AC Circuit Fundamentals: Electricity and New Energy

Electricity and New Energy
AC Circuit Fundamentals
&RXUVHZDUH6DPSOH
20317-)0
Order no.: 20317-10
First Edition
Revision level: 06/2015
By the staff of Festo Didactic
© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2014

Internet: www.festo-didactic.com
e-mail: did@de.festo.com
Printed in Canada
All rights reserved
ISBN 978-2-89747-082-1 (Printed version)
ISBN 978-2-89747-083-8 (CD-ROM)
Legal Deposit – Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, 2014
Legal Deposit – Library and Archives Canada, 2014
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Safety and Common Symbols
The following safety and common symbols may be used in this manual and on
the equipment:
Symbol Description
DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

avoided, will result in death or serious injury.
WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which,

if not avoided, could result in death or serious injury.
CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

avoided, could result in minor or moderate injury.
CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

indicates a hazard with a potentially hazardous situation which,
if not avoided, may result in property damage.
Caution, risk of electric shock
Caution, hot surface
Caution, risk of danger
Caution, lifting hazard
Caution, hand entanglement hazard
Notice, non-ionizing radiation
Direct current
Alternating current
Both direct and alternating current
Three-phase alternating current
Earth (ground) terminal
© Festo Didactic 20317-10 III

Safety and Common Symbols
Symbol Description
Protective conductor terminal
Frame or chassis terminal
Equipotentiality
On (supply)
Off (supply)
Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or

reinforced insulation
In position of a bi-stable push control
Out position of a bi-stable push control
IV © Festo Didactic 20317-10

Table of Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................. IX
About This Manual ................................................................................................ XI
To the Instructor .................................................................................................. XIII
Exercise 1 AC Circuits and AC Capacitors ................................................... 1

DISCUSSION...................................................................................... 1
Introduction to alternating current ............................................ 1
AC voltage and current sine waves .......................................... 2
Frequency and period of a sine wave ......................................... 2
Peak value and RMS value of a sine wave ................................. 3
Training system component: the ac power source .................. 5
Circuit parameter measurements in ac circuits ........................ 5
Measuring voltage....................................................................... 5
Measuring current ....................................................................... 6
Measuring resistance and capacitance ....................................... 6
Using a multimeter for ac measurement ..................................... 7
Introduction to ac capacitors .................................................... 8
Operation of ac capacitors .......................................................... 9
Reactance of ac capacitors....................................................... 14
Equivalent capacitance and capacitive reactance of series
and parallel ac capacitors ......................................................... 15
PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 17

Set up ..................................................................................... 17
Comparison between a dc circuit and an ac circuit ................ 18
Determining the capacitance and capacitive reactance of
ac capacitors .......................................................................... 20
Connecting a circuit containing a capacitor............................ 21
Calculating the reactance of series capacitors....................... 23
Calculating the reactance of parallel capacitors .................... 26
Exercise 2 DC and AC Inductors .................................................................. 31

DISCUSSION.................................................................................... 31
Introduction to inductors ......................................................... 31
Operation of inductors ............................................................ 32
Operation of inductors in dc circuits .......................................... 32
Operation of inductors in ac circuits .......................................... 33
Inductance .............................................................................. 35
Reactance of ac inductors ...................................................... 35
Equivalent inductance and inductive reactance of series
and parallel inductors ............................................................. 36
Applications of inductors ........................................................ 37
Training system component: the inductor .............................. 38
© Festo Didactic 20317-10 V

Table of Contents
PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 39

Set up ..................................................................................... 39
Troubleshooting an inductor in a dc circuit ............................. 39
Effect of an inductor on a dc circuit ........................................ 42
Calculating the inductive reactance of an ac inductor ............ 43
Calculating the reactance of series inductors ........................ 44
Calculating the reactance of parallel inductors ...................... 46
Exercise 3 Transformers ............................................................................... 51

DISCUSSION .................................................................................... 51
Introduction to transformers ................................................... 51
Transformer operation ............................................................ 52
Transformer turns, voltage, and current ratios ....................... 54
Step-up and step-down transformers ..................................... 56
Step-up transformers ................................................................ 56
Step-down transformers ............................................................ 58
Transformer voltage regulation .............................................. 59
Types of transformers ............................................................ 60
Control transformers ................................................................. 61
Power transformers ................................................................... 61
Isolation transformers ................................................................ 62
Training system component: the transformer......................... 62
PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 63
Set up ..................................................................................... 63
Calculating the ratios and ratings of a transformer ................ 63
Troubleshooting a transformer ............................................... 66
Measuring the ratios and ratings of a transformer ................. 68
Transformer voltage regulation .............................................. 71
Exercise 4 AC Relays and Contactors ......................................................... 77

DISCUSSION .................................................................................... 77
Introduction to ac relays ......................................................... 77
Contactors .............................................................................. 78
Applications of ac relays......................................................... 79
Training system component: the ac relay .............................. 79
PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 80
Set up ..................................................................................... 80
Troubleshooting an ac relay ................................................... 80
Circuit representing a blower and heating element
controlled using an ac relay.................................................... 83
Circuit representing a blower controlled using start/stop
push buttons and an ac relay ................................................. 85
VI © Festo Didactic 20317-10

Table of Contents
Exercise 5 Electrical Distribution ................................................................. 91

DISCUSSION.................................................................................... 91
Introduction to the power network and distribution network ... 91
Fuses ...................................................................................... 93
Circuit breakers ...................................................................... 94
Magnetic circuit breakers .......................................................... 95
Thermal circuit breakers ........................................................... 97
Circuit breaker symbols ............................................................ 98
Electrical panels ..................................................................... 98
Training system component: the fuse and the circuit
breaker ................................................................................... 99
Training system component: the circuit breaker and the
test circuit ............................................................................... 99
PROCEDURE ................................................................................. 100
Set up ................................................................................... 100
Operation of a fuse ............................................................... 101
Operation of a circuit breaker ............................................... 103
Circuit with an excessive load ................................................. 103
Short-circuited circuit .............................................................. 105
Exercise 6 Troubleshooting Methods ........................................................ 109

DISCUSSION.................................................................................. 109
Introduction to troubleshooting ............................................. 109
The voltmeter method .......................................................... 110
The ohmmeter method ......................................................... 111
PROCEDURE ................................................................................. 112
Set up ................................................................................... 112
Guided troubleshooting of a complex dc circuit (fault 1) ...... 113
Voltmeter troubleshooting method .......................................... 114
Ohmmeter troubleshooting method ........................................ 116
Unguided troubleshooting of a complex dc circuit (fault 2) .. 119
Unguided troubleshooting of a complex dc circuit (fault 3) .. 121
Unguided troubleshooting of a complex ac circuit (fault 4) .. 123
Appendix A Glossary of New Terms ............................................................ 133
Appendix B Fault Switches ........................................................................... 137
Index of New Terms ........................................................................................... 139

Bibliography ....................................................................................................... 141
© Festo Didactic 20317-10 VII

Preface
Electricity is used in all aspects of modern society, be it in residential,
commercial, or industrial applications. It is used for lighting, heating, transport,
communications, computations, and a host of other functions. While most power
networks in the world operate in alternating current, direct current is also
commonly used in applications that require low voltage or that use batteries as a
power source.
Knowing the basic principles of both dc circuits and ac circuits is of the utmost
importance when training electrical technicians or any technician that has to deal
with electricity. The AC/DC Training System, Model 3351, is a portable training
system that allows students to explore the fundamentals of electricity.
Throughout the courses performed using the training system, students acquire
the basic knowledge necessary to work with electricity, both in theory and in
practice. Students are also introduced to the troubleshooting of electrical circuits
to bolster their efficiency in the field.
The AC/DC Training System is divided in two courses, each dealing with a type
of electrical current. The first course, DC Circuit Fundamentals, deals with the
general concept of electricity, as well as with the fundamental concepts of direct
current circuits. The second course, AC Circuit Fundamentals, deals with the
fundamental concepts of alternating current circuits.
Although electricity has been known to Man since ancient times, it is only in modern times
that it began to be commonly used as a power source (photo courtesy of Postdlf).
© Festo Didactic 20317-10 IX

Preface
We invite readers of this manual to send us their tips, feedback, and

suggestions for improving the book.
Please send these to did@de.festo.com.

The authors and Festo Didactic look forward to your comments.
X © Festo Didactic 20317-10

About This Manual
Manual objectives
When you have completed this manual, you will be familiar with the basic
principles of alternating current, as well as with the voltage and current sine
waves in ac circuits. You will be introduced to common components in ac circuits:
capacitors, inductors, transformers, and relays, and be familiar with the operation
of these components. You will know the most important concepts of electrical
distribution, such as what a power network and a distribution network are. Finally,
you will be introduced to the troubleshooting of electrical circuits, and learn two
methods important for troubleshooting: the voltmeter method and the ohmmeter
method.
Safety considerations
Safety symbols that may be used in this manual and on the equipment are listed
in the Safety Symbols table at the beginning of the manual.
Safety procedures related to the tasks that you will be asked to perform are
indicated in each exercise.
Make sure that you are wearing appropriate protective equipment when
performing the tasks. You should never perform a task if you have any reason to
think that a manipulation could be dangerous for you or your teammates.
Systems of units
Units are expressed using the International System of Units (SI) followed by the
units expressed in the U.S. customary system of units (between parentheses).
© Festo Didactic 20317-10 XI

To the Instructor
You will find in this Instructor Guide all the elements included in the Student
Manual together with the answers to all questions, results of measurements,
graphs, explanations, suggestions, and, in some cases, instructions to help you
guide the students through their learning process. All the information that applies
to you is placed between markers and appears in red.
Accuracy of measurements
The numerical results of the hands-on exercises may differ from one student to
another. For this reason, the results and answers given in this manual should be
considered as a guide. Students who correctly performed the exercises should
expect to demonstrate the principles involved and make observations and
measurements similar to those given as answers.
© Festo Didactic 20317-10 XIII

Sample Exercise
Extracted from
the Student Manual
and the Instructor Guide
Exercise 1
AC Circuits and AC Capacitors
EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with the basic
principles of alternating current. You will be introduced to ac voltage and current
sine waves, as well as to related concepts such as frequency, period, peak
value, and rms value. You will also be introduced to a component of the AC/DC
Training System: the ac power source. You will know how to make circuit
measurements in ac circuits. Finally, you will be familiar with the operation of
ac capacitors.
DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:
Introduction to alternating current

AC voltage and current sine waves
Frequency and period of a sine wave. Peak value and RMS value of a
sine wave.
Training system component: the ac power source
Circuit parameter measurements in ac circuits
Measuring voltage. Measuring current. Measuring resistance and
capacitance. Using a multimeter for ac measurement.
Introduction to ac capacitors
Operation of ac capacitors. Reactance of ac capacitors. Equivalent
capacitance and capacitive reactance of series and parallel
ac capacitors.
DISCUSSION Introduction to alternating current
In the DC Circuit Fundamentals course, you saw that, in direct current (dc)
circuits, electricity is supplied using a dc power source, as shown in Figure 1a.
You also saw that, in dc circuits, current flows in a single direction. In the
conventional representation, electrical current flows from the positive terminal of
the dc power source to the negative terminal. In other words, it flows from the
high-voltage terminal to the low-voltage terminal.
Current ‫ܫ‬
Current ‫ܫ‬
DC AC
power Resistor power Resistor
source source
(a) DC circuit (b) AC circuit
Figure 1. Current direction in a dc circuit and in an ac circuit.
© Festo Didactic 20317-10 1

Exercise 1 – AC Circuits and AC Capacitors Discussion
In alternating current (ac) circuits, on the other hand, electricity is supplied using
an ac power source, as shown in Figure 1b. In ac circuits, current continuously
switches direction because the voltage at the ac power source terminals
continuously changes polarity, alternating between positive and negative.
AC voltage and current sine waves
The voltage and current in an ac circuit are both represented using a sine wave,
as shown in Figure 3. The following characteristics can be observed from the
graph:
x The voltage or current periodically changes from one polarity to the

other.
x The value of the voltage or current continuously changes with time. This
value ranges from a positive maximum to a negative maximum.
x The portion of the wave during which the voltage or current is of

positive (+) polarity is called the positive half-wave. The portion of the
wave during which the voltage or current is of negative (–) polarity is
called the negative half-wave.
x A complete sine wave cycle consists of a positive half-wave and a

negative half-wave.
+
Maximum
(positive)
Voltage ‫( ܧ‬V) or current ‫( ܫ‬A)
Positive
half-wave
0
Negative Time (s)
half-wave
Maximum
One complete cycle (negative)
Figure 3. Typical sine wave of the voltage and current in an ac circuit as a function of time.
Frequency and period of a sine wave
The frequency of a sine wave defines the number of times that a sine wave
cycle (such as the one in Figure 3) repeats per second. The higher the
frequency, the more the cycle repeats per second, and the steeper the curve of
the resulting sine wave. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) after German
physicist Heinrich Hertz, who proved the existence of electromagnetic waves.
Frequency is usually denoted using the letter ݂.
Figure 2. German physicist
Heinrich Hertz.
2 © Festo Didactic 20317-10

In North America, the frequency of the current supplied by public power

distribution utilities is 60 Hz, which means that a complete sine wave cycle
repeats 60 times per second. In Europe, Asia, Africa, Russia, the Middle-East,
and Australia, power network frequency is usually 50 Hz. In South America and
Japan, this frequency is either 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
The period of a sine wave defines the time length of a sine wave cycle (such as
the one in Figure 3). Period is measured in seconds (s) and is usually denoted
using the letter ܶ. It can be calculated using the following equation:
ͳ
ߒൌ (1)
݂
where ߒ is the period of the sine wave, expressed in seconds (s)

݂ is the frequency of the sine wave, expressed in hertz (Hz)
Frequency can be calculated using the reciprocal of the above equation:
ͳ
݂ൌ (2)
ߒ
Therefore, in a 60 Hz ac power network, the period of one cycle is equal

to 1/60 Hz ൌ 16.7 ms. In a 50 Hz ac power network, the period of one cycle is
equal to 1/50 Hz ൌ 20 ms.
Peak value and RMS value of a sine wave
When considering a dc voltage or current, the magnitude of that voltage or

current is constant. Therefore, the magnitude of the voltage measured across a
component or of the current flowing through it is a constant value. When
measuring ac voltage or ac current, however, the magnitude of the voltage or
current varies continuously with time. To solve this problem, voltage and current
sine waves in ac circuits are usually defined using two constant values: the peak
value and rms value of the sine wave.
The peak value of a sine wave corresponds to the maximal value of the sine
wave (positive or negative), as shown in Figure 4.
1.5
Voltage ‫( ܧ‬V) or current ‫( ܫ‬A)
Peak value
1.0
0.5
0.0
RMS value (0.707)

Ͳ0.5
Ͳ1.0
Peak value
Ͳ1.5
Time (s)
Figure 4. Peak value and rms value of a sine wave.

The rms value (for root-mean-square value) of a sine wave corresponds to the
effective value of that sine wave, as shown in Figure 4. The rms value defines
the magnitude that the sine wave would have if it were constant. The rms value
of a voltage sine wave is calculated using the following equation:
‫ܧ‬௉௘௔௞ (3)
‫ܧ‬ோெௌ ൌ ൌ ͲǤ͹Ͳ͹ ൈ ‫ܧ‬௉௘௔௞
ξʹ
where ‫ܧ‬ோெௌ is the rms value of the voltage sine wave, expressed in volts (V)
‫ܧ‬௉௘௔௞ is the peak value of the voltage sine wave, expressed in volts (V)
Similarly, the rms value of a current sine wave is calculated using the following
equation:
‫ܫ‬௉௘௔௞ (4)
‫ܫ‬ோெௌ ൌ ൌ ͲǤ͹Ͳ͹ ൈ ‫ܫ‬௉௘௔௞
ξʹ
where ‫ܫ‬ோெௌ is the rms value of the current sine wave, expressed in
amperes (A)
‫ܫ‬௉௘௔௞ is the peak value of the current sine wave, expressed in
amperes (A)
Consider for example the circuit of a 24 V dc power source connected to a

resistor (see Figure 1a). When the dc power source is on, a certain amount of
power is supplied to that resistor. Now, consider another circuit in which an
ac power source is connected to an identical resistor (see Figure 1b). In order for
the ac power source to supply the same amount of power to the resistor, it is
necessary to adjust the voltage of the ac power source until its rms voltage is
equal to the dc power source voltage. The resulting voltage curves as a function
of time for both circuits are shown in the graph of Figure 5.
RMS value (24 V)
DC power source
Peak value (33.9 V) voltage
40
30
20
Voltage ‫( ܧ‬V)
10
Ͳ10
Ͳ20
AC power source
Ͳ30 voltage
Ͳ40
Time (s)
Figure 5. Voltage curves for a 24 V dc power source and an ac power source with an rms
voltage of 24 V supplying the same amount of power to an identical resistor.

As Figure 5 shows, the dc power source voltage corresponds to the rms value of
the ac power source. However, the peak value of the ac power source is in fact
higher (‫ܧ‬ோெௌ ൈ ξʹ ൌ 33.9 V) than the dc power source voltage. If the same
graphs were made for the currents flowing in the dc and ac circuits, the same
relationships would be found.
Training system component: the ac power source
The ac power source is one of the most important components in the AC/DC
Training System. It is used in all procedures requiring ac power. To turn the
ac power source on, set the Power Input switch of the training system to
the I position. To turn the ac power source off, set the Power Input switch of the
training system to the O position. Be sure never to turn the ac power source on
unless it is stated to do so. Not respecting this instruction could damage the
equipment or give you or a comrade a shock.
The ac power source in the training system has an rms voltage rating of 24 V and
an rms current rating of 1 A. Note that it is common to indicate the voltage and
current ratings of ac components as rms values. The circuit diagram symbol for
an ac power source is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. AC power source symbol.
Component Symbol
AC power source
The ac power source is protected using a circuit breaker. Although this

component is covered only in exercise 5 of this manual, it is important to know
that it protects the power source from overcurrents. If the intensity of the current
flowing from the ac power source ever reaches a value greater than its current
rating (1 A) for a certain length of time, the circuit breaker will open the circuit,
thus preventing damage to the power source and other equipment. The circuit
breaker can be reset by pressing the button beside the ac power source. Before
doing so, however, be sure to ascertain and correct the problem causing the
overcurrent, otherwise the circuit breaker will trip again when you turn the
ac power source back on.
Circuit parameter measurements in ac circuits
Circuit parameter measurement in ac circuits is achieved using the same

measuring instruments as in dc circuits. The connections required are also very
similar. This is explained in detail for each type of parameter in the following
subsections.
Measuring voltage
Voltage measurement in ac circuits is achieved by connecting a voltmeter

across (i.e., in parallel with) the two points where voltage is to be measured, as
shown in Figure 6. The polarity of the voltmeter is not indicated in the circuit. This
is because an ac power source has no positive or negative terminal (voltage
continuously alternates between positive and negative). Therefore, the polarity of

the voltmeter probes does not need to be respected when measuring ac voltage.
Note that, unless stated otherwise, the voltage value indicated by a voltmeter is
an rms value.
AC power
Indicator light
source
Figure 6. Using a voltmeter to measure the voltage across an ac power source.
Measuring current
Current measurement in ac circuits is achieved by connecting an ammeter in

series with the point where current is to be measured, as shown in Figure 7. The
polarity of the ammeter is not indicated in the circuit. This is because current in
an ac circuit is neither positive nor negative, but continuously alternates between
positive and negative. Therefore, the polarity of the ammeter probes does not
need to be respected when measuring ac current. Note that, unless stated
otherwise, the current value indicated by an ammeter is an rms value.
AC power source Indicator light
Figure 7. Using an ammeter to measure the current flowing in a circuit.
Ammeters are just as susceptible to overcurrents in ac circuits as they are in

dc circuits. Because of this, when connecting an ammeter, whether in dc or ac
circuits, it is important to make especially sure to observe the required
connections.
Measuring resistance and capacitance
Resistance and capacitance measurement in ac circuits is achieved in exactly

the same way as it is in dc circuits. This is because, to measure these two
parameters, it is necessary to remove the power source from the circuit.
Therefore, the type of current produced by the power source (dc or ac) has no
impact on resistance or capacitance measurement.

Resistance is measured by connecting an ohmmeter across (i.e., in parallel with)

the two points where resistance is to be measured, as shown in Figure 8.
Indicator light
Figure 8. Using an ohmmeter to measure the resistance of an indicator light.
Capacitance is measured by connecting a capacitance meter across (i.e., in

parallel with) the two points where capacitance is to be measured, as shown in
Figure 9.
Capacitor
Figure 9. Using a capacitance meter to measure the capacitance of a capacitor.
Using a multimeter for ac measurement
In the DC Circuit Fundamentals course, you saw that multimeters combine

multiple measuring instruments in one device. You learned how to perform
measurements in dc circuits. Most multimeters also allow measurement in
ac circuits. To perform measurements in ac circuits, simply select the appropriate
function on the multimeter. Figure 10 shows a typical multimeter with its functions
indicated on the picture. The multimeter function indicated in red is not covered
and need not be studied.
Note that, on a multimeter, dc and ac measurements can be differentiated one

from the other by the symbol indicated beside the letter A or V. Table 2 shows
the symbols for dc and ac measurements.

Table 2. DC and ac measurement symbols.
Component Symbol
DC measurement
AC measurement
AC voltage measurement (V) /

DC voltage
Frequency measurement (Hz)
measurement (V)
AC voltage
measurement (mV) / dc
voltage measurement (mV)
Resistance
measurement ()
Continuity test
Direct current Diode test / capacitance

measurement (A) measurement (F)
Alternating current Terminal for all other

measurement (A) functions
Current measurement
terminal Common (-) terminal
Figure 10. Typical multimeter.
Introduction to ac capacitors
In the DC Circuit Fundamentals course, you saw that dc capacitors are electrical
components that oppose voltage changes in a circuit and store electrical energy.
You also saw that most capacitors consist of two conducting materials (usually a
metal) separated by an insulating material, called a dielectric (e.g., glass, air,
paper), with a pair of terminals on the capacitor providing access to the metal
plates. Capacitors are rated using their capacitance, expressed in farads (F).

AC capacitors are basically the same as dc capacitors: they also consist of two
conducting materials separated by an insulating material. The main rating of
ac capacitors is also capacitance. Their operation, however, is slightly different
due to the unique properties of ac circuits in comparison to dc circuits.
Figure 11. Banks of capacitors are often used in power transmission substations. Capacitors
such as these have a very high capacitance value.
Operation of ac capacitors
In the DC Circuit Fundamentals course, you saw that charges accumulate in

dc capacitors as long as the capacitor is not fully charged. As soon as the
capacitor is fully charged (when the capacitor voltage is equal to the dc power
source voltage), current stops flowing in the circuit. Figure 12a shows the
charges in the conducting plates and dielectric of a capacitor when it is fully
discharged, while Figure 12b shows the same components when the capacitor is
fully charged.

(a) Fully discharged capacitor
(b) Fully charged capacitor

Figure 12. Conducting plates and dielectric of a capacitor when it is fully discharged and fully
charged.

Now, consider the circuit in Figure 13 showing an ac power source connected to

a capacitor.
Capacitor
AC power source
Figure 13. AC power source connected to a capacitor.
When the ac power source is turned on, a voltage is applied to the capacitor.
During the positive half-wave of the voltage sine wave, one of the terminals of the
power source is positive. Therefore, current flows from this terminal to the
capacitor, then back to the negative terminal of the power source, as shown in
Figure 14a. The voltage applied to the capacitor causes positive charges to
accumulate on the conducting plate of the capacitor connected to the positive
terminal of the power source, and negative charges to accumulate on the
conducting plate of the capacitor connected to the negative terminal of the power
source. This is shown in Figure 14b.

Current Current
+ -
Capacitor
AC power source
(a) Circuit in Figure 13 during the positive half-wave of the voltage sine wave
Positive conducting Negative conducting

material material
Current Current
(b) Capacitor in detail showing the accumulated charges
Figure 14. Circuit in Figure 13 and capacitor charges during the positive half-wave of the
voltage sine wave.
When the voltage sine wave becomes negative, the polarity of both terminals of
the ac power source is inverted. This reverses the direction of current flow and
inverts the polarity of the charges accumulated at each conducting plate of the
capacitor, as shown in Figure 15a and b.

Current Current
- +
Capacitor
AC power source
(a) Circuit in Figure 13 during the negative half-wave of the voltage sine wave
Negative conducting Positive conducting

material material
Current Current
(b) Capacitor in detail showing the accumulated charges
Figure 15. Circuit in Figure 13 and capacitor charges during the negative half-wave of the
voltage sine wave.
The process shown in Figure 14 and Figure 15 repeats at every cycle of the
voltage sine wave produced by the ac power source. As you can see, even
though the capacitor can become fully charged during a half cycle, it immediately
discharges and recharges with an inverted polarity in the next half cycle.
Because of this, current never stops flowing in such a circuit.

Reactance of ac capacitors
As stated in the previous subsection, ac capacitors do not prevent current flow as

they never stay fully charged for long due to the nature of alternating current.
However, capacitors in ac circuits oppose current flow in the circuit, exactly like
resistors. The opposition to current flow of an ac capacitor is referred to as its
capacitive reactance and depends on its capacitance, as well as on the
frequency of the ac power source. The capacitive reactance of an ac capacitor is
calculated using the following equation:
ͳ
ܺ஼ ൌ (5)
ʹߨ݂‫ܥ‬
where ܺ஼ is the capacitive reactance of the capacitor, expressed in ohms (ȍ)

݂ is the frequency of the ac power source, expressed in hertz (Hz)
‫ܥ‬ is the capacitance of the capacitor, expressed in farads (F)
As you can see from Equation (5), the capacitive reactance ܺ஼ of an ac capacitor
is expressed in ohms (ȍ), just like the resistance of a resistor. Because of this, in
ac circuits containing a capacitor, the capacitive reactance ܺ஼ of the capacitor
replaces the resistance ܴ when using Ohm’s law to calculate the voltages and
currents in the circuit. Ohm’s law thus becomes:
‫ܧ‬ (6)
‫ܫ‬ൌ
ܺ஼
where ‫ܫ‬ is the current flowing in the capacitor, expressed in amperes (A)
‫ܧ‬ is the voltage applied across the capacitor, expressed in volts (V)
ܺ஼ is the capacitive reactance of the capacitor, expressed in ohms (ȍ)
Consider for example the ac circuit in Figure 16 containing a capacitor. The

ac power source has a voltage of 120 V and operates at a frequency of 60 Hz,
while the capacitance of the capacitor is equal to 16 μF.
‫ܫ‬ௌ
AC power source
Capacitor
‫ܧ‬ௌ ൌ ͳʹͲ
‫ ܥ‬ൌ ͳ͸Ɋ
݂ௌ ൌ ͸Ͳ
Figure 16. AC circuit containing a capacitor.

To calculate the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ flowing in the circuit, it is necessary to first calculate
the capacitive reactance ܺ஼ of the capacitor:
Remember that ͳ ͳ
ܺ஼ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͳ͸ͷǤ͹ͻπ
1 μF ൌ 0.000001 F ʹߨ݂ௌ ‫ ߨʹ ܥ‬ൈ ͸Ͳ ൈ ሺͳ͸ ൈ ͳͲି଺ ሻ
or 1 ൈ 10-6 F.
Using the capacitive reactance ܺ஼ of the capacitor, it is then possible to calculate
the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ flowing in the circuit:
‫ܧ‬ௌ ͳʹͲ
‫ܫ‬ௌ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͲǤ͹ʹ
ܺ஼ ͳ͸ͷǤ͹ͻπ
Equivalent capacitance and capacitive reactance of series and parallel ac capacitors
The equivalent capacitance of series and parallel ac capacitors is calculated in

exactly the same way as for dc capacitors. This means that the equivalent
capacitance of series capacitors is calculated using the following equation:
ͳ ͳ ͳ ͳ (7)
ൌ ൅ ൅‫ڮ‬൅
‫ܥ‬௘௤ ‫ܥ‬ଵ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ‫ܥ‬௡
where ‫ܥ‬௘௤ is the equivalent capacitance of all capacitors in the series circuit,
expressed in farads (F)
‫ܥ‬௡ is the capacitance of each capacitor in the circuit, expressed in
farads (F)
The equivalent capacitance of parallel capacitors is calculated using the following

equation:
‫ܥ‬௘௤ ൌ ‫ܥ‬ଵ ൅ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ‫ܥ‬௡ (8)
where ‫ܥ‬௘௤ is the equivalent capacitance of all capacitors in the parallel circuit,
expressed in farads (F)
‫ܥ‬௡ is the capacitance of each capacitor in the circuit, expressed in
farads (F)
It is then possible to convert the calculated equivalent capacitance of the circuit

into an equivalent capacitive reactance value for the series or parallel circuit.
Alternately, it is possible to obtain the equivalent capacitive reactance of a series

or parallel circuit using the individual capacitive reactance of each capacitor in
the circuit. In this case, the equivalent capacitive reactance of series capacitors is
calculated using the following equation:
ܺ௘௤ ൌ ܺ஼భ ൅ ܺ஼మ ൅ ‫ ڮ‬൅ ܺ஼೙ (9)
where ܺ௘௤ is the equivalent capacitive reactance of all capacitors in the series
circuit, expressed in ohms (ȍ)
ܺ஼೙ is the capacitive reactance of each capacitor in the circuit,
expressed in ohms (ȍ)

The equivalent capacitive reactance of parallel capacitors is calculated using the

following equation:
ͳ ͳ ͳ ͳ (10)
ൌ ൅ ൅‫ڮ‬൅
ܺ௘௤ ܺ஼భ ܺ஼మ ܺ஼೙
where ܺ௘௤ is the equivalent capacitive reactance of all capacitors in the

parallel circuit, expressed in ohms (ȍ)
ܺ஼೙ is the capacitive reactance of each capacitor in the circuit,
expressed in ohms (ȍ)
As you can see, the equivalent capacitive reactance of series and parallel
capacitors is calculated in exactly the same way as when calculating the
equivalent resistance of series and parallel resistors.
Consider for example the series ac circuit in Figure 17 containing three

capacitors. The ac power source has a voltage of 220 V and operates at a
frequency of 50 Hz, while the capacitance of the capacitors is equal to 20 μF,
40 μF, and 32 μF.
‫ܫ‬ௌ
Capacitor 1
‫ܥ‬ଵ ൌ ʹͲɊ
AC power source Capacitor 2

‫ܧ‬ௌ ൌ ʹʹͲ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ൌ ͶͲɊ
݂ௌ ൌ ͷͲ
Capacitor 3
‫ܥ‬ଷ ൌ ͵ʹɊ
Figure 17. Series ac circuit containing three capacitors.

Exercise 1 – AC Circuits and AC Capacitors Procedure Outline
Calculating the equivalent capacitive reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ൯ of the capacitors
భ మ య
in the circuit can be done in either of the two following ways:
Using the equivalent capacitance ‫ܥ‬௘௤ :
ͳ ͳ ͳ ͳ ͳ ͳ ͳ
ൌ ൅ ൅ ൌ ൅ ൅
‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మǡ஼యሻ ‫ܥ‬ଵ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ‫ܥ‬ଷ ʹͲɊ ͶͲɊ ͵ʹɊ
‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మǡ஼యሻ ൌ ͻǤͶͳʹɊ
ͳ ͳ
ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͵͵ͺǤʹͲπ
భ ǡ௑಴మ ǡ௑಴య ൯ ʹߨ݂ௌ ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మǡ஼యሻ ʹߨ ൈ ͷͲ ൈ ሺͻǤͶͳʹ ൈ ͳͲି଺ ሻ
Using the capacitive reactance of each capacitor:
ͳ ͳ
ܺ஼భ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͳͷͻǤͳͷπ
ʹߨ݂ܵ ‫ ߨʹ ͳܥ‬ൈ ͷͲ ൈ ൫ʹͲ ൈ ͳͲെ͸ ൯
ͳ ͳ
ܺ஼మ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͹ͻǤͷͺπ
ʹߨ݂ܵ ‫ ߨʹ ʹܥ‬ൈ ͷͲ ൈ ൫ͶͲ ൈ ͳͲെ͸ ൯
ͳ ͳ
ܺ஼య ൌ ൌ ൌ ͻͻǤͶ͹π
ʹߨ݂ܵ ‫ ߨʹ ͵ܥ‬ൈ ͷͲ ൈ ൫͵ʹ ൈ ͳͲെ͸ ൯
ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ൌ ܺ஼భ ൅ ܺ஼మ ൅ ܺ஼య ൌ ͳͷͻǤͳͷπ ൅ ͹ͻǤͷͺπ ൅ ͻͻǤͶ͹π ൌ ͵͵ͺǤʹͲπ

భ ǡ௑಴మ ǡ௑಴య ൯
PROCEDURE OUTLINE The Procedure is divided into the following sections:
Set up
Comparison between a dc circuit and an ac circuit
Determining the capacitance and capacitive reactance of ac capacitors
Connecting a circuit containing a capacitor
Calculating the reactance of series capacitors
Calculating the reactance of parallel capacitors
PROCEDURE Set up
In this section, you will set up the AC/DC Training System.
1. Install the AC/DC Training System on a stable surface, then open the training
system.
2. Make sure that the main power switch on the AC/DC Training System is set
to the O (off) position, then connect its Power Input to an ac power outlet.
3. Make sure that all fault switches are set to the O position, indicating that no
fault is inserted in the operation of the AC/DC Training System.

Exercise 1 – AC Circuits and AC Capacitors Procedure
Comparison between a dc circuit and an ac circuit
In this section, you will connect a dc circuit containing a resistor. You will
measure the resistor voltage and the current flowing in the circuit. You will then
replace the dc power source by an ac power source, and again measure the
resistor voltage and the current flowing in the circuit. You will compare the
parameters measured in the dc circuit to the parameters measured in the
ac circuit.
4. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 18. Use the 62 ȍ resistor to implement
the resistor. Connect the voltmeter and ammeter as shown in the circuit.
‫ܫ‬ௌ
Resistor
DC power source ܴ
24 V 62 ȍ
Figure 18. DC circuit containing a resistor.
5. Turn the dc power source on.
6. Measure the voltage ‫ܧ‬ோ across the resistor. Record the value below.
Resistor voltage ‫ܧ‬ோ ൌ V
Resistor voltage ‫ܧ‬ோ ൌ 24.0 V
7. Measure the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ flowing in the circuit. Record the value below.
Current ‫ܫ‬ௌ ൌ A
Current ‫ܫ‬ௌ ൌ 0.388 A
8. Turn the dc power source off.
9. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 19. The only modification in the circuit is
that the dc power source has been replaced by an ac power source. The rest
of the circuit is identical to the circuit in Figure 18.

‫ܫ‬ௌ
Resistor
AC power source ܴ
24 V 62 ȍ
Figure 19. AC circuit containing a resistor.
10. Turn the ac power source on.
11. Measure the rms value of the voltage ‫ܧ‬ோ across the resistor. Record the
value below.
Resistor voltage ‫ܧ‬ோ ൌ V
Resistor voltage ‫ܧ‬ோ ൌ 25.43 V
12. Measure the rms value of the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ flowing in the circuit. Record the
value below.
13. Compare the resistor voltage ‫ܧ‬ோ and the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ recorded in the ac circuit
to those you recorded in the dc circuit. What can you conclude?
The rms value of the resistor voltage ‫ܧ‬ோ and the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ in the ac circuit
are close to the resistor voltage ‫ܧ‬ோ and the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ in the dc circuit. This
indicates that an rms value measured in an ac circuit is equal to the same
value measured in an equivalent dc circuit.
14. Turn the ac power source off.

Determining the capacitance and capacitive reactance of ac capacitors
In this section, you will measure the capacitance of both capacitors in the AC/DC
Training System, and compare the measured values to the rated value indicated
on the front panel of the system. You will then calculate the capacitive reactance
of the capacitors using their measured capacitance values.
15. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 20. Use the first of the 8.8 μF capacitors
to implement the capacitor.
Capacitor
8.8 μF
Figure 20. Circuit for measuring the capacitance of each capacitor in the AC/DC Training
System.
16. Measure the capacitance ‫ܥ‬ଵ of the first capacitor. Record the value below.
Capacitance ‫ܥ‬ଵ ൌ μF
Capacitance ‫ܥ‬ଵ ൌ 8.92 μF
17. In the circuit of Figure 20, replace the first capacitor of the AC/DC Training
System by the second capacitor.
18. Measure the capacitance ‫ܥ‬ଶ of the second capacitor. Record the value
below.
Capacitance ‫ܥ‬ଶ ൌ μF
Capacitance ‫ܥ‬ଶ ൌ 8.86 μF

19. Compare the capacitance ‫ܥ‬ଵ and ‫ܥ‬ଶ of the capacitors you just recorded to the
capacitance of the capacitors indicated on the front panel of the AC/DC
Training System. Are both capacitance values within the limit of the
tolerance (also indicated on the front panel) of the rated capacitance of the
capacitors?
Yes No
Yes
20. Calculate the capacitive reactances ܺ஼భ and ܺ஼మ of the capacitors using the
capacitances ‫ܥ‬ଵ and ‫ܥ‬ଶ you recorded in this section.
a The capacitive reactance of a capacitor is calculated using the following

equation:
ͳ
ܺ஼ ൌ
ʹߨ݂‫ܥ‬
Capacitive reactance ܺ஼భ ൌ ȍ
Capacitive reactance ܺ஼మ ൌ ȍ
The capacitive reactances ܺ஼భ and ܺ஼మ of the capacitors are calculated
below:
ͳ ͳ
ܺ஼భ ൌ ൌ ൌ ʹͻ͹Ǥ͵͹π
ʹߨ݂ௌ ‫ܥ‬ଵ ʹߨ ൈ ͸Ͳ ൈ ͺǤͻʹɊ
ͳ ͳ
ܺ஼మ ൌ ൌ ൌ ʹͻͻǤ͵ͻπ
ʹߨ݂ௌ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ʹߨ ൈ ͸Ͳ ൈ ͺǤͺ͸Ɋ
Connecting a circuit containing a capacitor
In this section you will connect an ac circuit containing a capacitor. You will
observe the current flowing in the circuit after you turn the ac power source on.
You will measure the capacitor voltage and the current flowing in the circuit, and
use these values to calculate the reactance of the capacitor. You will compare
this reactance value obtained from circuit measurements to the reactance of the
capacitors you calculated in the previous section.
21. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 21. Use the first 8.8 μF capacitor to
implement the capacitor.

‫ܫ‬ௌ
Capacitor
AC power source ‫ܥ‬ଵ
24 V 8.8 μF
Figure 21. AC power source connected to a capacitor.
23. Observe the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ flowing in the circuit after you turn the ac power
source on. What happens to current ‫ܫ‬ௌ ? Explain briefly, considering what you
know about the operation of capacitors in dc and ac circuits.
The current ‫ܫ‬ௌ flowing in the circuit is constant after the ac power source is
turned on. This is because, in ac circuits, the current flowing in a capacitor
does not decrease in time then stops when the capacitor is fully charged.
Rather, the current flowing in an ac capacitor is constant. However, the
capacitor has the effect of limiting the intensity of the current.
24. Measure the voltage ‫ܧ‬஼భ across the capacitor and the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ flowing in the
circuit. Record the values below.
Capacitor voltage ‫ܧ‬஼భ ൌ V
Capacitor voltage ‫ܧ‬஼భ ൌ 27.15 V

25. Using the voltage ‫ܧ‬஼భ across the capacitor and the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ flowing in the
circuit you recorded in the previous step, calculate the capacitive
reactance ܺ஼భ of the capacitor.
a The capacitive reactance of the capacitor can be calculated using the following
variation of Ohm’s law:
‫ܧ‬
ܺ஼ ൌ
‫ܫ‬
Capacitive reactance ܺ஼భ ൌ ȍ
The capacitive reactance ܺ஼భ of the capacitor is calculated below:
‫ܧ‬஼భ ʹ͹Ǥͳͷ
ܺ஼భ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͵ͲͷǤͲ͹π
‫ܫ‬ௌ ͲǤͲͺͻ
26. Is the capacitive reactance ܺ஼భ of the capacitor you calculated from
measured circuit parameters in the previous step close to the capacitive
reactance of the first capacitor you calculated in step 20?
Yes No
Yes
Calculating the reactance of series capacitors
In this section, you will connect the two capacitors of the AC/DC Training System
in series, and measure their equivalent capacitance. From this value, you will
calculate their equivalent reactance. You will then connect an ac circuit
containing the same two series capacitors. You will measure the voltage across
the series capacitors and the current flowing in the circuit, and use these values
to calculate the equivalent reactance of the capacitors. You will compare this
equivalent reactance value obtained from circuit measurements to the equivalent
reactance you calculated using the equivalent capacitance.
28. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 22. Use both 8.8 μF capacitors to
implement the series capacitors.

First capacitor
‫ܥ‬ଵ
8.8 μF
Second capacitor
‫ܥ‬ଶ
8.8 μF
Figure 22. Circuit for measuring the capacitance of series capacitors.
29. Measure the equivalent capacitance ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మሻ of the series capacitors.

Record the value below.
Equivalent capacitance ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మሻ ൌ μF
Equivalent capacitance ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మሻ ൌ 4.45 μF
30. Using the equivalent capacitance ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మሻ you measured in the previous
step, calculate the equivalent reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ൯ of the series capacitors.
భ మ
Equivalent reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ൌ ȍ

భ ǡ௑಴మ ൯
The equivalent reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ൯ of the series capacitors is calculated

భ మ
below:
ͳ ͳ
ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͷͻ͸ǤͲ͸π
భ ǡ௑಴మ ൯ ʹߨ݂ௌ ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మሻ ʹߨ ൈ ͸Ͳ ൈ ͶǤͶͷɊ

implement the series capacitors.
‫ܫ‬ௌ
First capacitor
‫ܥ‬ଵ
8.8 μF
AC power source
24 V
Second capacitor
‫ܥ‬ଶ
8.8 μF
Figure 23. AC power source connected to two series capacitors.
33. Measure the voltage ‫ܧ‬஼ across the series capacitors and the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ
flowing in the circuit. Record the values below.
Capacitors voltage ‫ܧ‬஼భǡ஼మ ൌ V
Capacitors voltage ‫ܧ‬஼భǡ஼మ ൌ 27.15 V
34. Using the voltage ‫ܧ‬஼భǡ஼మ across the series capacitors and the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ
flowing in the circuit you recorded in the previous step, calculate the
equivalent reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ൯ of the series capacitors.
భ మ
a The equivalent capacitive reactance of the series capacitors can be calculated

using the following variation of Ohm’s law:
‫ܧ‬
ܺ஼ ൌ
‫ܫ‬
భ ǡ௑಴మ ൯
The equivalent reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ൯ of the series capacitors is calculated

భ మ
below:
‫ܧ‬஼భǡ஼మ ʹ͹Ǥͳͷ
ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͸Ͳ͵Ǥ͵͵π
భ ǡ௑಴మ ൯ ‫ܫ‬ௌ ͲǤͲͶͷ

35. Is the equivalent capacitive reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ൯ of the series capacitors
భ మ
you calculated from measured circuit parameters in the previous step close
to the equivalent capacitive reactance of the series capacitors you calculated
in step 30?
Yes No
Yes
Calculating the reactance of parallel capacitors
In this section, you will connect the two capacitors of the AC/DC Training System
in parallel, and measure their equivalent capacitance. From this value, you will
calculate their equivalent reactance. You will then connect an ac circuit
containing the same two parallel capacitors. You will measure the voltage across
the parallel capacitors and the current flowing in the circuit, and use these values
to calculate the equivalent reactance of the capacitors. You will compare this
equivalent reactance value obtained from circuit measurements to the equivalent
reactance you calculated using the equivalent capacitance.
implement the parallel capacitors.
First capacitor Second capacitor

‫ܥ‬ଵ ‫ܥ‬ଶ
8.8 μF 8.8 μF
Figure 24. Circuit for measuring the capacitance of parallel capacitors.
38. Measure the equivalent capacitance ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మሻ of the parallel capacitors.

Record the value below.
Equivalent capacitance ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మሻ ൌ μF
Equivalent capacitance ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మሻ ൌ 17.78 μF

39. Using the equivalent capacitance ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మሻ you measured in the previous
step, calculate the equivalent reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ൯ of the parallel
భ మ
capacitors.

భ ǡ௑಴మ ൯
The equivalent reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ൯ of the parallel capacitors is calculated

భ మ
below:
ͳ ͳ
ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͳͶͻǤͳͻπ
భ ǡ௑಴మ ൯ ʹߨ݂ௌ ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మሻ ʹߨ ൈ ͸Ͳ ൈ ͳ͹Ǥ͹ͺɊ
implement the parallel capacitors.
‫ܫ‬ௌ
First capacitor Second capacitor

AC power source
‫ܥ‬ଵ ‫ܥ‬ଶ
24 V
8.8 μF 8.8 μF
Figure 25. AC power source connected to two parallel capacitors.
42. Measure the voltage ‫ܧ‬஼భǡ஼మ across the parallel capacitors and the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ
flowing in the circuit. Record the values below.
Capacitors voltage ‫ܧ‬஼భǡ஼మ ൌ V
Capacitors voltage ‫ܧ‬஼భǡ஼మ ൌ 27.49 V

Exercise 1 – AC Circuits and AC Capacitors Conclusion
43. Using the voltage ‫ܧ‬஼భǡ஼మ across the parallel capacitors and the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ
flowing in the circuit you recorded in the previous step, calculate the
equivalent reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ൯ of the parallel capacitors.
భ మ

భ ǡ௑಴మ ൯
The equivalent reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ൯ of the parallel capacitors is calculated

భ మ
below:
‫ܧ‬஼భǡ஼మ ʹ͹ǤͶͻ
ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͳͷͶǤͶͶπ
భ ǡ௑಴మ ൯ ‫ܫ‬ௌ ͲǤͳ͹ͺ
44. Is the equivalent reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ൯ of the parallel capacitors you
భ మ
calculated in the previous step from measured circuit parameters close to the
equivalent reactance of the parallel capacitors you calculated in step 30?
Yes No
Yes
46. Disconnect all leads from the training system, turn off the multimeter(s), and
return all the equipment you used in this exercise to its storage location.
CONCLUSION In this exercise, you became familiar with the basic principles of alternating
current. You were introduced to ac voltage and current sine waves, as well as to
related concepts such as frequency, period, peak value, and rms value. You
were also introduced to a component of the AC/DC Training System: the
ac power source. You learned how to make circuit measurements in ac circuits.
Finally, you became familiar with the operation of ac capacitors.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What is the main difference between direct current and alternating current?
Direct current flows in a single direction, from the positive terminal of a

dc power source to the negative terminal. In alternating current, on the other
hand, the direction of current flow continuously alternates between one
direction and the other.
2. Briefly define what the frequency and period of a sine wave are.
The frequency of a sine wave defines the number of times that a sine wave
cycle repeats per second. The period of a sine wave defines the time length
of a sine wave cycle.

Exercise 1 – AC Circuits and AC Capacitors Review Questions
3. Briefly define what the peak value and rms value of a sine wave are.
The peak value of a sine wave corresponds to the maximal value of the sine
wave. The rms value (for root-mean-square value) of a sine wave
corresponds to the effective value of that sine wave. It defines the magnitude
that the sine wave would have if it were constant.
4. What does the capacitive reactance of a capacitor represent and in which

unit is it expressed? Explain briefly.
The capacitive reactance of a capacitor represents its opposition to current

flow. The higher the capacitive reactance of a capacitor, the more it prevents
the flow of electrons and consequently the more difficult it is to make
electrons flow through it. Capacitive reactance is expressed in ohms (ȍ), just
like resistance.
5. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 26. Calculate the current ‫ܫ‬ௌ flowing in the
circuit from the indicated parameters.
‫ܫ‬ௌ
Capacitor 1
‫ܥ‬ଵ ൌ ͷͲ Ɋ
AC power source Capacitor 2

‫ܧ‬ௌ ൌ ͳʹͲ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ൌ ͸͸ Ɋ
݂ௌ ൌ ͸Ͳ
Capacitor 3
‫ܥ‬ଷ ൌ ʹͷ Ɋ
Figure 26. Circuit for review question 5.
It is first necessary to calculate the equivalent capacitance ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మǡ஼యሻ of the

capacitors:
ͳ ͳ ͳ ͳ ͳ ͳ ͳ
ൌ ൅ ൅ ൌ ൅ ൅
‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మǡ஼యሻ ‫ܥ‬ଵ ‫ܥ‬ଶ ‫ܥ‬ଷ ͷͲɊ ͸͸Ɋ ʹͷɊ
‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మǡ஼యሻ ൌ ͳ͵Ǥ͵Ͳ͸Ɋ

Exercise 1 – AC Circuits and AC Capacitors Review Questions
The equivalent capacitive reactance ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ can then be calculated:

భ ǡ௑಴మ ǡ௑಴య ൯
ͳ ͳ
ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͳͻͻǤ͵ͷπ
భ ǡ௑಴మ ǡ௑಴య ൯ ʹߨ݂ௌ ‫ܥ‬௘௤ሺ஼భǡ஼మǡ஼యሻ ʹߨ ൈ ͸Ͳ ൈ ሺͳ͵Ǥ͵Ͳ͸ ൈ ͳͲି଺ ሻ
The current ‫ܫ‬ௌ flowing in the circuit can then be calculated:
‫ܧ‬ௌ ͳʹͲ
‫ܫ‬ௌ ൌ ൌ ൌ ͲǤ͸Ͳʹ
ܺ௘௤൫௑಴ ǡ௑಴ ͳͻͻǤ͵ͷπ
భ మ ǡ௑಴య ൯

Bibliography
Boylestad, Robert L., Introductory Circuit Analysis, 11th ed., Upper Saddle River:
Prentice Hall, 2006, ISBN 978-0131730441.
Herman, Stephen L. and Sparkman, Bennie L., Electricity & Controls for
HVAC/R, 6th ed., Clifton Park: Delmar Cengage Learning, 2010,
ISBN 978-1-4354-8427-6.
Miller, Rex and Miller, Mark, Electricity and Electronics for HVAC, 1st ed., New
York: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2007, ISBN 0-07-154270-1.
Wildi, Theodore, Electrical Machines, Drives, and Power Systems, 6th ed., Upper
Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2005, ISBN 978-0131776913.

AC Circuit Fundamentals: Electricity and New Energy

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Electricity and New Energy

By the staff of Festo Didactic

© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2014

DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which,

CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

Caution, risk of electric shock

Caution, hot surface

Caution, risk of danger

Caution, lifting hazard

Caution, hand entanglement hazard

Notice, non-ionizing radiation

Both direct and alternating current

Three-phase alternating current

Earth (ground) terminal

© Festo Didactic 20317-10 III

Protective conductor terminal

Frame or chassis terminal

Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or

In position of a bi-stable push control

Out position of a bi-stable push control

IV © Festo Didactic 20317-10

Exercise 1 AC Circuits and AC Capacitors ................................................... 1

PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 17

Exercise 2 DC and AC Inductors .................................................................. 31

© Festo Didactic 20317-10 V

PROCEDURE ................................................................................... 39

Exercise 3 Transformers ............................................................................... 51

Exercise 4 AC Relays and Contactors ......................................................... 77

VI © Festo Didactic 20317-10

Exercise 5 Electrical Distribution ................................................................. 91

Exercise 6 Troubleshooting Methods ........................................................ 109

Appendix A Glossary of New Terms ............................................................ 133

Appendix B Fault Switches ........................................................................... 137

Index of New Terms ........................................................................................... 139

© Festo Didactic 20317-10 VII

© Festo Didactic 20317-10 IX

We invite readers of this manual to send us their tips, feedback, and

Please send these to did@de.festo.com.

X © Festo Didactic 20317-10

© Festo Didactic 20317-10 XI

© Festo Didactic 20317-10 XIII

AC Circuits and AC Capacitors

 Introduction to alternating current

DISCUSSION Introduction to alternating current

(a) DC circuit (b) AC circuit

Figure 1. Current direction in a dc circuit and in an ac circuit.

© Festo Didactic 20317-10 1

AC voltage and current sine waves

x The voltage or current periodically changes from one polarity to the

x The portion of the wave during which the voltage or current is of

x A complete sine wave cycle consists of a positive half-wave and a

Frequency and period of a sine wave

2 © Festo Didactic 20317-10

In North America, the frequency of the current supplied by public power

where ߒ is the period of the sine wave, expressed in seconds (s)

Frequency can be calculated using the reciprocal of the above equation:

Therefore, in a 60 Hz ac power network, the period of one cycle is equal

Introduction to alternating current