243 725 1 PB

ATBU, Journal of Science, Technology & Education (JOSTE); Vol.
4 (2), September, 2016 ISSN: 2277-0011
ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION LOSSES IN NIGERIA POWER SECTOR: A SMART GRID APPROACH
By
K.R. Ajao1, A.A. Ogunmokun2 , F. Nangolo3 & E.O. Adebo4

1,2,3
Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering,
University of Namibia
4
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Ilorin, Nigeria
Corresponding Email: kajao@unam.na
ABSTRACT
This paper analyzes factors responsible for losses in electricity transmission in Nigeria and proposed innovative ways for
grid modernization. At 126 kWh per capita, Nigeria is lagging behind many developing countries in terms of grid-based
electricity available for consumption. An estimated 40% of industries and businesses generate their own power supply to
augment the national grid supply. In February 2016, Nigeria reached electricity transmission capacity of 5074 MW which
was still less than the generation capacity at that time. With a target of 20,000 MW transmission capacity by 2021, Nigeria
urgently need to evolve new ways to minimize transmission losses and deliver quality electricity to commercial and
domestic consumers for rapid economic development of the country. Optimizing the functioning and reliability of the
transmission grid can be achieved by improved technology in sensing, communications, metering and control using the
smart grid approach. These dynamics can boost transmission grid efficiency, reliability, capacity utilization and ensure
more rapid response to remediate emergencies.
Keywords: power supply, transmission capacity, generation capacity, losses, reliability, efficiency
INTRODUCTION (ECN) was subsequently established in 1951, while the

Nigeria is the seventh largest country in the first 132KV line was constructed in 1962, linking Ijora
world with approximately 186 million people, the largest Power Station to Ibadan Power Station. However the
of any country in Africa (more than 15% of the entire Niger Dams Authority was merged with ECN in 1972 to
African population) and the Africa’s largest economy. form the National Electric Power Authority (NEPA). The
But, only about 40% the country’s population have law establishing the National Electric Power Authority
access to electricity supply due to inadequate (NEPA) in 1972 specified that it should develop and
investment and re-investment in the power sector, high maintain an efficient, coordinated and economical
operating costs, high energy losses (technical and non- system of electricity supply for all parts of Nigeria. At
technical losses) and lack of expertise in the power the inception of NEPA in 1973, only five of the then
sector (Nnaji, 2011). nineteen Nigerian state capitals were connected to the
In 1929, the Nigeria Electricity Supply Company national transmission grid system. But today, nearly all
began operation as a hydroelectric station in Jos, state capitals are being served from the national grid,
Plateau state. The Electricity Corporation of Nigeria
Ajao, K. R., Ogunmokun, A. A., Nangolo, F. & Adebo, E. O.. Copyright © 2016 JOSTE. All Rights Reserved (www.atbuftejoste.com)
47
ATBU, Journal of Science, Technology & Education (JOSTE); Vol. 4 (2), September, 2016 ISSN: 2277-0011
although this may sometimes be epileptic in nature Electricity Generation and Transmission in Nigeria
(Onochie et al., 2015). There are currently 26 grid-connected
In 1988, the National Electric Power Authority generating plants in operation in the Nigerian Electricity
(NEPA) was partially commercialized, supported by an Supply Industry (NESI), with a total installed capacity of
upward review in tariffs. As part of the restructuring 13,597MW and available capacity of 6,056 MW. Most
effort of the power sector, the Electric Power Sector generation is thermal based, with an installed capacity of
Reform Act 2005 was enacted. Consequently, this led to 8,457.6 MW (81% of the total) and an available capacity
the defunct National Electric Power Authority (NEPA) and of 4,996 MW (83% of the total) (Transaction, 2016).
later known as Power Holding Company of Nigeria Hydropower from three major plants accounts for
(PHCN). The law paved the way for the unbundling of 1,938.4 MW of total installed capacity (and an available
PHCN into the 18 companies; 6 generating companies, 1 capacity of 1,060 MW) (Transaction, 2016). A study by a
transmission Company and 11 distributing companies major engineering firm has estimated that demand for
(Ogagavwodia et al., 2014). electricity in Nigeria will rise from around 33 terawatt
The Nigerian power sector is marked by low hours in 2011 to between 56 and 95 terawatt hours by
generating capacity relative to installed capacity and 2020. This will result in an increase in peak load demand
much of the country's citizens do not have access to from around 5,000 MW in 2011 to between 9,000 MW and
uninterrupted supplies of electricity. At present, 16,000 MW by 2020 (Transaction, 2016).
electricity generation ranges from between 2,500 MW to Installed capacity for electricity generation
about 4500 MW, even with the inclusion of three gas- increased six-fold between 1968 and 1991. Between 1991
powered independent power projects in the Niger Delta and 1999, no new power plants were built and the
region. The estimated national consumption is in excess government substantially under-funded both capital
of 10,000 MW. While the potential demand in the next few projects and routine maintenance operations. Hence,
years is estimated at about 15,000 megawatts (Adetunji increased pressure on existing generation and
& Isa, 2008). inadequate overhauling of the generating stations
The nation is deep-rooted in a serious energy proved to be an albatross as most units began to fail
crisis. The energy delivery infrastructure is absolutely (GENI, 2014). Nigeria has been marked by an unstable and
inadequate to handle the energy demand of the country. epileptic power supply for the past two decades. Power
Moreover, efforts towards considerable expansion in the supply to homes average about 6 hours per day.
quantity of electric power generated are not Electricity is largely supplemented by private producers
simultaneously accompanied by tactical expansion of the such as the use of individual generators powered by
transmission and distribution systems. There has been a fossil fuel for the privileged classes. Over 90% of
consistent drop in power production from the nation’s businesses and companies have private generators,
power sector due to inadequate funding, persistent leading to high production costs. For Nigeria to meet its
economic regression, poor system maintenance energy needs, it requires per capita power capacity of
strategies and constraints of technical reliability (REEEP, 1000 Watts or a power generating/handling capacity of
2014). 140,000 MW compared with the current deliverable
capacity of just over 5,000 MW. Nigeria's development is
severely hampered by this deficiency.
48
Table 2.1: Planned power plants (Source: Wikipedia)

S/N Power plant Type Capacity (MW) Year
1 Kano Power Station Hydro 100 2016
2 Kiri Power Station Hydro 35 2016
3 Mambilla Power Station Hydro 3050 2018
4 Itobe Power Station Coal 1200 2018
5 Azura Thermal Power Station Natural gas 450 2017
6 Proposed nuclear power station Nuclear 6000 2035
In order to boost electricity generation in improve the transmission system if it is to keep pace
Nigeria, Kano and Kiri hydro-electric power stations are with the expected growth in the generation capacity and
set to be completed in the year 2016, Mambilla hydro- consumers’ expectations of improved power supply
electric power project is expected to be completed in (KPMG, 2013).
2018 and these three hydropower plants can add about The appointment of a management and
3185 MW to the national grid in the next two years. Azura technical contractor for the Transmission Company of
power plant (gas) and Itobe (coal) are planned to Nigeria (TCN) seems a step in the right direction. The
generate 450 MW and 1200 MW respectively by 2018 as Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) is a successor
shown in Table 2.1 above. Although still at the planning company of PHCN, following the unbundling of the sector,
stage, Nigeria plans to build four nuclear power plants and is until recently being managed by a Management
with a total generation capacity of 6000 MW by 2035. All Contractor, Manitoba Hydro International (Canada).
these are geared towards the energy security of the Manitoba was responsible for revamping TCN to achieve
country for massive industrial development. technical and financial adequacy in addition to providing
The transmission system is potentially the stable transmission of power without system failure.
weakest link in the entire chain of the Nigeria electricity Currently, the transmission capacity of the Nigerian
network. Inadequate transmission infrastructure has Electricity Transmission system is made up of about
been consistently reported as being responsible for 5,523.8 km of 330 KV lines and 6,801.49 km of 132 KV
stranded capacity that is characteristic of the electricity lines (KPMG, 2013) as shown in Figure 2.1.
grid. Consequently, significant investment is required to
Figure 2.1: Nigeria’s Transmission Line System (Source: (Nnaji, 2011))
49
National Integrated Power Projects Renewable Energy Resources

Nigeria plans to increase electricity generation Nigeria is endowed with abundant fossil,
from fossil fuel sources to more than 20,000 MW by nuclear as well as renewable energy resources. The
2020. The Nigerian government has set several targets fossil type includes crude oil, natural gas, tar sands and
to increase power generation over the past decade, but coal; while the renewable energy resources include
none of these targets have been met. The NIPP was large hydro, small hydro, solar, biomass (fuel wood,
initially established in 2004 by the Nigerian government animal wastes, agricultural residues, energy crops) and
as a plan to construct multiple natural gas-fired power wind. Others are tidal and ocean waves as well as
plants using natural gas that was flared. Although geothermal (Ajao et al., 2009).
progress has been slower than initially expected, some Over the years Nigeria has overly depended on
of the power plants are expected to come online in the deflectable oil and gas, while totally neglecting or paying
short term. According to the August 2013 Roadmap, NIPP little attention to the development of the inexhaustible
projects currently contribute more than 1,000 MW to the renewable energy resources. The annual average of
national grid capacity, and it was expected to reach 4,771 daily solar radiation ranges from 3.5 kWh/m2-day in the
MW in 2015 when all planned units are expected to be coastal belt of the south to 7.0 kWh/m2-day in the
completed and commissioned. A major source of northern arid regions, while the daily sunshine hours has
capacity expansions is expected to come from an annual average of 4 to 9 hours, increasing for south
Independent Power Projects (IPPs). IPPs currently to north.
contribute around 1,674 MW to the national grid capacity, Analysis of the wind pattern in the country at
and capacity from IPPs is expected to grow to between 10m height shows that some sites have wind speed
14,000 MW and 20, 000 MW by 2020, according to the regime between 1.0 to 5.1 m/s and this ranges from a
August 2013 Roadmap (NIPP, 2014). low 1.4 to 3.0 M/S in the southern areas and 4.0 to 5.12
Nigeria also plans to increase hydroelectricity m/s in the extreme north. Preliminary study shows that
generation capacity to 5,690 MW by 2020, quadrupling the total actual exploitable wind energy reserve at 10m
the capacity from the 2012 level. The country plans to height, may vary from 8.0 MWh/year in Yola to 51.0
increase hydroelectricity generation by upgrading MWh/yr in the mountain areas of Jos plateau and is as
current hydroelectric power plants and constructing high as 97.0 MWh/yr in Sokoto (ECN, 2014).
new ones such as: Gurara II (360 MW), Zungeru (700 Table 2.2 depicts the present level of generation and
MW) and Mambilla (3,050 MW). In late 2013, the Nigerian short term, medium term and long term planning for
government announced a $1.3 billion deal with China to renewable energy inclusion in the energy mix.
build the 700 MW Zungeru hydropower project (NIPP,
2014).
50
Table 2.2: Summary of Renewable Energy Supply Target1 Different classes of data for three years
S/N Resource Present Short Medium Long pattern were gathered from Nigerian Electricity
(MW) term term term Regulatory Commission (NERC), Central Bank of Nigeria
(MW) (MW) (MW)
Statistical Bulletin and International Energy Agency
1 Hydro 1938 4,000 9,000 11,250
(LHP) websites. These data were collated, analyzed and
2 Hydro 60.18 100 760 3,500 projected for a future outlook on electricity, generation,
(SHP) consumption, transmission losses and capacity
3 Solar PV 15 300 4,000 30,005 utilization in Nigeria as shown in both Table 3.1 and
4 Solar - 300 2,136 18,127 Figure 3.1 below
thermal
5 Biomass - 5 30 100
6 Wind 10 23 40 50
All renewables 1,985.1 4,628 15,966 63,032
Nigeria’s Electricity Transmission Loss Scenario

About 25% of Nigeria’s 12,522 MW of installed
capacity reaches the end users due majorly to
transmission and distribution losses. Widespread
inefficiency means that only 3,879MW of this capacity is
operational with approx. 3,600MW transmitted and about
3,100MW distributed. Most of the short fall is capacity
that is unavailable due to obsolete equipment and poor
maintenance or to ongoing maintenance and repair
activities at existing power plants. Also, 3,262MW is non-
operational primarily due to gas, water, high frequency,
and line constraints (APT, 2015).
Nigeria’s transmission network consists of 159
substations with a total transformation capacity of about
19,000 MW and approx.12, 350 km of transmission lines.
Currently, transmission capacity (approx. 5,300 MW) is
higher than average operational generation capacity of
3,879MW but it is far below the total installed capacity of
13,597 MW. When operational generation capacity grows
to the same level as transmission capacity, transmission
will become a critical bottleneck to electricity delivery
(APT, 2015).
1
Short term 2013-2015, mid-term 2016-2020, long
term 2021-2030
51
Table 3.1: Nigeria Electricity Generation, Consumption, Transmission losses and Capacity Utilization (2000 – 2013), GWh
Year Generation Industry Residential Commercial Losses % Lost % Utilized Total Consumption
2000 14727 1866 4431 2346 5618 38.1 58.7 8643
2001 15462 1914 4608 2439 5986 38.7 58.0 8961
2002 21545 1764 7715 3298 8086 37.5 59.3 12777
2003 20184 1565 7669 3538 6740 33.4 63.3 12772
2004 24275 1959 9557 4410 7545 31.1 65.6 15926
2005 23539 2119 10302 4754 5580 23.7 73.0 17175
2006 23110 3198 7832 4077 7181 31.1 65.4 15107
2007 22978 4128 10091 5252 2650 11.5 84.7 19471
2008 21110 3502 10240 4574 1989 9.4 86.8 18316
2009 19777 3109 10163 4639 1160 5.9 90.6 17911
2010 26121 3249 11962 5449 4497 17.2 79.1 20660
2011 27034 2581 13568 6180 2581 9.5 82.6 22329
2012 28706 3983 14549 6627 2485 8.7 87.6 25159
2013 28961 3899 13458 6130 4443 15.3 81.1 23487
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Generation Losses Total Consumption
Figure 3.1: Nigeria Electricity Generation, Total Consumption and Total Losses
Then the forecasting of historical data was losses follow a downward trend up to 2017 when it is
carried out to obtain projected values for the future predicted to hit the zero loss level. Transmission losses
using stochastic/extrapolation method as shown in account for the gap between electricity generated and
Figure 3.2 below. Figure 3.2 is the projected values of quantity consumed. The trend shows that higher values
total annual generation, transmission losses and of transmission losses results in lower consumption of
consumption from 2000 to 2030. Total transmission electricity from 2000 to 2007 and lower values of
52
transmission losses results in higher values of electricity consumption between 2007 and 2013.
Actual Generation Actual Losses Trendline (G)
Trendline (L) Actual Consumption Trendline {C}
45000
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
Figure 3.2: Forecasted Values for Generation, Consumption and Total Losses (GWh)
The actual values gave a trend line equation that v. Limited funds for development of projects
has a negative slope, the trend line is used to forecast vi. High technical and non-technical loss
the future trend of transmission losses. It is expected vii. Limited training opportunities
that Nigerians be able to consume up to 99% of viii. Frequent vandalism of transmission
electricity sent out of the national grid by 2017. However, infrastructures
the accuracy of this forecast was calculated and mean These issues make it more difficult to mathematically
absolute percentage error of 42.14% was obtained, this predict the trend of losses in the transmission grid but
is due to wide variation in yearly values of transmission one thing that is certain is that economic development in
losses. Nigeria is strongly linked to the quantity and quality of
The implication of this is that despite the improved electricity available for consumption. For Nigeria to
technical and management efforts of the Transmission develop its gross domestic product, transmission losses
Company of Nigeria (TCN) towards the reduction in must be reduced to the barest minimum so that there
transmission losses, Nigeria cannot achieve zero loss can be maximum utilization of electricity by the
level in 2017 because according to (Labo, 2010), consumers.
electricity transmission losses in the country are
majorly due to the following factors: Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) Recent
i. Radial Lines with no redundancies Challenges
ii. Obsolete substation equipment Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) was
iii. Overloaded transmission lines and sub-stations incorporated in November 2005. The company emerged
iv. Inadequate coverage of infrastructure from the defunct National Electric Power Authority
53
(NEPA) as a product of the merger of the Transmission as shown in Figure 3.3. There are about 150 on-going
and Operations sectors in 2004. TCN is independent but projects for the expansion of facilities including
report to Ministry of Power. Its licensed activities transmission lines, substations, transformers, switch
include: electricity transmission, system operation and gears etc. In February, 2016, TCN successfully evacuated
electricity trading. In 2012, the evacuation capacity of highest generation of 5074 MW, translating to 109,700
TCN was about 2500 MW. The whole country is already MWh with a target of 6000 MW by the end of 2016 and
mapped in terms of strategic transmission line network 20,000 MW by 2021 (TCN, Newsletter, Issue No. 5, 2016).
Figure 3.3: Proposed Super-Grid transmission Network (Source: (Nnaji, 2011))
Some of the most recent problems confronting from the TCN website (TCN, Transmission Company of
the company are depicted in Table 3.2 below as adapted Nigeria):
54
Table 3.2: Recent challenges in TCN

Issues Planned Solution Comments
Low voltage at Kebbi Axis Installation of Automatic Voltage Expected to result in immediate marginal voltage
Regulator on power transformers improvement. Voltage control is currently by manual tap
at Birnin Kebbi Transmission changing which does not sufficiently take care of frequent
Station(T.S.) variation of grid voltage profile in Birnin Kebbi
Capacity Limitation at Power House Load re-arrangement in Kaduna. Present loading arrangement indicates that transformers in
(Kaduna Town) 195MVA is too low for Transmission Station to fully utilize the station are not evenly loaded. 60MVA T2A =86% peak
the 400MW 132MW available capacity at the load, 60MVA T3 = peak 68%, 30MVA T1B =57% Peak Load
Substation and 15MVAT2B= Peak Load 34%
Faulty Metering Infrastructure Status review of metering Bids for the procurement of new grid meters submitted and
CTs/VTs infrastructures in Kaduna to replace evaluation of bids in progress.
defective metering facility
Incomplete transmission substation Reinforcement of 1x40MVA and 1 x The 40MVA Mobile substation is on ground at Zaria T.S and
in Zaria/Samaru 60 MVA 132/33KV Zaria T.S with provision has been made for its installation in 2016 budget.
additional 40MVA mobile substation
Uncompleted 132KV Makeri-Pankshin Completion of construction of To be completed in second quarter of 2016
line and 132/33 KV substation in 132KVMakeri/Pankshin 132kv lines.
Pankshin which was started a decade
ago
Capacity limitation on Reconductory of Alaoji/ Owerri Contract has been awarded for the reconductoring of line 1.
Alaoji/Owerri/Ahoada/Yenego132KV 132kV Line. Opening of Letter of Credit is in progress. Line 2 to be
line. The 132KV DC leg is aged and awarded.
pegged to 120MW.Transformer
T@40MVA at Ahoada is already
overloaded
Capacity limitation Aba/Itu 132KV SC Reconductory of Aba/ Itu line Procurement of more length of conductor to complete the
line. The line is very old and project.
therefore limited to 54MW to aviod
snap. Full Power evacuation is
constrained
Burnt earthing transformer at Afam Replacement of burnt earthing Replacement of faulty earthing transformer completed and
Rivers IPP 1X60MVA, 132/33KV T/S. transformer at Afam Rivers IPP and restored to service.
clean up the two 33KV feeders at
Afam.
330KV Transmission line from Gombe Re-erect tower or improvise link the Erection of the fallen tower has been awarded. Payment of
to Maiduguri through Damaturu line to existing 132KV Line from Biu 15% advance in progress.
designed to improve service delivery to Maiduguri to feed Maiduguri
to Maiduguri through Damaturu
330kV Circuit Breaker 3114 damaged TCN to replace damaged 330KV CB Procurement of 30Nos 330KV switch gears from Original
beyond economic repair on 13 April, with new one. Meanwhile the Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) is in progress.
2013 and requires replacement available Tie Circuit Breaker is used.
55
TCN has successfully restored the Maiduguri- One hundred and twenty-six approved TCN projects
Danboa transmission line supplying electricity to worth about USD1.5 billion are underway to strengthen
distribution load centers in Maiduguri and the suburbs. the transmission network and a further 118 NIPP projects
Nigerians living in the North-Eastern part of the country have been approved. In addition, various external funding
are going through very turbulent times due to activities sources have been made available to finance new
of insurgents. Aside the horrific, unending sporadic projects within the transmission sector. However, much
shootings which have left residents bewildered, funding has yet to be accessed as the number of
destruction of power installations by the group has also bankable projects is low. When completed, these projects
added incessant power outage to the unfortunate could increase grid-wheeling capacity to about 7,200 MW
situation (TCN, Newsletter, Issue No. 1, 2016). and the length of the network to 21,000 km (APT, 2015).
In July 2014, Damboa 132kV substation was attacked and
burnt down by the insurgents cutting off conductors in- SMART GRID APPROACH
between 6 No transmission towers. Although repairs A smart grid refers to electric grid
were carried out on the affected towers, Damboa modernization using improved communication, sensing
substation remained out of service. and control systems to achieve an efficient electricity
Despite these challenges, some of the most recent delivery system. The electric power grid is the backbone
achievements of TCN across the country include (TCN, of the energy supply system and it is critical to the
Newsletter, Issue No. 1, 2016) : functioning of other allied infrastructure. Several
i. Restoration of power supply to Borno state in factors interact with the service life and optimum
the north-east of the country functionality of the grid to impede safe, reliable, and
ii. Installation of Wave Trap on R2A and R1W at efficient operation. Traditional measurement and
Olorunsogo gas station monitoring approaches is a constraint on the ability of
iii. Commissioning of 150MVA 330/132kV utility company to make more effective investments in
Transformer at Ugwuaji transmission station grid infrastructure and generation resources and
iv. Re-strapping of New Haven-Onitsha 330kV and restrict the ability of consumers to make better-
Ugwuaji 330kV line CTs from 800/1A to informed decisions about their energy needs and
1600/1A. consumption. Distinct from those factors is the
v. Replacement of 1No 132kV exploded CT 27 on vulnerability of the grid to other physical threats such as
Alaoji /Aba 132kV Transmission Line at Alaoji targeted physical attacks (NGA, 2014).
transmission station. The growth of the transmission grid can
vi. Re-stringing of Delta/Benin 132KV Line 1 & 2 improve reliability, connect lower-cost power to
from T161-T163. ` customers, and ensure efficient integration of renewable
vii. Completion of Lokoja 330/132/33kV energy resources. Larger balancing areas, multiple
transmission station transmission pathways between resource and load, and
viii. Repair and restringing of collapsed Benin-Delta shorter scheduling windows can all help the grid function
132kV Transmission line tower 512 more efficiently. Increased communication capabilities
ix. Re-energizing of Okpai/Onitsha 330kV line and automation on the local distribution grid will ensure
after anchoring vandalized Tower 62 that utilities are able to quickly respond to outages and
redirect power away from affected lines and make the
56
transition to greater levels of distributed generation x. Identification and lowering of unreasonable or

resources easier (NGA, 2014). unnecessary barriers to adoption of smart grid
The policy statement that support the technologies, practices, and services.
modernization of the electricity transmission and
distribution system to maintain reliable, secure and The Transmission grid carries high-voltage
efficient electricity infrastructure that can adequately electrical energy over wide areas. It is a meshed grid
meet future demand growth and to achieve each of the that interconnects power plants and main consumer
following, which together characterize a smart grid is zones in order to guarantee suitable and redundant
reproduced below (MIT, 2011): energy paths between the electrical energy producer
i. Increased use of digital information and and the distribution grid then to the consumers (Davoli
controls technology to improve reliability, et al., 2012). The sub-transmission grid is an optional
security, and efficiency of the electric grid. high-voltage infrastructure that carries electricity from
ii. Dynamic optimization of grid operations and the transmission grid to the distribution grid or main
resources, with full cyber security. consumers. Different layouts can be used for these
iii. Deployment and integration of distributed networks, e.g., open loop or radial, with different
resources and generation, including renewable characteristics of reliability and redundancy. The
resources. connections among the different grids are made in
iv. Development and incorporation of demand electrical substations. These substations main tasks
response, demand-side resources, and energy concern the conversion among voltage levels, the
efficiency resources. topological configuration of the grids and also the
v. Deployment of real-time, automated, ‘smart’ protection of the electrical system in case of faults
technologies for metering, communications (Davoli et al., 2012).
concerning grid operations and status, and The present day energy distribution networks
distribution automation. were designed for unidirectional energy flow from large
vi. Integration of ‘smart’ appliances and consumer plants to users and are not suitable for a massive
devices. integration of small and medium power renewable
vii. Deployment and integration of advanced energy generation units. In their architecture, the
electricity storage and peak-shaving electric system is almost completely administered by
technologies, including plug-in electric and the system operator that, acting on the generation side,
hybrid electric vehicles, and thermal-storage balances the production with consumption requests in
air-conditioning. real time.
viii. Provision to consumers of timely information A smart grid will allow substantial integration
and control options. of intermittent and unpredictable renewable sources,
ix. Development of standards for communication and distributes power highly efficiently. It is an
and interoperability of appliances and electricity network that uses advanced communication
equipment connected to the electric grid, and control technologies to deliver electricity more
including the infrastructure serving the grid. cost-effectively with active involvement of the
customers. Advanced types of control and management
technologies for the electrical grid can also contribute
57
to a more efficient operational running of the overall common include radio, microwave, power line carrier,
energy supply system. These technologies include and fiber optics. To accommodate the high bandwidth,
devices such as smart electricity meters that show real- latency, and reliability needs of future software
time use of energy and that can respond to remote applications, fiber optics likely will become more
communication, enabling dynamic electricity pricing prominent (MIT, 2011).
related to real production and distribution costs. To Real-time monitoring and display of power
provide high quality energy in this context of increased system components and performance characteristics,
variability and complexity of the electric system across interconnections and over large geographic
requires a suitable control infrastructure based on areas will assist system operators to understand and
more pervasive ICT solutions on the whole electrical optimize power system components, behavior and
supply chain (Davoli et al., 2012; Tchao et al., 2013; UN- performance. Advanced system operation tools avoid
CEB). blackouts and facilitate the integration of variable
renewable energy resources (GRIDNEXT, 2016) as shown
Modern Communication Architecture for Smart in Figure 4.1. Monitoring and control technologies along
Grids with advanced system analytics such as Wide Area
New communications infrastructures and Situation Awareness (WASA), wide-area monitoring
architectures will support power system operations in systems (WAMS), and wide-area adaptive protection,
the future and assist the operators to have better control and automation (WAAPCA) will generate data that
understanding of the network. Many methods of data will inform decision making, reduce wide-area
transmittal are currently being used for various disturbances, and improve transmission capacity and
communication tasks on the power system, the most reliability (GRIDNEXT, 2016; IEA, 2011).
Figure 4.1: The Future of Smarter Electricity System (Source: (IEA, 2011))
The design of communication architectures for describing their internal system and interfaces, in order
smart grids begins by breaking the whole complex to have a clear understanding of the main actors in the
system into simpler and isolated entities, and by system, their characteristics, objectives and the
58
relationships among them. Such a description may take Many standards are already available for
different forms, depending on the main perspective it is exchanging information in smart grids: standards for
addressed to: high-level conceptual models, processes reliable data acquisition and control over TCP/IP
and data flows, communication, information management networks between SCADA masters and substations (IEC
and security, and services (Davoli et al., 2012). 60870-5), Distribution Management System (IEC 61968),
To accept the variable production of new substation automation (IEC 60870, IEC 61850),
renewable generators, the actual transmission grid distributed energy resources (IEC 61850-7-420), head-
control system needs to evolve. In fact, the less end (IEC 61968-9) and cross-domain interaction (IEC
predictable behaviour of the electrical grid needs new 61970, IEC 61968, IEC 61850, ETSI TS 102690) (Davoli et
and more sophisticated control systems with a better al., 2012).
wide area monitoring of the grid i.e. WASA. Synchronous
phasor measurement units (PMUs) can be deployed to TRANSMISSION LINES IMPROVEMENT APPLICATIONS
help develop a much more detailed outlook of the grid’s There are a number of new technologies and
dynamics for the control of the system, as well as a applications currently being used for the improvement of
post-incident analysis. transmission system.
Designing communication facilities in smart
grids will involve dealing with several aspects as Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)
reported by (Davoli et al., 2012): FACTS systems possesses some of the
i. software infrastructures to build distributed fundamental virtues of direct current (DC) of phase
services and applications; independence and fast controllability to AC
ii. syntax and semantics of information exchange; transmission by using electronic controllers. They can
iii. transport of information and networking; provide load flow control and, by virtue of their fast
iv. communication media and technologies. controllability, damping of power swings or prevention
Data abstraction is needed to represent of sub-synchronous resonance (SSR) (Electrical
measures, events and controls of the electrical systems. Engineering Portal, 2012). FACTS systems can perform
Data and services are often represented in the System the following tasks as reported by (SIEMENS, 2012):
Configuration Language (SCL), specified by IEC 61850, i. Voltage control under several load conditions
which enables devices in substations to exchange ii. Balance reactive power and minimize
configuration files and to have complete interoperability. transmission losses
SCL allows the description of device capabilities, system iii. Increase stability of power transmission over
specification, substation configuration, device long distances
configuration and system exchange. A complementary FACTS devices are effective in controlling power
data model is the Common Information Model (CIM), flow and damping power system oscillations. By
adopted by IEC 61970 and IEC 61968. SCL is mostly used controlling power flow on an individual line, power can be
within substations, whilst CIM is largely used in redirected to or from various parts of the power grid.
information exchanges among systems for example, Managing the transmission system effectively using
energy management system, planning, energy markets FACTS will require real-time coordination of the
and metering. controllers to achieve the targeted objectives (McMillin
et al.).
59
FACTS controllers present a good opportunity to Dynamic Line Rating (DLR)

regulate the transmission of alternating current, Line ratings are critical to prevent excessive
increase or diminish the power flow in specific lines and transmission lines drooping, which could cause serious
responding instantaneously to power stability problems. faults or outages if power lines come into contact with
The unique potential of this technology is the possibility vegetation or other obstacles. Static line ratings provide
of controlling the route of the power flow and the ability seasonally dependent, conservative estimates of
of connecting networks that are not sufficiently overhead transmission-line current capacity while,
interconnected, and thereby provide the possibility of Direct Line Rating (DLR) provides real-time data about
trading energy between distant agents (Mohanty & the effects of air temperature, solar radiation, and wind
Barik). speed and direction on the power transmission lines
(U.S. Department of Energy).
High Voltage DC (HVDC)
Electric power transmission was originally High-Temperature Superconductors (HTS)
developed for direct current (DC). The availability of As global electricity demand increases due to
transformers and the development and improvement of economic growth and new taste, more cables and
induction motors at the beginning of the 20th Century conductors will be needed to increase the capacity and
led to the greater appeal for the use of alternating interconnectivity of the transmission and distribution
current (AC) transmission (Straka; Electrical grid to meet the new demands. Development of advanced
Engineering Community). The use high-voltage DC (HVDC) cables and conductors that have lower losses and higher
for power transmission, in conjunction with new current carrying capabilities are expected to reduce
conversion approaches, is of great benefits for both transmission and distribution losses and increase
sourcing options and system end-to-end performance. energy supply to the end users (U.S. Department of
New development in advanced semiconductors and Energy, 2015).
conversion topologies which function effectively in ways High-Temperature Superconductors (HTS) can
not previously possible are the needed catalysts that is transmit 5 to 10 times the electrical current of
making DC-based systems a better and available traditional copper or aluminum cables with significantly
alternative to AC. As a result, HVDC systems are now high efficiency. Superconducting power cable systems
practical for electricity distribution (S. Oliver & VICOR consist of hundreds of strands of superconducting wire
PowerBench, 2012). wrapped around a copper core under a cryogenic
HVDC is gradually becoming a veritable tool in cooling system to maintain proper operating conditions.
the design of future electricity transmission grids. A In densely populated urban settings, many substations
classic HVDC transmission has a power rating of 1,000 often reach capacity limits and require redundant
MW to 3,000 MW range and HVDC systems are capable of transformer capacity to improve reliability. HTS power
transmitting more electrical power over longer cables can improve grid power transmission by tying
distances than a similar alternating current (AC) these existing substations together and avoiding very
transmission system. HVDC transmission is very stable, costly transformer upgrades and additional construction
easily controlled, and can stabilize and interconnect AC costs (Superconductor Technologies, Inc (STI).
power networks that are otherwise incompatible (ABB,
2014).
60
CONCLUSION in real time and enable more power to flow over existing
The Nigerian power sector is presently plagued lines.
with structural issues such as low generation, incessant The ability to effectively manage load with
disruption to gas supply, transmission and distribution existing transmission and distribution infrastructure will
losses and vandalism of power transmission ensure that TCN could at least defer new investment in
infrastructure. The electricity sector has evolved over infrastructure to much later. Increased adoption of
the years; from an initial installed capacity of less than renewable energy resources will require
2000 MW in 1968 to the current capacity of about 13, 579 interconnection rules, communications technologies
MW serving approx. 186 million people. In February 2016, standards, advanced distribution and reliability
Nigeria reached a grid-wheeling capacity of 5074 MW technologies and integration with grid planning. The
which was still less than the generation capacity at that electricity transmission grid will be expected to change
time. With a target of 20,000 MW transmission capacity in fundamental ways that will require careful
by 2021, Nigeria urgently need to evolve ways to assessment of the opportunities and costs of different
minimize transmission losses and deliver quality technologies and policy pathways.
electricity to commercial and domestic consumers for
rapid economic development of the country. RECOMMENDATION
The smart grid is gradually becoming a new To reduce electricity losses from the national
development trend of the power grid in the world. grid, Transmission Company of Nigeria (TCN) should
Although the definition of the smart grid may differ, adopt the smart grid concept as a tool for modernizing
essentially the smart grid approach will be centered on the existing grid and for future grid expansion.
the uprating the current transmission and distribution
grid and electrical equipment, using modern information, References
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ATBU, Journal of Science, Technology & Education (JOSTE); Vol.

4 (2), September, 2016 ISSN: 2277-0011

ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION LOSSES IN NIGERIA POWER SECTOR: A SMART GRID APPROACH

K.R. Ajao1, A.A. Ogunmokun2 , F. Nangolo3 & E.O. Adebo4

INTRODUCTION (ECN) was subsequently established in 1951, while the

Table 2.1: Planned power plants (Source: Wikipedia)

Figure 2.1: Nigeria’s Transmission Line System (Source: (Nnaji, 2011))

National Integrated Power Projects Renewable Energy Resources

Nigeria’s Electricity Transmission Loss Scenario

Generation Losses Total Consumption

Figure 3.3: Proposed Super-Grid transmission Network (Source: (Nnaji, 2011))

Table 3.2: Recent challenges in TCN

transition to greater levels of distributed generation x. Identification and lowering of unreasonable or

FACTS controllers present a good opportunity to Dynamic Line Rating (DLR)

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