CH 2- THE

CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
Atoms

 The study of chemistry begins with

the basic unit of matter, the atom.
 The Greek philosopher Democritus
called the smallest fragment of matter
the atom, from the Greek word
atomos.
Atoms (cont.)

 Placed side by side, 100 million atoms

would make a row only about 1
centimeter long.
 Atoms contain subatomic particles that
are even smaller.
Atoms (cont.)

 What three subatomic particles make

up atoms?
Atoms (cont.)

 The subatomic particles that make up

atoms are
 protons
 neutrons
 electrons
Atoms (cont.)

 Smallest property of an element that still

has the properties of that element
 “The building blocks of matter”
 Atoms are made of smaller (subatomic)
particles arranged in a particular way
 p+ (proton)
 n° (neutron)
 e- (electron)
Atoms (cont.)

 Protons and neutrons have about the

same mass.
 Protons are positively charged particles
(+).
 Neutrons carry no charge (◦).
 Strong forces bind protons and
neutrons together to form the nucleus,
which is at the center of the atom.
Atoms (cont.)

 The electron is a negatively charged

particle (−) with 1/1840 the mass of a
proton.
 Electrons are in constant motion in the
space surrounding the nucleus (e-
cloud).
Atoms (cont.)

 The subatomic
particles in a
helium atom.
Atoms (cont.)

• Electrons are attracted to the

positively charged nucleus but remain
outside the nucleus because of the
energy of their motion.
• Because atoms have equal numbers of
electrons and protons, and because
these subatomic particles have equal
but opposite charges, atoms are
neutral.
Atoms (cont.)
 Atomic number- # of p+ AND electrons in an atom
 Mass number- total # of p+ + n° in an atom
 # of neutrons- mass number- atomic number
 Ion- charged atom (can gain or lose electrons)
 If an atom gains e-, does it have a positive or
negative charge?
 What if the opposite is true?
 LEP-GEN (Lose Electrons Positive, Gain Electrons
Negative)
 Where can the characteristics of all atoms be
found?
Practice

 Atomic #?
 Atomic mass?
 # of neutrons?
Isotopes (cont.)

 Q- How are all of the isotopes of an

element similar?
Isotopes (cont.)

 A- Because they have the same number

of protons and electrons, all isotopes
of an element have the same chemical
properties.
Isotopes (cont.)
Isotopes of Carbon

6 electrons
6 protons
6
7
8 neutrons
Isotopes (cont.)

 Radioactive Isotopes
 Some isotopes are radioactive, meaning
that their nuclei are unstable and break
down at a constant rate over time.
 Although the radiation these isotopes give
off can be dangerous, they have important
scientific and practical uses.
Isotopes (cont.)

• Radioactive isotopes can be used:

 to determine the ages of rocks and
fossils.
 to treat cancer.
 to kill bacteria that cause food to spoil.
 as labels or “tracers” to follow the
movement of substances within an
organism.
Chemical Compounds

 Chemical Compounds
 In nature, most elements are found
combined with other elements in
compounds.
 A chemical compound is a substance
formed by the chemical combination of
two or more elements in definite
proportions.
 The physical and chemical properties of a
compound are different from the
elements from which it is formed.
Chemical Compounds

• Scientists show the composition of

compounds by a kind of shorthand
known as a molecular formula.
• Water, H2O, contains two atoms of
hydrogen for each atom of oxygen.
• The formula for table salt, NaCl,
indicates that sodium and chlorine
combine in a 1 : 1 ratio.
Molecular Formulas
 Shows numbers of molecules and atoms
 Molecules = coefficient (the number in front) of
molecular formula (ex. 3H2O = 3)
 Atoms = # of atoms in compound
(ex. H2O = 2 Hydrogens, 1 Oxygen = total of 3
atoms in this compound)
 Total # of atoms = (Coefficient) x (# of atoms)
 How many molecules and atoms do each of the
following have?
 3 H2O
 2 C6H12O6
 4 NaCl
 CO
Structural formulas

 Shows how the atoms are connected in

a compound. Each element requires 1-4
lines to connect it to other atoms (see
periodic table)
 Ex. C2OH6
 Is there a problem in drawing this?
H H H H
| | | |
H-C-C-O-H H-C-O -C-H
| | | |
H H H H
Isomers

 Have same molecular formula but

different structural formulas
 C3H8O
Valence (cont.)

 In summary, to find valence:

1. Look up the atomic number (# of p+)
2. Determine the electron configuration
3. Determine the # of valence e- (# of electrons
in last shell)
4. Determine if it is + or – valence (if it gains e- it
becomes more negative and vice versa)
5. Determine valence by how many e- it would have
to lose or gain to be happy
Valence (cont.)

 Want an easier way to find valence?

 Label your periodic table!
Chemical bonds

 Forces that hold atoms together

 Can be single, double, or triple bond
 Depends on how many pairs of electrons
are shared between elements
 Single bond
 Double bond
 Triple bond
Bond Lines

 All elements have the ability to bond

with other element(s)
 Can have anywhere between 1 and 4
bond lines
 How do we know how many bond lines
each element has?
 Answer: the number of bond lines is the
same of the valence of the element
(without the + or – sign)
Bonding (cont.)

 Ex. Cl has a valence of -1, so it has one

bond line.
 Ex. C has a valence of ±4, so it has four
bond lines.
 Ex. N has a valence of -3, so it has
three bond lines.
Bonding rules

 Each element must have the correct #

of bond lines attached to it
 # of bond lines is determined by
_________?
 Ex. O2 has valence of -2, so it has
_________ bond lines.
 Ex. C has a valence of ± 4, so it has
_________ bond lines.
Bonding rules (cont.)

 All coefficients and subscripts must be

satisfied.
 Ex. 2C2H6- Must draw two molecules
each having 2 carbons and 6 hydrogens
Changing molecular formulas
to structural formulas
 All bond lines, subscripts, and
coefficients must be satisfied.
 Ex. H2O
Changing structural formulas
to molecular formulas
 All coefficients and subscripts must be
satisfied.
 Ex. H – O – H ―> H2O
 Ex. H – Cl H – Cl ―> 2HCl
Types of bonds
 Covalent
 Chemical bonding where pairs of electrons are
shared
 Strongest type of bond (gets stronger as more
pairs of electrons are shared)
 Polar covalent bond
 Present in water molecules
 Because electronegativity difference between O
and H, a bond forms where the O has a partial
negative charge and H a partial positive charge
Chemical Bonds
 Ionic Bonds
 An ionic bond is formed when one or more
electrons are transferred from one atom
to another.
 An atom that loses electrons has a
positive charge.
 An atom that gains electrons has a
negative charge.
 These positively and negatively charged
atoms are known as ions.
Chemical Bonds
Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl)
Sodium ion (Na+) Chloride ion (Cl-)

Protons +11 Protons +17

Electrons - 11
10 Electrons 18
- 17

Charge +10 Charge -10

Chemical Bonds

 Covalent Bonds
 Sometimes electrons are shared by atoms
instead of being transferred.
 Sharing electrons means that the moving
electrons actually travel in the orbitals of
both atoms.
Chemical Bonds

 A covalent bond forms when electrons

are shared between atoms.
 When the atoms share two electrons, the
bond is called a single covalent bond.
 When atoms share four electrons it is
called a double bond.
 When atoms share six electrons it is
called a triple bond.
Chemical Bonds

 The structure that results when atoms

are joined together by covalent bonds
is called a molecule.
 A molecule is the smallest unit of most
compounds.
Chemical Bonds

 In a water
molecule, each
hydrogen atom
forms a single
covalent bond
with the oxygen
atom.
Chemical Bonds

 Van der Waals Forces

 When molecules are close together, a
slight attraction can develop between the
oppositely charged regions of nearby
molecules.
 Chemists call such intermolecular forces
of attraction van der Waals forces, after
the scientist who discovered them.
Chemical Bonds

• Although van der Waals forces are not

as strong as ionic bonds or covalent
bonds, they can hold molecules
together, especially when the
molecules are large.
Chemical Bonds
 For example, van der
Waals forces form
between the molecules on
the surface of a gecko’s
foot and the molecules on
the surface of the wall.
 The combined strength of
all the van der Waals
forces allows the gecko to
grip the wall.
2-1

 The particles that move around the

nucleus of an atom are called
 neutrons.
 protons.
 electrons.
 isotopes.
2-1

 The atomic number of a carbon atom is 6.

How many neutrons does the isotope
carbon-14 have?
6
8
 12
 14
2-1
 Which of the following statements about
the three isotopes of carbon is true?
 They are all radioactive.
 They have different numbers of electrons.
 They have the same chemical properties but
differ in atomic mass.
 They have the same number of protons and
neutrons.
2-1
 A chemical compound consists of
 electrons mixed with neutrons.
 two or more elements combined in a definite
proportion.
 two or more elements combined in any
proportion.
 at least three elements combined by ionic or
covalent bonds.
2-1

 Van der Waals forces are the result of

 unequal sharing of electrons.
 ionic bonds.
 the bonding of different isotopes.
 the chemical combination of sodium and
chlorine.