Immunology 1

- Invading cellular and non-cellular pathogens as a source of non-self-antigens, and preventative strategies
including physical, chemical and microbiological barriers in animals and plants that keep them out.
A disease is a certain change, which affect the normal function of an individual. A disease can be passed from one to
another in many different ways.
Diseases can be classified as:
1. Infectious diseases – transmitted through pathogens
Virus Fungi Worms
Bacteria Protozoan
2. Nutritional deficiency diseases
Vitamin C deficiency- scurvy
3. Inherited diseases
Huntington disease
4. Contagious diseases – they are very easily spread through the population
• Pathogens are disease causing agents

• Their ability to cause a disease is called virulence
• Pathogens can be transmitted from one person to another by: Water droplets in the air, via water, via food,
via body fluids such as blood, through wounds or even can be carried by vectors such as mosquitoes
(malaria)
• Commensal
• A vector is an agent such as a mosquito that can transfer a pathogen from one organism to another.
• The destroy the body’s tissues and intervene with the normal functioning of the body’s systems.
• A parasite is an organism that completes some part of its life cycle in another organism. It does not
necessarily cause disease while infecting the host. But those parasites that do cause damage whilst in the
host are said to be pathogenic.
• These can be divided into living organisms such as bacteria or fungi or lifeless bodies such as viruses.
Pathogens can be divided into two types: cellular and non-cellular.
Non- Cellular Cellular
• Viruses • Bacteria
• Prions • Worms
• Fungi
• Protists- single celled organisms
VIRUSES
Viruses, viroids and prions are classified as non-cellular agents. They:
Infect the cells of biological organisms; meaning they cannot replicate outside
cells – obligate intra-cellular pathogen
Therefore, they are non-living organisms
At the most basic level, viruses consist of genetic material contained within a
protective coat called a capsid. The genetic material of viruses may be double-
stranded DNA, single stranded DNA, double-stranded RNA or single stranded
RNA.
A virus that infects bacteria is known as a bacteriophage.
Bacteriophage is a type of virus, which infect certain kind
When a bacteriophage infects a bacterial cell, its protein coat becomes attached to the bacterial wall and its
DNA is injected into the bacterial cell. Once inside, the viral nucleic acid then takes over the host cell and
direct it to make multiple copies of the virus protein coat and nucleic acid.
A single virus is known as a bacteriophage
Viruses produce new virions by taking over the metabolic pathways of the host cell. The interaction between
a virus and a host cell is specific because viral proteins interact with specific receptor molecules on the cell
membrane of target cells.
Examples of disease causing viruses:- Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, HIV, Small pox, Rubella
BACTERIA
All bacteria can be classified into 3 basic shapes- rods, spirals and cocci (round)
Bacteria are not always harmful- there’s some useful bacteria as well
Some bacteria have flagella – thin appendages that originate just below the bacterial wall and are visible
with a light microscope when special stains are used.
o Flagella allow a bacterium to move.
o Bacteria without flagella cannot move- they are said to be non-motile.
Many bacteria have a layer called a capsule outside the cell wall.
o A capsule is made of slimy gelatinous material and is important in determining the virulence of the
bacterium
o A bacterium with a capsule can readily cause disease
because the slimy nature of the capsule makes it more
difficult for the body’s defence cells to capture and
ingest the bacterium.
o When the capsule is removed, the bacterial cell can be
more readily captured by the defence mechanisms.
o The virulence of a bacterium is the degree to which it
can cause disease.
o The cell wall of a bacterial cell is a firm, flexible layer
that maintains the shape of the cell and protects the
underlying protoplasm.
PRIONS
Abnormal proteins originally caused by a genetic mutation
Infectious agents
Capable of self-replication by inducing normal proteins to fold in a
similar, abnormal manner
FUNGI
They play a vital role as decomposers in the eco system
Fungal spores are highly allergic to many people
How are spores transmitted?
Some spores are also spread by water droplets from rain or in streams, and others
need help from animals such as flies
Fungi reproduce by spreading microscopic spores. These spores are often present
in the air and soil, where they can be inhaled or come into contact with the surfaces
of the body, primarily the skin. Consequently, fungal infections usually begin in the
lungs or on the skin.
medication
cannot kill the virus 3. viral particles assemble
together and it attaches
to host cell receptors
that faciliates it to exit from
the cell
Anti-viral drugs
-CONTROLS 1. attaches to the
THE SPREAD host cel receptor
OF THE VIRUS
IN THE BODY - 2. hijacks our genetic material
REDUCES DNA virsuses can directly incorporate
THE INTENSITY their DNA into the host cell DNA
OF THE SYMPTOMS host cells produce viral material
EX:HIV
DNA viruses- adeno virus
1. BLOCK THE RNA viruses- retro viruses
RECEPTOR THAT Transcription : RNA virsuses
ALLOWS THE got through a process
VIRUS TO ENTER THE DNA ---> RNA called reverse transcription
CELL- HYDROPHILLIC
RNA ----> DNA
2. BLOCK THE RECEPTOR
THAT ALLOWS THE VIRUS
TO LEAVE THE CELL-
HYRDOPHOBIC
SECONDARY INFECTION
How do prions get into the body?
Prions can be transmitted through contaminated food, surgical instruments and

blood. Transmission of prions has caused the kuru epidemic in humans and bovine
spongiform encephalopathy in cattle, which in turn has caused variant Creutzfeldt-
Jakob disease in humans
mad-cow disease
The incubation period is the time between infection and the onset of symptoms. This time may be due to:
- Time to reach the organ
- Pathogen may need to multiply to reach sufficient numbers to cause disease
- Pathogen may require time to produce toxins
The role of the lymphatic system including the role of secondary lymphoid tissue (with reference to lymph
nodes) as the site of antigen recognition by lymphocytes, and as a transport system for antigen presenting
cells including dendritic cells.
ORGANISATION OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Lymphatic vessels: - Begin in the peripheral tissue and end at the connection to the circulatory system.
Lymph: - A fluid that resembles plasma but contains much lower concentrations of suspended
Lymphoid Glands: - Connected to the lymphatic vessels and containing large number of lymphocytes
FUNCTION OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic systems main roles include:
• Removal of excess fluids from body tissues. If tissue fluid builds up the tissue will swell; this is called oedema
• Absorption of fatty acids and subsequent transport of fat to the circulatory system
• Production of immune cells such as lymphocytes (e.g antibody producing plasma cells) and monocytes (type
of phagocyte and respond to inflammation)
Lymphoid Organs
• Primary lymphoid organs- bone marrow and thymus
• Secondary lymphoid organs- spleen, lymph nodes
• Lymph nodes:
o Filter and purify lymph before it reaches the venous system
o Contains macrophages in the walls to engulf debris and pathogens in the lymph as it passes through
o Are often called glands
o When swollen, indicate inflammation or infection of peripheral structures- this inflammation occurs
due to increased lymphocyte and phagocyte action in response to a minor, localised infection
SPLEEN
o Contains the largest collection of lymphoid tissue
o Has three major functions:
1. Removal of abnormal blood cells and other blood components through phagocytosis (a process similar
to endocytosis, involving the ingestion of solids by a cell)
2. Storage of iron from recycled red blood cells
3. Initiation of immune response to antigens in the circulating blood.
LYMPHOCYTES
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell. They comprise approximately 20-30% of all circulating white blood cells.
Types:
o T cells- mature in the Thymus
o B cells- synthesised in the Bone Marrow
1. T cells (80% of lymphocytes)

Tc- cytotoxic T cells Attack foreign cells or body cells infected by viruses
TH- helper T cells Stimulate activation and function of both T cells and B cells
Suppressor T cells Inhibit the activation and function of both T cells and B cells
2. B Cells (10-15% of lymphocytes)

B cells can differentiate into plasma cells.
PLASMA CELLS:
Are responsible for the production and secretion of antibodies (immunoglobulins). Antibodies target and deactivate
specific antigens
B cells are responsible for anti-body mediated immunity (humoral immunity)
NK – Natural Killer Cells

• Have granules
• Play a role in surveillance – they recognise self-antigens (antigens on the surface of all “body” cells,
indicating they belong to your body)
If there are alteration in a cells antigen, the NK cells release cytotoxic chemicals that lyse the
cell.
• Recognise tumorous or viral infected cells
• Become activated in the presence of interferons or cytokines (signalling molecules)
PLANT DEFENCES AGAINST INFECTION

• Plants have a thick cell wall that cannot
be penetrated by viruses
• Plants have no immune system
• Many plants have impenetrable
barriers, such as bark and
waxy cuticles, or adaptations, such
as thorns and spines, to protect them
from pathogens.
• If pathogens breach a plant's barriers,
the plant can respond with secondary
metabolites, which are often toxic
compounds, such as glycol cyanide, that may harm the pathogen.
• Plants produce antimicrobial chemicals, antimicrobial proteins, and antimicrobial enzymes that are
able to fight the pathogens.
1. What is a disease? Are all diseases infectious?
2. Explain the relationship between infectious diseases and pathogens
3. In terms of pathogens, what is meant by the host?
4. Pathogens can be cellular or non-cellular. Give 3 examples of each
5. Are viruses living organisms? Explain
6. List examples of viral diseases
7. What is a bacteriophage?
8. Use the following terms to describe how viruses reproduce: attachment, inject, take over, assemble copies,
lyses
9. What are prions?
10. Name a disease that is caused by a prion
11. Are all bacteria pathogenic? Explain
12. What sort of pathogen causes AIDs?
13. What physical and chemical barriers do plants have against infection?

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- Invading cellular and non-cellular pathogens as a source of non-self-antigens, and preventative strategies

• Pathogens are disease causing agents

Prions can be transmitted through contaminated food, surgical instruments and

ORGANISATION OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

1. T cells (80% of lymphocytes)

2. B Cells (10-15% of lymphocytes)

NK – Natural Killer Cells

PLANT DEFENCES AGAINST INFECTION

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