CHAPTER 1

BHARAT SANCHAR NIGAM LIMITED (BSNL)

(1) An Introduction:-

Today, BSNL is the No. 1 telecommunication company and the largest public sector
undertaking of India and its responsibilities includes improvement of the already
impeccable quality of telecom services, expansion of telecom services in all villages and
instilling confidence among its customers.

Apart from vast network expansions, especial emphasis has given for introducing latest
technologies and new services like I-NET, INTERNET, ISDN (INTEGRATED
SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK), IN (INTELLIGENT NETWORK), GSM and WLL
(WIRELESS IN LOCAL LOOP) services etc. Now BSNL has also entered in mobile
communication. BSNL has all the new services send technological advantages, which are
available with any well, developed Telecom network anywhere else in the country.
Full credit for all above achievement goes to the officers and staff of the BSNL. The
administration is fully aware of the challenges lying ahead and quite committed to
provide the latest and best telecom services by their continued support and active co-
operation.
(2) BSNL Services:-

When it comes connecting the four corners of the country , and much beyond , one
solitary name lies embedded at the pinnacle- BSNL. A company that has gone past the
number games and the quest to attain the position of the leader. It is working round the
clock to take India in to the future by providing excellent telecom services for people of
India.
Driven by the very best of telecom technology from global leaders, it connects each inch
of India to the infinite corners of the globe, to enable you to step in to tomorrow.
The telecom services have been recognized the world over as an important tool for socio-
economic development for a nation and hence telecom infrastructure is treated a crucial
factor to realize the socio-economic objectives in India. Accordingly the Department of
Telecom has been formulating developmental policies for the accelerated growth of the
telecommunication services in various cities. The department is also responsible for
frequency management in the field of radio connection in close coordination with the
international bodies.

(1.3)MAKING A TELEPHONE CALL

A telephone call starts when the caller lifts the handsets of the base. Once the dial tone is heard,
the caller uses a rotary or a push button dial mounted either on the handset or on the base to enter
a sequence of digits, the telephone number of called party. The switching equipment from the
exchange removes the dial tone from the line after the first digit is received and after receiving
the last digit, determines the called party is in the same exchange or a different ones. If the called
is in the same exchange, burst of ringing current is applied to the called party’s line. Each
telephone contains a ringer that responds to specific electric frequency. When the called party
answers the telephone by pocking up the handset, steady start to flow in the called party’s line
and is detected by the exchange. The exchange than stops applying ringing and sets up the
connection between the caller and the called party. If the called party is in different exchange
from the caller, the caller exchange set up the connection over the telephone network to the
called party’s exchange. The called party then handles the process of ringing, detecting an
answer, and notifying the calling and billing machinery when the call is completed. When
conversation is over, one or both parties hang up by replacing their handset on the base, stopping
the flow of current. The exchange when initiates the process of taking down the connection,
including notifying billing equipment of the duration of the call if appropriate.

(1.4)ABOUT THE EXCHANGE

(1) All telephone subscribers are served by automatic exchanges, which perform the
functions the human operator. The number being dialed is stored and then passed to
the exchange’s central computer, which in turns operates the switching to complete
the call or routes it a higher level switch for further processing. Today’s automatic
exchanges uses a pair of computers, one running the program that provides services
and the second monitoring the operation of the first, ready to take over in a few
seconds in the event of equipment failure.

Various exchanges present in BSNL are:

E-10B
OCB283
EWSD
All exchange has some purposes and some basic structural units, which are:
1. subscribers connection unit
2. switching network (CX)
3. control unit
4. OMC

For smooth working of an exchange following unit are very important:-

1. Computer Unit: - it deals with additional services of the exchange to the

customers with the help of computers.

2. Power Plant:- to feed proper power supply to exchange

3. AC Plant: - to maintain the continuous temperature + or – 2 degree Celsius to the

digital switch (exchange).

4. MDF: - to connect switch (exchange) with the external environment (subscriber)

i.e. it is the interface between subscribers and exchange.

(1.5)Computer unit

As the name specified it is the main part of the exchange that deals with the all
services provided by the exchange to the customers with the help of computer. It
also provides the updated data to all other part of the exchange.

The customers are using the services of the exchange by using the internet also gets
connected to the main server present this room via an internet room.

It mainly consists of the servers that are providing the different services. The main
servers of this room are:-
 IVRS is used for the change number services provided by the exchange.

CERS are provided by the exchange to avoid the problems that the users are facing
the repairing of telephone. In this system when the user enters it’s complained it
gets directly entered to the server and user is allotted with an id number.

LOCAL DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is another services provided by the exchange,

by using this; subscribers calls the particular number and gets the directory enquiry.
The server present in the main computer room provides this service.

INTERNET DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is the latest service by the exchange. In

this type of service makes it enquiry using the internet, which gets connected to the
main server at the internet room in the exchange and further to the main server in
the computer room.

(1) INTERNSHIP PROGRAM

STARTING DATE: 29/05/2023

ENDING DATE: 23/06/2023

TRAINING ATTENDED: Telecommunication

(1) TRAINING PROGRAM

WEEK 1: Introduction of Telecommunication

WEEK 2: Introduction of GSM & its working

WEEK 3: Introduction of OFC & its working

WEEK 4: Introduction of Digital SPI Switching System & its working

CHAPTER 2
Global System for Mobile communication
(2.1) THE GSM NETWORK
(2.1.1) DEFINITION
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications: originally from Group Special Mobile) is the
most popular standard for mobile phones in the world. Its promoter, the GSM Association,
estimates that 80% of the global mobile market uses this standard. GSM is used by over 3 billion
people across more than 212 countries and territories. Its ubiquity makes
international roaming very common between mobile phone operators, enabling subscribers to use
their phones in many parts of the world. GSM differs from its predecessors in that both signaling
and speech channels are digital, and thus is considered a second generation (2G) mobile phone
system. This has also meant that data communication was easy to build into the system.

The usability of the GSM standard has been an advantage to both consumers (who benefit
from the ability to roam and switch carriers without switching phones) and also to network
operators (who can choose equipment from any of the many vendors implementing GSM). GSM
also pioneered a low-cost (to the network carrier) alternative to voice calls, the Short message
service (SMS, also called "text messaging"), which is now supported on other mobile standards
as well. Another advantage is that the standard includes one worldwide Emergency telephone
number, 112. This makes it easier for international travelers to connect to emergency services
without knowing the local emergency number.

Newer versions of the standard were backward-compatible with the original GSM
phones. For example, Release '97 of the standard added packet data capabilities, by means
of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). Release '99 introduced higher speed data transmission
using Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).

The first GSM network was launched in 1991 by Radiolinja in Finland with joint
technical infrastructure maintenance from Ericsson. By the end of 1993, over a million
subscribers were using GSM phone networks being operated by 70 carriers across 48 countries.

(1) TECHNICAL DETAILS:

GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells
in the immediate vicinity.

There are five different cell sizes in a GSM network—macro, micro, pico, femto and
umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell varies according to the implementation
environment. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a
mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is
under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Pico cells are small cells
whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors. Femtocells are
cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect to the service
provider’s network via a broadband internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover
shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.

Cell horizontal radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and propagation
conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers. The longest distance
the GSM specification supports in practical use is 35 kilometers (22 mi). There are also several
implementations of the concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or
even more, depending on the antenna system, the type of terrain and the timing advance.

Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and may be achieved by using an indoor Pico
cell base station, or an indoor repeater with distributed indoor antennas fed through power
splitters, to deliver the radio signals from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed
antenna system. These are typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors; for
example, in shopping centers or airports. However, this is not a prerequisite, since indoor
coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of the radio signals from any nearby cell.

The modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of

continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated onto the carrier
is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed to a frequency modulator,
which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring channels (adjacent channel interference).
 FIG (2.1) GSM world coverage as of 2008
(1) INTERFERENCE WITH AUDIO DEVICES:

Some audio devices are susceptible to radio frequency interference (RFI), which could be
mitigated or eliminated by use of additional shielding and/or bypass capacitors in these audio
devices. However, the increased cost of doing so is difficult for a designer to justify.

It is a common occurrence for a nearby GSM handset to induce an audio output on PAs,
wireless microphones, home stereo systems, televisions, computers, cordless phones, and
personal music devices. When these audio devices are in the near field of the GSM handset, the
radio signal is strong enough that the solid state amplifiers in the audio chain act as a detector.
The clicking noise itself represents the power bursts that carry the TDMA signal. These signals
have been known to interfere with other electronic devices, such as car stereos and portable
audio players. This also depends on the handset's design, and its conformance to strict rules and
regulations allocated by the US body, the FCC, in part 15 of its rules and regulations pertaining
to interference with electronic devices.
(2) GSM FREQUENCIES:

GSM networks operate in a number of different frequency ranges (separated into GSM
frequency ranges for 2G and UMTS frequency bands for 3G). Most 2G GSM networks operate
in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. Some countries in the Americas (including Canada and the
United States) use the 850 MHz and 1900 MHz bands because the 900 and 1800 MHz frequency
bands were already allocated. Most 3G GSM networks in Europe operate in the 2100 MHz
frequency band.

The rarer 400 and 450 MHz frequency bands are assigned in some countries where these
frequencies were previously used for first-generation systems.

GSM-900 uses 890–915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the base
station (uplink) and 935–960 MHz for the other direction (downlink), providing 125 RF channels
(channel numbers 0 to 124) spaced at 200 kHz. Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used.

In some countries the GSM-900 band has been extended to cover a larger frequency
range. This 'extended GSM', E-GSM, uses 880–915 MHz (uplink) and 925–960 MHz
(downlink), adding 50 channels (channel numbers 975 to 1023 and 0) to the original GSM-900
band. Time division multiplexing is used to allow eight full-rate or sixteen half-rate speech
channels per radio frequency channel. There are eight radio timeslots (giving eight burst periods)
grouped into what is called a TDMA frame. Half rate channels use alternate frames in the same
timeslot. The channel data rate for all 8 channels is 270.833 kbit/s, and the frame duration is
4.615 ms.The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in
GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.

There are fourteen bands defined:

TABLE (2.1)
 System Band Uplink (MHz) Downlink (MHz) Channel number

T-GSM-380 380 380.2–389.8 390.2–399.8 dynamic

T-GSM-410 410 410.2–419.8 420.2–429.8 dynamic

GSM-450 450 450.4–457.6 460.4–467.6 259–293

GSM-480 480 478.8–486.0 488.8–496.0 306–340

GSM-710 710 698.0–716.0 728.0–746.0 dynamic

GSM-750 750 747.0–762.0 777.0–792.0 438–511

T-GSM-810 810 806.0–821.0 851.0–866.0 dynamic

GSM-850 850 824.0–849.0 869.0–894.0 128–251

P-GSM-900 900 890.0–915.0 935.0–960.0 1–124

E-GSM-900 900 880.0–915.0 925.0–960.0 975–1023, 0-124

R-GSM-900 900 876.0–915.0 921.0–960.0 955–1023, 0-124

T-GSM-900 900 870.4–876.0 915.4–921.0 dynamic

DCS-1800 1800 1710.0–1785.0 1805.0–1880.0 512–885

PCS-1900 1900 1850.0–1910.0 1930.0–1990.0 512–810

Abbreviations used in previous figure:

· P-GSM, Standard or Primary GSM-900 Band

· E-GSM, Extended GSM-900 Band (includes Standard GSM-900 band)
· R-GSM, Railways GSM-900 Band (includes Standard and Extended GSM-900 band)
· T-GSM, TETRA-GSM

(1) GSM NETWORK STRUCTURE

Every telephone network needs a well-designed structure in order to route incoming called to the
correct exchange and finally to the called subscriber. In a mobile network, this structure is of
great importance because of the mobility of all its subscribers [1-4]. In the GSM system, the
network is divided into the following partitioned areas.
 · GSM service area;
· PLMN service area;
· MSC service area;
· Location area;
· Cells.

The GSM service is the total area served by the combination of all member countries
where a mobile can be serviced. The next level is the PLMN service area. There can be several
within a country, based on its size. The links between a GSM/PLMN network and other PSTN,
ISDN, or PLMN network will be on the level of international or national transit exchange. All
incoming calls for a GSM/PLMN network will be routed to a gateway MSC.

A gateway MSC works as an incoming transit exchange for the GSM/PLMN. In a

GSM/PLMN network, all mobile-terminated calls will be routed to a gateway MSC. Call
connections between PLMNs, or to fixed networks, must be routed through certain designated
MSCs called a gateway MSC. The gateway MSC contains the networking functions to make
these connections. They also route incoming calls to the proper MSC within the network. The
next level of division is the MSC/VLR service area. In one PLMN there can be several
MSC/VLR service areas. MSC/VLR is a role controller of calls within its jurisdiction. In order to
route a call to a mobile subscriber, the path through links to the MSC in the MSC area where the
subscriber is currently located. The mobile location can be uniquely identified since the MS is
registered in a VLR, which is generally associated with an MSC.

The next division level is that of the LA’s within a MSC/VLR combination. There are
several LA’s within one MSc/VLR combination. A LA is a part of the MSC/VLR service area in
which a MS may move freely without updating location information to the MSC/VLR exchange
that control the LA.

FIG (2.2) STRUCTURE OF A GSM NETWORK

 Lastly, a LA is divided into many cells. A cell is an identity served by one BTS. The MS
distinguishes between cells using the Base Station Identification code (BSIC) that the cell site
broadcast over the air.

(2.2)BLOCK DIAGRAM:
FIG (2.3)
 CHAPTER 3
GSM NETWORK ELEMENTS:
(3.1) NETWORK SWITCHING SUBSYSTEM:

Network switching subsystem (NSS) is the component of a GSM system that carries out
switching functions and manages the communications between mobile phones and the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). It is owned and deployed by mobile phone operators and
allows mobile phones to communicate with each other and telephones in the
wider telecommunications network.

The architecture closely resembles a telephone exchange, but there are additional
functions which are needed because the phones are not fixed in one location. Each of these
functions handle different aspects of mobility management and are described in more detail
below.

The Network Switching Subsystem, also referred to as the GSM core network, usually
refers to the circuit-switched core network, used for traditional GSM services such as voice
calls, SMS, and circuit switched data calls.
 There is also an overlay architecture on the GSM core network to provide packet-
switched data services and is known as the GPRS core network. This allows mobile phones to
have access to services such as WAP, MMS, and Internet access.

All mobile phones manufactured today have both circuit and packet based services, so
most operators have a GPRS network in addition to the standard GSM core network.

(3.2) MOBILE SWITCING CENTRE:

The mobile switching center (MSC) is the primary service delivery node for GSM, responsible
for handling voice calls and SMS as well as other services (such as conference calls, FAX and
circuit switched data). The MSC sets up and releases the end-to-end connection, handles
mobility and hand-over requirements during the call and takes care of charging and real time pre-
paid account monitoring.

In the GSM mobile phone system, in contrast with earlier analogue services, fax and data
information is sent directly digitally encoded to the MSC. Only at the MSC is this re-coded into
an "analogue" signal (although actually this will almost certainly mean sound encoded digitally
as PCM signal in a 64-kbit/s timeslot, known as a DS0 in America).

The gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the
subscriber who is being called is currently located. It also interfaces with the PSTN. All

mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a G-MSC. The term is only
valid in the context of one call since any MSC may provide both the gateway function and the
Visited MSC function; however, some manufacturers design dedicated high capacity MSCs
which do not have any BSSs connected to them. These MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC for
many of the calls they handle.

The visited MSC (V-MSC) is the MSC where a customer is currently located.
The VLR associated with this MSC will have the subscriber's data in it.
(3.3) BASE STATION SUBSYSTEM:

FIG (3.1) GSM transmitter

The base station subsystem (BSS) is the section of a traditional cellular telephone network which
is responsible for handling traffic and signaling between a mobile phone and the network
switching subsystem. The BSS carries out transcoding of speech channels, allocation of radio
channels to mobile phones, paging, quality management of transmission and reception over
the air interface and many other tasks related to the radio network.

(3.4) BASE TRANSCEIVER STATION (BTS):

FIG (3.2) A typical GSM base station

The base transceiver station, or BTS, contains the equipment for transmitting and receiving of
radio signals (transceivers), antennas, and equipment for encrypting and decrypting
communications with the base station controller (BSC). Typically a BTS for anything other than
a Pico cell will have several transceivers (TRXs) which allow it to serve several
different frequencies and different sectors of the cell (in the case of sectorised base stations).

A BTS is controlled by a parent BSC via the base station control function (BCF).The
BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in a TRX in compact base stations.
The BCF provides an operations and maintenance (O&M) connection to the network
management system (NMS), and manages operational states of each TRX, as well as software
handling and alarm collection.

(3.4.1) Functions of BTS:

· As stated, the primary responsibility of the BTS is to transmit and receive radio signals
from a mobile unit over an air interface. To perform this function completely, the signals
are encoded, encrypted, multiplexed, modulated, and then fed to the antenna system at
the cell site. Trans-coding to bring 13-kbps speech to a standard data rate of 16 kbps and
then combining four of these signals to 64 kbps is essentially a part of BTS, though; it
can be done at BSC or at MSC. The voice communication can be either at a full or half
rate over logical speech channel. In order to keep the mobile synchronized, BTS
transmits frequency and time synchronization signals over frequency correction channel
(FCCH and

BCCH logical channels).The received signal from the mobile is decoded, decrypted, and
equalized for channel impairments.

· Random access detection is made by BTS, which then sends the message to BSC. The
channel subsequent assignment is made by BSC. Timing advance is determined by BTS.
BTS signals the mobile for proper timing adjustment. Uplink radio channel measurement
corresponding to the downlink measurements made by MS has to be made by BTS.
 (3.5) HOME LOCATION REGISTER (HLR):

The home location register (HLR) is a central database that contains details of each mobile
phone subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network. There can be several logical,
and physical, HLRs per public land mobile network(PLMN), though one international mobile
subscriber identity (IMSI)/MSISDN pair can be associated with only one logical HLR (which
can span several physical nodes) at a time.

The HLR stores details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone operator. Each SIM has a
unique identifier called an IMSI which is the primary key to each HLR record.

The next important items of data associated with the SIM are the MSISDNs, which are
the telephone numbers used by mobile phones to make and receive calls. The primary MSISDN
is the number used for making and receiving voice calls and SMS, but it is possible for a SIM to
have other secondary MSISDNs associated with it for fax and data calls. Each MSISDN is also
a primary key to the HLR record. The HLR data is stored for as long as a subscriber remains
with the mobile phone operator.

Examples of other data stored in the HLR against an IMSI record are:
 · GSM services that the subscriber has requested or been given.
· GPRS settings to allow the subscriber to access packet services.
· Current location of subscriber (VLR and serving GPRS/SGSN).
· Calls divert settings applicable for each associated MSISDN.
· The HLR is a system which directly receives and processes MAP transactions and
messages from elements in the GSM network, for example, the location update
messages received as mobile phones roam around.

(3.6) AUTHENTICATION CENTRE (AUC):

The authentication centre (AUC) is a function to authenticate each SIM card that attempts to
connect to the GSM core network (typically when the phone is powered on). Once the
authentication is successful, the HLR is allowed to manage the SIM and services described
above. An encryption key is also generated that is subsequently used to encrypt all wireless
communications (voice, SMS, etc.) between the mobile phone and the GSM core network.

If the authentication fails, then no services are possible from that particular combination of SIM
card and mobile phone operator attempted. There is an additional

form of identification check performed on the serial number of the mobile phone described in the
EIR section below, but this is not relevant to the AUC processing.

Proper implementation of security in and around the AUC is a key part of an operator's strategy
to avoid SIM cloning.

The AUC does not engage directly in the authentication process, but instead generates data
known as triplets for the MSC to use during the procedure. The security of the process depends
upon a shared secret between the AUC and the SIM called the Ki. The Ki is securely burned into
the SIM during manufacture and is also securely replicated onto the AUC. This Ki is never
transmitted between the AUC and SIM, but is combined with the IMSI to produce a
challenge/response for identification purposes and an encryption key called Kc for use in over the
air communications.

(1) VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER (VLR):

The visitor location register is a temporary database of the subscribers who have roamed into the
particular area which it serves. Each base station in the network is served by exactly one VLR;
hence a subscriber cannot be present in more than one VLR at a time.

The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or collected from the MS. In
practice, for performance reasons, most vendors integrate the VLR directly to the V-MSC and,
where this is not done, the VLR is very tightly linked with the MSC via a proprietary interface.

Data stored include:

· IMSI (the subscriber's identity number).

The EIR is a database that contains information about the identity of mobile equipment that
prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobile stations. The AUC and EIR are
implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a combined AUC/EIR node.

(3.7) MOBILE STATION:

The MS includes radio equipment and the man machine interface (MMI) that a subscribe needs
in order to access the services provided by the GSM PLMN. MS can be installed in Vehicles or
can be portable or handheld stations. The MS may include provisions for data communication as
well as voice. A mobile transmits and receives message to and from the GSM system over the air
interface to establish and continue connections through the system.

Different type of MSs can provide different type of data interfaces. To provide a common model
for describing these different MS configuration, ”reference configuration” for MS, similar to
those defined for ISDN land stations, has been defined.

Each MS is identified by an IMEI that is permanently stored in the mobile unit. Upon request,
the MS sends this number over the signaling channel to the MSC. The IMEI can be used to
identify mobile units that are reported stolen or operating incorrectly.

Just as the IMEI identities the mobile equipment, other numbers are used to identity the mobile
subscriber. Different subscriber identities are used in different phases of call setup. The Mobile
Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN) is the number that the calling party dials in order to reach
the subscriber. It is used by the land network to route calls toward an appropriate MSC. The
international mobile subscribe identity (IMSI) is the primary function of the subscriber within
the mobile network and is permanently assigned to him. The GSM system can also assign a
Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI) to identity a mobile. This number can be
periodically changed by the system and protect the subscriber from being identified by those
attempting to monitor the radio channel.

Base Transceiver Station

 Hand-held

FIG(3.3)

CHAPTER 4
MULTIPLE ACCESS METHOD.

(4.1) TYPES OF MULTIPLE ACCESSES

 (a) Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
FDMA is a multiple access method in which users are assigned specific frequency bands. The
user has sole right of using the frequency band for the entire call duration.

Frequency
 Time

FIG(4.1)

(b) Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In TDMA an assigned frequency band shared among a few users. However, each user is
allowed to transmit in predetermined time slots. Hence, channelization of user is achieved
through separation in time.

Frequency

Time
 FIG(4.1)

(b) Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

CDMA is a method in which users occupy the same time and frequency allocations, and
are channelized by unique assigned codes. The signals are separated at the receiver by
using a correlator that accepts only signal energy from the desired channel. Undesired
signals contribute only to the noise.
 Frequency

Time

FIG(4.1)

(4.2) CDMA Channels

· Forward Link Channels:

➢ Pilot Channel
➢ Sync Channel
➢ Paging Channels
➢ Traffic Channels

· Reverse Link Channels:

 ➢ Access Channels
➢ Traffic Channels

· Pilot channel (W0):

➢ The pilot is used by the subscriber unit to obtain initial system acquisition and to
distinguish cell sites. Every sector of every cell site has a unique pilot channel.
➢ Transmitted constantly.
➢ Allows the mobile to acquire the system.
➢ Provides mobile with signal strength comparison.
➢ Approximately 20% of the radiated power is in the pilot.
➢ Has unique PN Offset (215 ) for each cell or sector.

· Sync channel (W32):

Used during system synchronization stage. Sync channel provides the subs unit with network
information related to cell site identification, pilot transmit power & cell site PN offset. It is used
by mobile to synchronize with the system.

Transmits sync message with

➢ Pilot PN offset
➢ System time
➢ System ID
➢ Network ID

· Paging Channel (W1-W7):

On this channel base station can page the subscriber unit and it can send call set-up and traffic
channel assignment information.
 Paging channel data Rates can be 2.4,4.8 or 9.6 Kbps.CDMA assignment has maximum 7
paging channels.

Provides mobile with

➢ System Parameter message

➢ Neighbour list
➢ Access Parameter list
➢ CDMA Channel list
➢

· Traffic Channels ( W8-W31 & W33-W63):

The traffic chl carries the actual call. That is, the voice and control information between the subs
unit & base station.

Transmitts upto 9.6kbps on rate set 1 and upto 14.4kbps on rate set 2.

· Access Channel
 Provides communication from Mobile to base station when mobile is not using traffic channel.
The access channel is used for call origination & for response to pages, orders & registration
requests. It is paired with corresponding paging channel.

(1) HAND-OFF TECHNIQUE:

In cellular telecommunications, the term handoff refers to the process of transferring an ongoing
call or data session from one channel connected to the core network to another. In satellite
communications it is the process of transferring satellite control responsibility from one earth
station to another without loss or interruption of service. The British English term for
transferring a cellular call is handover, which is the terminology, standardized by 3GPP within
such European originated technologies as GSM and UMTS.

In telecommunications there may be different reasons why a handoff (handover) might be

conducted:

· when the phone is moving away from the area covered by one cell and entering the area
covered by another cell the call is transferred to the second cell in order to avoid call
termination when the phone gets outside the range of the first cell;\

· when the capacity for connecting new calls of a given cell is used up and an existing or
new call from a phone, which is located in an area overlapped by another cell, is
transferred to that cell in order to free-up some capacity in the first cell for other users,
who can only be connected to that cell;
· in non-CDMA networks when the channel used by the phone becomes interfered by
another phone using the same channel in a different cell, the call is transferred

To a different channel in the same cell or to a different channel in another cell in order to
avoid the interference;

· again in non-CDMA networks when the user behavior changes, e.g. when a fast-
travelling user, connected to a large, umbrella-type of cell, stops then the call may be
transferred to a smaller macro cell or even to a micro cell in order to free capacity on the
 umbrella cell for other fast-travelling users and to reduce the potential interference to
other cells or users (this works in reverse too, when a user is detected to be moving faster
than a certain threshold, the call can be transferred to a larger umbrella-type of cell in
order to minimize the frequency of the handoffs due to this movement);

· In CDMA networks a soft handoff may be induced in order to reduce the interference to
a smaller neighboring cell due to the "near-far" effect even when the phone still has an
excellent connection to its current cell.

· The most basic form of handoff (handover) is when a phone call in progress is redirected
from its current cell (called source) and its used channel in that cell to a new cell
(called target) and a new channel. In terrestrial networks the source and the target cells
may be served from two different cell sites or from one and the same cell site (in the
latter case the two cells are usually referred to as two sectors on that cell site). Such a
handoff, in which the source and the target are different cells (even if they are on the
same cell site), is called inter-cell handoff. The purpose of inter-cell handoff is to
 maintain the call as the subscriber is moving out of the area covered by the source cell
and entering the area of the target cell.

· A special case is possible, in which the source and the target are one and the same cell
and only the used channel is changed during the handoff. Such a handoff, in which the
cell is not changed, is called intra-cell handoff. The purpose of intra-cell handoff is to
change one channel, which may be interfered or fading with a new clearer or less fading
channel
 CHAPTER 5
FIBER- OPTIC COMMUNICATION
(5.1) INTRODUCTION:

Fiber-optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to another by

sending pulses of light through an optical fiber. The light forms an electromagnetic carrier
wave that is modulated to carry information. First developed in the 1970s, fiber-optic
communication systems have revolutionized the telecommunications industry and have played a
major role in the advent of the Information Age. Because of its advantages over electrical
transmission, optical fibers have largely replaced copper wire communications in core networks
in the developed world.

The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic steps:
Creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, relaying the signal along the fiber,
ensuring that the signal does not become too distorted or weak, receiving the optical signal, and
converting it into an electrical signal.

Modern fiber-optic communication systems generally include an optical transmitter to

convert an electrical signal into an optical signal to send into the optical fiber, a cable containing
bundles of multiple optical fibers that is routed through underground conduits and buildings,
multiple kinds of amplifiers, and an optical receiver to recover the signal as an electrical signal.
The information transmitted is typically digital information generated by computers, telephone
systems, and cable television companies.

FIG.(5.1)

(5.2) HISTORY
The need for reliable long-distance communication systems has existed since antiquity. Over
time, the sophistication of these systems has gradually improved, from smoke
signals to telegraphs and finally to the first coaxial cable, put into service in 1940. As these
communication systems improved, certain fundamental limitations presented themselves.
Electrical systems were limited by their small repeater spacing (the distance a signal can
propagate before attenuation requires the signal to be amplified), and the bit rate of microwave
systems was limited by their carrier frequency. In the second half of the twentieth century, it was
realized that an optical carrier of information would have a significant advantage over the
existing electrical and microwave carrier signals.

(5.3) OPTICAL FIBRE:

An optical fiber consists of a core, cladding, and a buffer (a protective outer coating), in which
the cladding guides the light along the core by using the method of total internal reflection. The
core and the cladding (which has a lower-refractive-index) are usually made of high-
quality silica glass, although they can both be made of plastic as well. Connecting two optical
fibers is done by fusion splicing or mechanical splicing and requires special skills and
interconnection technology due to the microscopic precision required to align the fiber cores.

Two main types of optical fiber used in fiber optic communications include multi-mode
optical fibers and single-mode optical fiber. A multi-mode optical fiber has a larger core (≥
50 micrometers), allowing less precise, cheaper transmitters and receivers to connect to it as well
as cheaper connectors. However, a multi-mode fiber introduces multimode distortion, which
often limits the bandwidth and length of the link. Furthermore, because of its
higher doping content, multimode fibers are usually expensive and exhibit higher attenuation.
The core of a single-mode fiber is smaller (<10 micrometres) and requires more expensive
components and interconnection methods, but allows much longer, higher-performance links.

In order to package fiber into a commercially-viable product, it is typically protectively-

coated by using ultraviolet (UV), light-cured acrylate polymers, then terminated with optical
fiber connectors, and finally assembled into a cable. After that, it can be laid in the ground and
then run through the walls of a building and deployed aerially in a manner similar to copper
cables. These fibers require less maintenance than common copper cables, once they are
deployed
 FIG.(5.1) A Cable reel trailer with optical
(5.4) REGENERATION:

When a communications link must span a larger distance than existing fiber-optic technology is
capable of, the signal must be regenerated at intermediate points in the link by repeaters.
Repeaters add substantial cost to a communication system, and so system designers attempt to
minimize their use.

Recent advances in fiber and optical communications technology have reduced signal
degradation so far that regeneration of the optical signal is only needed over distances of
hundreds of kilometers. This has greatly reduced the cost of optical networking, particularly over
undersea spans where the cost and reliability of repeaters is one of the key factors determining
the performance of the whole cable system. The main advances contributing to these
performance improvements are dispersion management, which seeks to balance the effects of
dispersion against non-linearity; and solitons, which use nonlinear effects in the fiber to enable
dispersion-free propagation over long distances.

(5.5) COMPARISON WITH ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION:

The choice between optical fiber and electrical (or copper) transmission for a particular system is
made based on a number of trades-offs. Optical fiber is generally chosen for systems requiring
higher bandwidth or spanning longer distances than electrical cabling can accommodate. The
main benefits of fiber are its exceptionally low loss, allowing long distances between amplifiers
or repeaters; and its inherently high data-carrying capacity, such that thousands of electrical links
would be required to replace a single high bandwidth fiber cable. Another benefit of fibers is that
even when run alongside each other for long distances, fiber cables experience effectively
no crosstalk, in contrast to some types of electrical transmission lines. Fiber can be installed in
areas with high electromagnetic interference (EMI), (along the sides of utility lines, power-
carrying lines, and railroad tracks). All-dielectric cables are also ideal for areas of high lightning-
strike incidence.

For comparison, while single-line, voice-grade copper systems longer than a couple of
kilometers require in-line signal repeaters for satisfactory performance; it is not unusual for
optical systems to go over 100 kilometers (60 miles), with no active or passive processing.
Single-mode fiber cables are commonly available in 12 km lengths, minimizing the number of
splices required over a long cable run. Multi-mode fiber is available in lengths up to 4 km,
although industrial standards only mandate 2 km unbroken runs.

In short distance and relatively low bandwidth applications, electrical transmission is often
preferred because of its:

➢ Lower material cost, where large quantities are not required

➢ Lower cost of transmitters and receivers
➢ Capability to carry electrical power as well as signals (in specially-designed
cables)
➢ Ease of operating transducers in linear mode.
➢ Optical Fibers are more difficult and expensive to splice.
➢ At higher optical powers, Optical Fibers are susceptible to fiber fuse wherein
a bit too much light meeting with an imperfection can destroy several meters per
second. The installation of fiber fuse detection circuitry at the transmitter can
break the circuit and halt the failure to minimize damage.
 Because of these benefits of electrical transmission, optical communication is not common in
short box-to-box, backplane, or chip-to-chip applications; however, optical systems on those
scales have been demonstrated in the laboratory.

In certain situations fiber may be used even for short distance or low bandwidth applications,
due to other important features:

➢ Immunity to electromagnetic interference, including nuclear electromagnetic

pulses (although fiber can be damaged by alpha and beta radiation).
➢ High electrical resistance, making it safe to use near high-voltage equipment or
between areas with different earth potentials.
➢ Lighter weight—important, for example, in aircraft.
➢ No sparks—important in flammable or explosive gas environments.
➢ Not electromagnetically radiating, and difficult to tap without disrupting the
signal—important in high-security environments.
➢ Much smaller cable size—important where pathway is limited, such as
networking an existing building, where smaller channels can be drilled and space
can be saved in existing cable ducts and trays.

Optical fiber cables can be installed in buildings with the same equipment that is used to
install copper and coaxial cables, with some modifications due to the small size and limited pull
tension and bend radius of optical cables. Optical cables can typically be installed in duct
systems in spans of 6000 meters or more depending on the duct's condition, layout of the duct
system, and installation technique. Longer cables can be coiled at an intermediate point and
pulled farther into the duct system as necessary.
 CHAPTER 6
OFC LOSS DETECTION:

(6.1) OPTICAL TIME-DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER:

 FIG(6.1)
An optical time-domain reflectometer (OTDR) is an optoelectronic instrument used to
characterize an optical fiber. An OTDR injects a series of optical pulses into the fiber under test.
It also extracts, from the same end of the fiber, light that is scattered and reflected back from
points in the fiber where the index of reflection changes. (This is equivalent to the way that an
electronic time domain reflectometer measures reflections caused by changes in
the impedance of the cable under test.) The strength of the return pulses is measured and
integrated as a function of time, and is plotted as a function of fiber length.

An OTDR may be used for estimating the fiber's length and overall attenuation,
including splice and mated-connector losses. It may also be used to locate faults, such as breaks,
and to measure optical return loss.

OTDRs are commonly used to characterize the loss and length of fibers as they go from
initial manufacture, though to cabling, warehousing while wound on a drum, installation and
then splicing. The last application of installation testing is more challenging, since this can be
over extremely long distances, or multiple splices spaced at short distances, or fibers with
different optical characteristics joined together. OTDR test results are often carefully stored in
 case of later fiber failure or warranty claims. Fiber failures can be very expensive, both in terms
of the direct cost of repair, and consequential loss of service.

OTDRs are available with a variety of fiber types and wavelengths, to match common
applications. In general, OTDR testing at longer wavelengths such as 1550 nm or 1625 nm, can
be used to identify fiber attenuation caused by fiber problems, as opposed to the more common
splice or connector losses.

A longer laser pulse improves dynamic range and attenuation measurement resolution at
the expense of distance resolution. For example, using a long pulse length, it may possible to
measure attenuation over a distance of more than 100 km, however in this case an optical event
may appear to be over 1 km long. This scenario is useful for overall characterization of a link,
but would be of much less use when trying to locate faults. A short pulse length will improve
distance resolution of optical events, but will also reduce measuring range and attenuation
measurement resolution. The "apparent measurement

Length" of an optical event is referred to as the "dead zone". The theoretical interaction of pulse
width and dead zone can be summarized as follows:

TABLE (6.1)

Pulse length Event Dead zone

1 nsec 0.15 m ( theoretically )

10 nsec 1.5 m ( theoretically )

100 nsec 15 m

1 µsec 150 m

10 µsec 1.5 km

100 µsec 15 km
 When an OTDR is used to measure the attenuation of multiple joined fiber lengths, the
output trace can incorrectly show a joint as having gain, instead of loss. The reason for this is
that adjacent fibers may have different backscatter coefficients, so the second fiber reflects more
light than the first fiber, with the same amount of light travelling through it. If the OTDR is
placed at the other end of this same fiber pair, it will measure an abnormally high loss at that
joint. However if the two signals are then combined, the correct loss will be obtained. For this
reason, it is common OTDR practice to measure and combine the loss from both ends of a link,
so that the loss of cable joints, and end to end loss, can be more accurately measured.

The theoretical distance measuring accuracy of an OTDR is extremely good, since it is

based on software and a crystal clock with an inherent accuracy of better than 0.01%. This aspect
does not need subsequent calibration since practical cable length measuring accuracy is typically
limited to about 1% due to: The cable length is not the same as the fiber length, the speed of light
in the fiber is known with limited accuracy, and cable length markers have limited accuracy
(0.5% - 1%).

CHAPTER 7

DIGITAL SPC SWITCHING SYSTEM

(7.1)Digital Electronic SPC Switching Concept

(7.1.1) Introduction :

Telecommunication Networks Are Constantly Changing. The Rapid Growth Of The Digital
Network, Mobile Network And Intelligent Network And The Proliferation Of New Services
Being Constantly Offered To Subscriber Means That Equipment Must Be Continuously Adapted
To New Requirements. All The New Switching Systems Are Based On Stored Program Control
Concept. The Call Processing Programmes Are Distributed Over Different Control Organs Of
The System And Are Stored In Rom/Ram Of The Units Processor In The Control Units By
Using The Programme And Data Stored In Unit Rom/Ram Process And Handle Calls. Handling
Or Processing A Call Means To Ultimately Establish A Connection In Between Incoming And
Outgoing Ends. Depending On The System The Name And Architecture Of Control Units And
Switch May Change But Basic Criterion For Switching More Or Less Remains Same.
The Alcatel 1000E10 Exchange Also Known By Its Other Name Ocb283 Is Designed To Cater
For Evolving Networks And The Need To Rationalize Equipment Operation. Its Modular
Architecture Means That New Services Can Be Added And Processing Capacity Can Be
Increased Without Interrupting Operation Of The Exchange. Ocb 283 Is A Digital Switching
System Which Supports A Variety Of Communication Needs Like Basic Telephony, Isdn,
Interface To Mobile Communication, Data Communication Etc. This System Has Been
Developed By Alcatel Of France And Therefore Has Many Similarities To Its Predecessor E-10.
The First Ocb283 Exchange Of R11 Version Came To India In 1993. At Present R23 And R24
Are Also Being Supplied. The Basic Architecture Remaining Same, More Facilities To
Subscriber And Administration Are Supported By Later Versions.
 All new technology switching systems are based on Stored Programme Control concept. The
call processing programmes are distributed over different control organs of the system and
are stored in ROM/RAM of the units. Data required to handle the calls are also managed in
the RAMs of different control units. Processor in the control units by using the programme
and data stored in unit ROM/RAM process and handle calls. Handling or processing a call
means to ultimately establish a connection in a switch between I/C and O/G ends. Depending
on the system the name and architecture of control units and switch may change but basic
criterion for switching remains more or less the same.

(7.2) OVERVIEW OF OCB – 283 DIGITAL ELECTRONIC SYSTE M

(1) Introduction :
 OCB-283 is digital switching system which supports a variety of communication needs like
basic telephony, ISDN, internet to mobile communication, data communication etc. This
system has been developed by ALCATEL of France and therefore has many similarities to its
predecessor E-10 B (also shown as OCB 181 in France).

The first OCB-283 exchanges of R 11 version were commissioned in Brest (Frame and
Beijing (china) in 1991. The first OCB-283 exchange came to India in 1993.
Subsequently, the system has been upgraded and current version R-20 was fully
validated in January 1994. The exchanges which are being supplied to India belong to R-
20 version. AT present, R21 and R22 versions are also being supplied. The basic
architecture remaining same, more facilities both to subscribers and administration are
supported by later versions.

(2) Salient Features of the system.

(i) It is a digital switching system with single ‘T’ stage Switch. A maximum of
2048 PCMs can be connected.
(ii) It supports both analogue and digital subscribers.
(iii) The system supports all the existing singalling systems, like decadic, MF
(R2), CAS and also CCITT#7 signalling system.
(iv) It provides telephony, ISDN, Data communication, cellular radio and other
value added services.
(v) The system has ‘automatic recovery’ feature. When a serious fault occurs in a
control unit, it gives a message to SMM (O & M Unit). The SMM puts this
unit out of service, loads the software of this unit in a back up unit and brings
it into service. Diagnostic programmes are run on the faulty unit and the
diagnostics is printed on a terminal.
(vi) OCB-283 has a double remoting facility. Subscribers access unit CSND can
be placed at a remote place and connected to the main exchange through PCM
links. Further, line concentrators can also be placed at a remote location and
connected to the CSNL or CSND through PCMs. This special feature can
meet entire range of necessities viz. urban, semi-urban and rural.
(vii) Various units of OCB-283 system are connected over token rings (IEE 802.5
standard). This enables fast exchange of information and avoids complicated
links and wiring between various units.
(viii) The charge accounts of subscribers are automatically saved in the disc, once
in a day. This avoids loss of revenue in case of total power supply/battery
failure.
(ix) The traffic handling capacity of the system is huge. It can handle 8,00,000
BHCA and 25,000 erlangs of traffic. Depending on the traffic, a maximum of
2,00,000 subscriber or 60,000 circuits (or trade off between these two) can be
connected.
(x) The exchange can be managed either locally or from an NMC through 64
Kb/S link.
(xi) All the control units are implemented on the same type of hardware. This is
called a station. Depending on the requirement of processing capacity,
software of either one or several control units can be located on the same
station. For all these control units, only one backup station is provided,
enabling ‘automatic recovery’ in case of fault.
(xii) The OCB-283 system is made up of only 35 types of cards. This excludes the
cards required for CSN . Because of this, the number of spare cards to be kept
for maintenance, are drastically reduced.
(xiii) The system has modular structure. The expansion can be very easily carried
out by adding necessary hardware and software.
(xiv) The SMMs (O&M Units) are duplicated with one active and other hot
standby. In case of faults, switch over takes place automatically. Moreover, as
discs are connected to both SMMS. There is no necessity of changing cables
from one system to another.
(xv) The hard disc is very small in size, compact and maintenance free. It has a
very huge memory capacity of 1.3 Giga bytes. The detail billing data are
regularly saved in the disc itself, from were they can be transferred to mag
tape for processing
 (xvi) The space requirement is very small. No separate room is required for OMC.
(xvii) There is no fixed or rigid rack and suite configuration in the system. It
provided great flexibility and adjustment in the available space.
(xviii) The environment requirements of the system are very flexible. False floor and
ceiling are not essential. Air conditioning requirements are also not stringent.
The system can work at temperatures 5 to 45 o C, though the optimum
temperature is 22 o C.

(1) SUBSCRIBER FACILITIES PROVIDED BY OCB – 283

OCB – 283 provides a large number of subscriber facilities. Some facilities are available
to only digital subscribers and as such they can not be availed by analogue subscribers.
To avail these facilities subscriber number are given special categories by man machine
commands.
(3) Facilities to analogue subscribers:

(i) A line can be made only out going or incoming.

(ii) Immediate hot line facility – The subscriber is connected to another
predetermined subscriber on lifting the handset without dialing any number.
(iii) Delayed hot line facility – When subscriber lifts the handset. Dial Tone is
provided he can dial any number. If he does not dial a number, within a
predetermined time, he is connected to predetermined number.
(iv) Aviated dialing – The subscriber can record a short code and its correspondence
full number in the memory. Later to dial this number, he has to only dial short
code.
(v) Call forwarding – When activating

to the number mentioned by the incoming calls to the subscriber gets transferred
especially very useful for the people who are activating the facility. The facility
is
(vi) Conference between 4 subscribers – The subscriber

conversation, can include two more more subscribers by pressing B while in

dialing their number

(vii) Call waiting indication – When a subscriber is engaged in conversation and an

incoming call, an indication is given in the form of a tone. Hearing this, the
subscriber has option, either to hold the subscriber in conversation and attend the
waiting call or to disconnect this subscriber and attend to the waiting call. In the
former case, he can revert back to the earlier subscriber.
(viii) Automatic call back on busy – If this facility is activated and if the called
subscriber is found busy, the calling subscriber simply replaces the receiver. The
system keeps watch on the called subscriber and when it becomes free, a ring is
given to both the subscribers. On lifting they can talk to each other.
(ix) Priority line – Calls from this line are processed and put through even when the
number of free channels are within a threshould or when the system is operating
in a catastrophic mode.
(x) Malicious call identification – When this category is given to a subscriber, the
number of calling subscriber (to this number) is printed on the terminal.
 (xi) 12 to 16 kHz meter pulses – The system can send 12 or 16 kHz meter pulses on
the subscriber line for the operation of the home meter.
(xii) Battery reversal – The system extends battery reversal when called subscriber
answers. This is useful in case of CCBs.
(xiii) Detailed billing – The system provides detailed bills giving details of date, time
metered units etc.
(xiv) Absent subscriber service – When activated, the incoming calls are diverted to
absent subscriber service for suitable instructions or information.

(1) FACILITIES TO DIGITAL SUBSCRIBERS

Digital subscriber are provided all the facilities available to analogue subscribers. In addition,
they are provided following facilities which are called ISDN services. An ISDN subscriber can
use many electronic devices on its telephone line and can utilise them for 2 or more simultaneous
calls of either.

· VOICE
· DATA
 · VIDEO

The ISDN or Digital Subscriber of OCB-283 can be provided the following types of
connections.

· 2 B + D Line :- 2 Voice Channels of 64 kbps & 1 Data channel for 16 kbps

· 30 B + D Line :- 30 voice channels of 64 kbps & 1 Data channel of 64 kbps

(1) SDN SUBSCRIBERS

 FIG (6.1)

The following is the list of some of the service to Digital subscribers

· It provides 64 Kb/s digital connectivity between two subscribers for data communication.
· The system can provide Group 2, 3 or 4 Facsimile (FAX) services.
· It provides videotext services.
· The system provides display of calling subscriber number on called subscribers
telephone.
· The system also provides the facility for restriction of the display of calling subscriber
number on called subscriber’s terminal. To avail this facility, the subscriber has to be
given a category.
· The system provides the facility of displaying connected number on the calling
subscribers terminal. This is especially useful when called subscriber has activated ‘call
 transfer facility’. The calling subscriber can choose to speak on forwarded number or
disconnect the call.
· The above facility can be restricted byu giving special category to the subscriber.
· Charging advice – The system is capable of providing charging advice either in real time
or at the end of the call.
· User to user signalling – The system permits transfer to mini messages between calling
and called subscribers during call set up and ringing phase.
· Terminal portability during the call – A subscriber (calling subscriber as well as called
subscriber) can unplug terminal, carry it to some other place or room and resume the call
within 3 minutes.
· Listing unanswered calls - The number of calling subscribers, who calls during the
absence of called subscriber, are recorded in called subscriber’s terminal. The called
subscriber can then check up these numbers and call them back if, he so wish.

CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE

GSM is the best technology as compared to other technologies, but as per present scenario and
requirement it should upgrade to 4G (Fourth Generation) for more higher speed and higher
capacity.

Scope of Future Study:-

The market for mobile communications has grown up explosively since the introduction of 3rd
generation of digital system.
4G (Fourth Generation) is the technology for the future. The need for Higher speed, higher
capacity, much more service like multimedia, internet is growing GSM has to upgrade for 4G.
The most important steps involved in the evolution of GSM to increase the data.

Transfer Rate are:

· High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD) – With this technology the data rate of GSM
increased from 9.6kbps to 14.4 kbps.

· General Packet Radio Services (GPRS) – GPRS provides packet switching

· Services in order to provide attractive bearer services for high speed. The highest data
rate can be achieved from GPS will be 21.4 kbps.

· Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution (EDGE) – With the addition of EDGE to
GPRS network, operators can introduce EGPRS which provides 384kbps speed.
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT
 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of

Bachelors of Technology in
Electronics and Communication

By SAKSHI JARYAL(20BEC113)

At place of Industrial Training

BHARAT SANCHAR NIGAM LIMITED

Department of Electronics and Communication engineering,

National Institute of Technology, Hamirpur

November 2022