data 52H into memory
2000 52H
location pointed by HL reg.pair
HLT Terminate program execution

Professor, IMU 31
Contd...
Program 3: Exchange the contents of memory location
LDA 1000H Get the content of memory location 1000H into ACC.
MOV B,A Save the content of ACC into B register.

LDA 2000H Get the content of memory location 2000H into ACC.
STA 1000H Store the content of ACC at the address 1000H.
MOV A,B Save the content of B register into ACC.
STA 2000H Store the content of ACC at the address 2000H.
HLT Terminate the program exceution.

Professor, IMU 32
Contd...
Program 4: Exchange the contents of memory location
LXI H, 1000H Initialize HL register pair as a pointer to memory location
1000H.
LXI D, 2000H Initialize DE register pair as a pointer to memory location
2000H.
MOV B,M Save the content of mem.location 1000H into B reg.
LDAX D Load the content of mem.location 2000H into ACC.
MOV M,A Save the content of ACC into mem. location 1000H.
MOV A,B Save the content of B register (mem.location 2000H) into
ACC.
STAX D Store the content of ACC into 2000H location pointed by
DE reg. pair
HLT Terminate the program execution

Professor, IMU 33
Program 5: Adding two 8-bit numbers without carry

Professor, IMU 34
Contd...
Assumption: Add the contents of mem. locations 2000H and
2001H and place the result in location 2002H.

Professor, IMU 35
Program 5: Adding two 8-bit numbers with carry
Algorithm:
Step1: Get the data from location pointed by HL reg. pair
Step 2: Transfer the content from Mem. Location to Acc.
Step 3: Move to next mem. location by incrementing HL reg. pair
Step4: Add the content of present mem. location with content in ACC.
Step 5: Initialize C reg. for carry
Step 6: Check for carry. If carry is present, store the content of rsult
from Acc to mem. location and also the carry in next mem. location
and terminate the program.
Step 6: If no carry, the store the content of result from Acc to any
mem. location and terminate the program.

Professor, IMU 36
Contd...
Assumption: Add the contents of mem. locations 2000H and 2001H
and place the result in location 2002H. Store the carry in 2003H.
LXI H, 2000H
MOV A,M
INX H
ADD M
MVI C,00H
JNC LOOP
INR C
LOOP INX H
MOV M,A
INX H
MOV M,C
HLT

Professor, IMU 37
Contd...
Program 6: Subtracting two 8-bit numbers without borrow
Assumption: Subtract the contents of mem. locations 2000H
and 2001H and place the result in location 2002H.

Professor, IMU 38
Contd...
Home Assignment: Subtracting two 8-bit numbers with
borrow

Professor, IMU 39
Contd...
Program 7: Adding two 16-bit numbers.

Professor, IMU 40
Contd...
Flow Chart:

Professor, IMU 41
Contd...
Program:

Professor, IMU 42
Contd...
The same program can be implemented in another way as
follows:

Professor, IMU 43
Contd...
Home Assignment: Subtracting two 16-bit numbers

Professor, IMU 44
Contd...
Program 8: Multiplying two 8-bit numbers
MVI A, 00H
MVI B, 02H
MVI C, 05H
LOOP ADD B
DCR C
JNZ LOOP
STA 2000H
HLT

Professor, IMU 45
Interfacing Devices
Interface is the path for communication between two
components. Interfacing is of two types, memory interfacing
and I/O interfacing.
Memory Interfacing:
When we are executing any instruction, we need the
microprocessor to access the memory for reading instruction
codes and the data stored in the memory.
For this, both the memory and the microprocessor requires
some signals to read from and write to registers.
The interfacing circuit therefore should be designed in such a
way that it matches the memory signal requirements with the
signals of the microprocessor.

Professor, IMU 46
Contd...
IO Interfacing:
There are various communication devices like the keyboard,
mouse, printer, etc. So, we need to interface the keyboard
and other devices with the microprocessor by using latches
and buffers. This type of interfacing is known as I/O
interfacing.

Professor, IMU 47
Contd...
There are two ways of communication in which the
microprocessor can connect with the outside world.
◦ Serial Communication Interface
◦ Parallel Communication interface
Serial Communication Interface: In this type of

communication, the interface gets a single byte of data from
the microprocessor and sends it bit by bit to the other system
serially and vice-a-versa.
Parallel Communication Interface: In this type of

communication, the interface gets a byte of data from the
microprocessor and sends it bit by bit to the other systems in
simultaneous (or) parallel fashion and vice-a-versa.

Professor, IMU 48
8255 Programmable Peripheral Interface
8255 also known as PPI is widely used, programmable, parallel I/O
device.
It is an important general purpose I/O device that can be used with
almost any microprocessor.
It can be programmed to transfer data under various conditions,
from simple I/O to interrupt I/O.
It consists of three 8-bit bidirectional I/O ports (24 I/O lines) which
can be configured as per the requirement.
8255A has three ports, i.e., PORT A, PORT B, and PORT C.
◦ Port A contains one 8-bit output latch/buffer and one 8-bit input
buffer.
◦ Port B is similar to PORT A.
◦ Port C can be split into two parts, i.e. PORT C lower (PC0-PC3) and
PORT C upper (PC7-PC4) by the control word.

Professor, IMU 49
Contd...
These three ports are further divided into two groups, i.e.
Group A includes PORT A and upper PORT C. Group B includes
PORT B and lower PORT C.

Professor, IMU 50
Contd...

Professor, IMU 51
Contd...
8255A has three different operating modes:
Mode 0 − In this mode, Port A and B is used as two 8-bit ports
and Port C as two 4-bit ports. Ports do not have interrupt
capability.
Mode 1 − In this mode, Port A and B is used as 8-bit I/O ports.
They can be
configured as either input or output ports. Each port uses three
lines from port C as handshake signals. Inputs and outputs are
latched.
Mode 2 − In this mode, Port A can be configured as the
bidirectional port and Port B either in Mode 0 or Mode 1. Port A
uses five signals from Port C as handshake signals for data transfer.
The remaining three signals from Port C can be used either as
simple I/O or as handshake for port B.
Professor, IMU 52
Contd...
Ports can be selected using CS along with A0 & A1 as shown
below.
CS A0 A1 Result
0 0 0 PORT A
0 0 1 PORT B
0 1 0 PORT C
0 1 1 CONTROL
REGISTER
1 X X No Selection

Professor, IMU 53
Contd...

Professor, IMU 54
Applications of Microprocessors
Microprocessor-based systems are thus found everywhere
today.
Computers and smartphones
Automatic testing of products
Speed control of motors
Traffic light control
Communication equipment
Television
Satellite communication
Home appliances, such as microwave oven, washing machine
Gaming controller
Industrial controllers and even specialised applications such
as military applications.

Professor, IMU 55

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Nautical Electronics

Semiconductors & Diodes

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

Based on the electrical conductivity, the materials in nature are

Conductors are those having very good conductivity.

Semiconductors are those having conductivity(resistivity)

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 2

Semiconductors have the resistivity which is less than

Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient. The

The conducting properties of a Semiconductor changes, when

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

Figure(a) represents the insulator in which the forbidden energy gap is

Figure(b) represents the semiconductor in which the forbidden energy gap

Figure(c) represents the conductor in which there is no forbidden energy

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 4

Semiconductors are of two types: Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 5

But intrinsic semiconductor finds less applications

In semiconductor, the conduction is due to both

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

Doping is the process of adding impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor.

Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types: P-type and N-type.

Adding trivalent impurities(acceptor) such as boron or aluminium to get

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 9

In N-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

In P-type extrinsic semiconductor, as

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

At room temperature, we can find few electrons and holes. They

Let the number of electrons be n and number of holes be p

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 12

In case of extrinsic semiconductor,

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 13

w.k.t conductivity of a semiconductor is

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

The thermal pair generation is smaller.

The formation of SiO2 layer is easy for silicon, which helps in

Si is easily found in nature than Ge.

Noise is less in components made up of Si than in Ge.

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar, Assistant

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 1

The potential difference developed in the depletion region is called

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 2

Diffusion current: The movement of charge carriers due to their

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 3

The operation of the diode can be understood when PN junction is

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 4

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 5

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 6

It increases the depletion region width and eventually increases the

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 7

The magnitude of this reverse saturation current depends upon the

V-I characteristics of diode under reverse bias is shown below.

Dr.G.Veera Senthil Kumar 8

These newly liberated electrons acquire energy to dislodge other