Group One- alkali metals, most reactive

Group Two- alkaline earth metals

Group Three-twelve- are the transition metals, most conduct electricity
Group Seventeen- are the halogens, very reactive
Group Eighteen- are the noble gases, not very reactive
ATOMIC THEORY
Atomic Number- the number of protons in the nucleus
Mass Number- the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus
Number of Neutrons- Mass Number – Atomic Number
Isotope- atoms of an element that have the same number of protons but different number of neutrons in their nuclei
Relative Atomic Mass (u or amu)- atoms are so small, it is a scale used to indicate average mass. The mass of an atom
expressed in the unified atomic mass unit, u. Relative number, compared with the carbon-12 standard. According to this
scale, both the proton & neutron have a mass close to 1u.
Example: C-12=12u and H=1 or 1/12 mass of C and O=16 or 16/12 (4/3) mass of C.
Average Atomic Mass- is the mass shown in the periodic table that is a result of an average mass of an element based on
the abundance of each isotope.
Average atomic mass = (atomic mass of A) x (fraction of a) + (atomic mass of B) x(fraction of b)…

Radioisotope- a radioactive isotope of an element which is capable of spontaneously e m i t t i n g r a d i a t i o n i n t h e

f o r m o f a l p h a ( ) , b e t a ( ) , a n d g a m m a ( ) r a y s . T h e y c a n occur naturally or can be produced artificially

Half-life- the time it takes for one half of the nuclei in a radioactive sample to decay
A = A0(0.5)^t/h
A= current sample size, A0= original sample size, t= time, h= half-life

PERIODIC TRENDS
Effective Nuclear Charge-- is the net force of attraction between a +ve nucleus and an e- in the valence shell(it tells you
how tightly the nucleus is holding onto its e-).
- ENC depends on two main factors: magnitude of protons, and electron screening
- the magnitude of the nuclear charge (how many p+) does affect the trends across a row (left to right). As you increase
the number of p+, ENC increases.
- electron screening or electron shielding: the core electrons can affect the force of attraction between a nucleus and its
valence e-. It does affect the trend down a group; the increased number of filled energy levels (core e-) will decrease
ENC.

Atomic Radius (AR)-- magnitude increases across.

- nucleus has a stronger force of attraction for it’s valence e-; AR increases from left to right.
- e- shielding causes the nucleus to have a weaker pull on valence e-; AR increases from top to bottom.
Ionic Radius (IR)-- when discussing ionic radius, we discuss cations (+ve) and anions (-ve) separately.
- +ions (cations); removing one e- from an atom causes the electron cloud to shrink. The extra +ve charge pulls core e-
closer. Or a whole outer shell of electrons has been lost (Na+ is smaller than, neutral, Na).
- -ve ions (anions); adding an e- to an atom causes the electron could to expand. The extra –ve charge means e- aren’t
pulled closer because there is an increase in repulsion between valence e- (F- is larger than, neutral, F).
Ionization Energy-- amount of energy required to completely remove an electron from an atom.
Electron Affinity-- the energy given off when an electron is added.
Electronegativity-- the electron attracting ability of the atom.

NAMING COMPOUDS
If the compound is Ionic (Metal with a Non-Metal)
-Binary Ionic Compounds:
1.The cation is always written before the anion.
2.The first word of the chemical name is the name of the cation (Ex. Na+ is called Sodium).
3.The last word is the name of the element of which the anion with the suffix –ide. (Ex. Cl- would become chloride).
4.Put the two words together. (Ex. Sodium Chloride).
Polyatomic Ionic Compounds:
1.The cation is always written before the anion.
2.The first world of the chemical name is the name of the cation (Ex. Na+would be called Sodium).
3.The last word is the name of the polyatomic ion (Ex. OH- is hydroxide).
4.Put the two words together. (Ex. Sodium hydroxide).

* For elements in the transition metal group, you must be careful in the naming.

Cobalt (II) or (III), Copper (I) or (II), Iron (II) or (III), Lead (II) or (IV), Tin (II) or (IV),Gold (I) or (III)

If the compound is Covalent (Non-Metal with Non-Metal)-

Binary Molecular (covalent) compounds:

1.The first element in the formula uses the whole name of the element, much like binary ionic compounds.
(Ex. In NO, the first would be nitrogen).
2.The second element in the formula only uses the first half of the word and – ide is added in place of
the removed ending, much like binary ionic compounds. (Ex. In NO, the first part of the second word would be –oxide).
3.So the person reading the name can determine what the subscript is on each element, a prefix is added to
show how many of each element are used. The first word of the formula does not use mono.

MOLECULAR OR COVALENT BONDING

Covalent Bonding-
- a type of bonding which results when one or more pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms (non-metals).
- a molecule is the smallest part of an element or compound which exists independently. It contains atoms bonded
together in a fixed whole number ratio.
- uses prefixes: mono, di, tri…
- Cl + Cl : these two atoms have equal IE, EN, Ar, EA.
Properties of Covalent Compounds-
1.Generally have much lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds. Covalent compounds do not
need to break any bonds like ionic compounds. Have weak intermolecular forces which are easy to break/be separated.
2.Are soft, waxy, or flexible. Covalent compounds are free to move around unlike ionic compounds. Do not
contain the crystal lattice structure of ionic compounds.
3.Aren’t very soluble in water. Like dissolves like, compounds tend to dissolve in other compounds that
have similar properties. Since H2O is polar and most covalent compounds are not, they don’t usually dissolve in H2O.
4.They do not conduct electricity in water. Since they do not usually dissolve in water, to form ions they
cannot be charge carriers required to conduct electricity. No ions, no electricity (non-electrolyte).

BONDING
Bonding- a chemical bond is a strong interaction between atoms. Atoms form bonds to decrease their potential energy
which makes the system more stable. Bond type depends on electronegativity.

-Ionic Bonds- is a type of chemical bonding resulting from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions in
a compound. The family is called “salts.”
Properties of Ionic Compounds-
- form crystals. Are solids at SATP
.- have high melting and boiling points. Most ionic compounds cannot be melted with a Bunsen burner.
- very hard and brittle. Ions resist movement.- are electrolytes. When an ionic compound is put into water the ions pull
apart from each other and the negatively charged ions are free to conduct electricity.

Lewis Dot Diagrams-- determine the number of valence electrons.

- write down the symbol (represents nucleus)

- fill in the dots (e-) according to the number of valence electrons. Must be in clockwise fashion.
Lewis Structure-
For ionic compounds,
1.Determine the Lewis dot diagram for both elements.
2.Transfer the electrons so that both atoms are isoelectric with noble gas.
3.Place brackets around each (always remember to write the cation first, anion anion second) and add
subscripts if necessary
.Ex. Sodium Chloride

LEWIS THEORY OF BONDING

- atoms and ions are stable if they have noble gas-like electron structure (octet).- e- are most stable when they are
paired.
- atoms form chemical bonds to achieve a stable octet of e-.
- can achieve stability through ionic or covalent bonding.
Rules for Drawing Lewis Structure-
1.Arrange atoms symmetrically around the central atom.
2.Count the number of valence electrons of all atoms, add or subtract charges if necessary.
3.Place a bonding pair of electrons between the central atom and each of the surrounding atoms.
4.Complete the octets of the surrounding atoms using one pair of electrons. Any remaining atoms go to the
central atom (usually if central atom is period3 or later, octet rule may not apply).
5.If the central atom does not have an octet, move lone pairs from the surrounding atoms to form double or
triple bonds until the central atom has a complete octet.
6.Calculate formal charge and reduce, making resonance structures if necessary.

Formal Charge = # valence electrons – (1/2 #bonded e- + # lone pairs)

7.Draw the Lewis Structure and enclose polyatomic ions with square brackets showing the ion charge.

VSEPR THEORY
- VSEPR Theory provides a 3-D geometric structure to be determined using both the bonded and unbounded electrons
of the central atom of a molecule.
Key Steps-
- draw the Lewis Structure for the molecule
- once the Lewis Structure is drawn, determine the total number of the bonded andlone pairs of the central atom (steric
number)
- this total will provide you with one of the basic geometric shapes/molecular shapes
- arrange and compare the number of lone pairs with the number of bonded pairs to get the final geometric shape

CHEMICAL BONDING

Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)-

- explains that chemical reactions occur because particles collide with sufficient energy to break the old bonds and allow
the formation of new bonds

Collision-Reaction Theory-
- is a theory stating that chemical reactions involve collisions and rearrangements of atoms or groups of atoms, and that
the outcome of collisions depends on the energy and orientation of collisions Representing a Chemical Change-
- these include a word equation and a chemical equation

Evidence of a Chemical Reaction

-- change in temperature
- evolution of a new gas (effervescence)
- change in color
- formation of a precipitate (solid produced from two liquids)
- formation of an odor
- production of light
- production of sound

Types of Chemical Reactions-

- combustion, synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, double displacement
Combustion-- a very rapid reaction of a substance with oxygen to:- produce compounds called oxides- this type of
reaction is also known as burning

Complete Combustion-
- results in the production of water and carbon dioxide
- this will only occur if sufficient oxygen is present
- General formula:

hydrocarbon + oxygen
carbon dioxide + water

Incomplete Combustion-
- occurs when there is not enough oxygen available
- instead of 2 products, 4 are produced: carbon monoxide, carbon, carbon dioxide, and water
Synthesis Reactions-- A + B= AB

Decomposition Reactions-

AB = A + B

Single Displacement Reactions-

- A + BC= AC + B- in the activity series, each metal will displace any metal listed below it

Double Displacement Reactions-

- AB + CD = AD +CB- use the solubility table

CALCULATING # OF ENTITES

- used to calculate the # of atoms or molecules in a sample

N = nNa

- where N = # of entities (atoms or molecules)

- where n = moles of sample

- where Na = Avogadro’s Constant (6.02 x 10^23 entities)

LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS

- from Dalton’s atomic theory

- a specific compound always contains the same elements in definite proportions bymass

- For example: CO and CO2

- the chemical formula for CO is similar to that of CO2; however, the difference in the number of oxygen atoms per
molecule causes each gas to have different properties

- even though CO and CO2

are similar, they have very different properties

- properties of a substance depend on the elements the compound is composed of

- we refer to this study of relationships between quantities of reactants and products as stoichiometry

THE MOLE

- 6.02 x 10^23- chemists often need to measure out a certain mass of a substance- use the unit of measurement called
the mole (mol)

- a mole is Avogadro’s constant- the mass of one mole is called Molar Mass

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING MOLE

- to convert mass to moles, we use the following formula:

n =m/M

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

- is a calculation used to determine the contribution of each element (as a %) to the total mass of the compound

- to determine the percentage composition of a compound, you must:

- calculate the mass (or molar mass) of each atom/element in the compound

- determine the total mass (or molar mass) of the compound

- divide the mass (or molar mass) of each atom/element by the total mass of the compound to determine the percentage
composition of each element/atom in
the compound

Ex. What is the percentage composition of nitric acid (HNO3) ?

EMPIRICAL FORMULA

- indicates a numerical ratio that exists between atoms

- the simplest formula/empirical formula does not always indicate the action numberof each type of atom within a
compound

- How to find empirical formula?

- Percent to mass

- Mass to mole

- Divide by small- Multiply till whole

MOLECULAR FORMULA

- indicates the number and type of each atom found in the molecule

- we cannot write a molecular formula for all compounds because not all substances are molecules

- in some cases, the empirical formula and molecular formula can be the same

- What is the molecular formula?

THE MOLE AND CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

- this says: 1 atom of Fe reacts with 1 atom of Se to produce 1 molecule of FeSe

- or: 1 mole of Fe reacts with 1 mole of Se to produce 1 mole of FeSe

- or: 55.85g of Fe reacts with 78.9g of Se to produce 134.81g of FeSe

- But the order from Boreal has not arrived yet. How much of Se is required to react with 16.2g of Fe?

To Solve:

- Write a balanced chemical equation (with states)

- Record the given mass below that

- Record the molar masses below that

- Calculate the number of moles

LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENTS

- the reactant that is completely consumed in a chemical reaction is known as the limiting reagent
- it determines the around of product that will come from a reaction

- if the limiting reagent is all used up, the reaction will stop, leaving an excess of the other reactants

To Solve:

- Write a balanced chemical equation

- Calculate the number of moles present

- Determine the limiting reagent

- Determine mass of product

PERCENTAGE YIELD

- so far, we’ve been calculating theoretical yield obtained from stoichiometric calculations using our balanced chemical
equations

- however, in practice, we don’t always get that expected amount. The amount that we measure at the end of our
experiment is the actual yield.

- percentage yield compares the actual and theoretical yield

WHAT IS NUCLEUS? BY RUTHERFORD

The positive charge and most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in an extremely small volume. He called this region
of the atom as a nucleus. Rutherford's model proposed that the negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus of an
atom.