GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON ANIMAL FORM

LBYCANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. BRYNA LEANO | SEM 2 2023

● Distal: away from the main mass of the body (ex. toes)
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON ANIMAL FORM ● Superficial: on or near the surface
● Deep: some distance below the surface
● Superior: above
DESCRIPTIVE TERMS
● Inferior: below
● Dorsal: Back or
upper side
PLANES AND AXES
(posterior: human
● Median plane: vertical longitudinal plane passing from head
anatomy)
to tail through
● Ventral: Under side
center of the body
(anterior: human
from dorsal to
anatomy)
ventral surfaces,
● Lateral: sides, left
divides the body
and right
into nearly identical
● Anterior, cephalic
right and left halves
or cranial: head
● Sagittal
end of animal
plane/section:
(superior: human
Vertical longitudinal
anatomy)
plane through the
● Posterior or caudal:
body parallel to the median plane
tail end of animal
● Horizontal or frontal plane/section: any horizontal
(interior: human
longitudinal section through the body, right angles to the
anatomy)
median plane and parallel to dorsal and ventral
● Median: middle
● Transverse or cross plane/section: cuts vertically across the
● Central: part of
body at right angles to the sagittal or horizontal planes
system nearest the
● Longitudinal or anteroposterior axis: line in the median
middle of the
sagittal plane extending from head to tail
animal
● Sagittal or dorsoventral axis: any line in the median sagittal
● Peripheral: part nearest the surface
plane extending from dorsal to ventral surfaces.
● Proximal: near the main mass of the body (ex. though)

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GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON ANIMAL FORM
LBYCANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. BRYNA LEANO | SEM 2 2023

● Transverse or mediolateral axis: any line in the transverse METAMERISM OR SEGMENTATION

plane running from side to side ● Metamerism or segmentation: regular repetition of the body
parts along the anteroposterior axis
SYMMETRY ● Body of segmented
● Spherical: body animals is
has the shape of composed of a
a sphere and longitudinal series of
parts are divisions in which all
arranged or most of the body
concentrically systems are
around or radiate represented
from the center of ● Each division of the
the sphere body is termed a
● Radial: symmetry metamere, segment,
in which the sides or somite containing
exhibit the organs needed
correspondence for survival
or regularity of ● Animals may exhibit both external and internal
parts around a segmentation, by which the anterior and posterior
central axis boundaries of each segment may be marked externally by a
● Biradial: organism can be divided up into equal parts but constriction of the body wall
only in two planes ● Segmented groups of animals are the annelids,
● Bilateral: parts arranged symmetrically with reference to the arthropods, and the chordates
three axes: longitudinal, transverse, sagittal ● Types: Homonomous and heteronomous segmentation
○ Medial sagittal plane divides the animal into ○ Homonomous: segments are equal in their size
approximately identical right and left halves which along the body of the animal; not really seen in
are mirror images of each other. animals and very little
● NOT ALL ANIMALS are symmetrical. ○ Heteronomous: particular segments are larger in size
compared to other segments.

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GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON ANIMAL FORM
LBYCANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. BRYNA LEANO | SEM 2 2023

CEPHALIZATION HOMOLOGY AND ANALOGY

● In the evolution of animals, there is a pronounced tendency ● Homology: intrinsic similarity indicative of a common
for the anterior part of the body to become more and more evolutionary origin
distinctly separated ○ Particular structures of the animal similar to each
and differentiated other; can pertain to a common ancestor or in terms
from the rest of the of evolution (in phylogenetic tree)
body as the head. ● Homologous
● Localization in the structures may
head of the main seem unlike
part of the nervous superficially but
system (brain) and can be proved
the most important to be
sense organs. equivalent by
● Cephalization: any or all of the
centralization/localization of nervous structures and following
functions in the head with accompanying dominance of the criteria
head
○ Similarity of anatomical construction
○ Brain, sensory organs, nerves
○ Similar topographical relations to the animal body
● In segmented animals: cephalization is correlated with the
■ Similarity to arrangement of the body
progression of the heteronomous condition
part/location of body part is close
○ More adaptation of the animal to become
○ Similar course of embryonic development
heteronomous; homonomous is more primal than
○ Similarity or identity of specific physiological function
differentiated (heteronomous)
or mechanism
● Heteronomy appears first in the head and progresses
■ Example: [BODY PART] would be all meant
posteriorly.
for movement
● Cephalization is important, especially to those who are
● Example: wing of the bird, flipper of seal, and foreleg of cat
active – they can look for food through sensing, and move
(similar arrangement of bones and muscles)
accordingly when a predator comes.

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GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ON ANIMAL FORM
LBYCANA (Lecture)
BIOMED | PROF. BRYNA LEANO | SEM 2 2023

● Analogy: similarity of general function or of superficial ● Divergence: animals related by descent may differ greatly
appearance not associated with similarity of intrinsic in general appearance after long sojourn in different
anatomical environment
construction or of ○ Example: seals and cats
embryonic origin and
development.
● Example: fish and
snakes are covered
with scales for
protective purposes
(similar function) but
are different
histologically and
embryonic origin is
different
● Analogous structures
also differ in precise
functional mechanism
● Example: insect leg
and cat leg are both
for walking, but the
mechanism of walking
is different in the two.
● Convergence/parallelism: when analogous structures
present similarity of appearance associated with living in a
common environment (adapt to environment)
○ Example: porpoises and fish