Al Balqa Applied University

Faculty of Engineering Technology

Chemical Engineering Department

Process Dynamics and Control

Laboratory Manual
(BSc Program-30151553)
Version 1.0

2019-2020
1
EXPERIMENTS (ONE To SIX)

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

Objectives:

1. To be familiar with many different methods of measuring temperature, highlighting

accuracy, calibration and error sensitivity of each in a variety of working conditions.
2. To introduce the students to the international Temperature Scale, and allows
investigation of the Platinum resistance temperature measurement method that
forms a fundamental part of the standard.

Equipment:
The unit consists of a small bench mounted Console contains a number of different
instruments and connection points for sensors. A temperature controlled heater plate is
also available as well as a computerized data acquisition system with computer monitor and
printer. The sensors available are: Platinum Resistance, Thermistor, & three types of
thermocouple. A vacuum flask and stainless steel beaker are also available

Theory:
Temperature can be defined technically as an indication of intensity of molecular activity.
The temperature of a body is a measure of the thermal potential of that body and
determines whether heat is supplied to or rejected from the body when in contact with a
body at different temperature.
Different scales are used in thermometry such as Centigrade scale which is based on the
point at which ice melt and pure water boils at standard atmospheric pressure. The Celsius
scale indicated that the ice point be substituted by the triple point which in the state of
pure water existing as a mixture of ice, liquid and vapor in equilibrium, and equals
0.01°celsius. Another scale is the Kelvin scale, and another one is the international
temperature scale.

Exp. (1) The Peltier Thermoelectric Effect:

Objective: To demonstrate the temperature dependent of electrical potential produced by

dissimilar metals in contact.

Theory:
The Peltier thermoelectrical effect (1834) can be stated as follows: current flowing across a
junction of dissimilar metals causes heat to be absorbed or liberated. The direction of heat
flow can be reversed by reversing the current flow. The rate of heat is proportional to
temperature versus the voltage reading.

Requirement: plot the measured temperature versus the voltage reading

2
Exp. (2) The Seebeck Thermo-Electrical Effect:

Objective: To demonstrate the resultant electromotive force produced in a thermocouple

circuit.

Theory:
The Seebeck effect or Seebeck principle discovered by T.J Seebeck (1821) states that an
electric current flows in a circuit of two dissimilar metals if the two junctions are at
different temperatures.

In Figure 1: The temperature of the hot junction is the temperature being measured
and Tc is the cold junction temperature or the reference temperature. The most
common thermocouples are: platinum-rhodium/platinum, chromel/alumel, and
copper/constantan. The circuit in figure 1 can be used for temperature measurement as
shown as in figure 2. In chemical industries, sometimes it is not possible to maintain
the cold junction at 0 C. Normally, the cold junction is at ambient temperature, with
correction is made automatically by temperature-sensitive resister.

Fig.(1): Electro-thermal circuit of two dissimilar metals.

Fig.(2): Thermocouple circuit.

References:
1. Shahian, B. and Hassul, M., Control System Design. Prentice Hall, 1993.
2. Considine, D., M., Process Instruments and Control Handbook. McGraw- Hill, 1974.

Exp. (3.1): The Laws Of Intermediate Metals And Tempretures:

Objective: To demonstrate the effect of introducing different types of metals in a
thermocouple circuit, and the principle of intermediate temperature
Equipment: See the attached sheet.
3
Theory:
Several thermoelectric laws have been established experimentally by measuring the
current resistance, and emf in thermoelectric circuits. These laws are experimentally
accepted despite the lack of theoretical development. In fact, we need not to
understand the complexities of electron-phonon (the quantum particles of thermal
conduction waves) to understand the working principles of thermocouples. We need only
to pay attention to the understanding the laws of thermoelectricity.

EXP. (3.2): Law of homogeneous materials:

A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single homogeneous material
by the application of heat alone. A fact could be drawn from this law that two different
types of metals are required to construct any thermocouple circuit. Experiments have
shown that a measurable thermoelectric current flows in a circuit if a nonsymmetrical
temperature gradient is set up in a homogeneous wire. This for no doubt is attributed to
non-homogeneous metals.

EXP (3.3): Law of intermediate metals:

The algebraic sum of the thermoelectromotive forces in a circuit composed of any dissimilar
metals is zero provided that all of the circuit is at a uniform temperature.
A consequence of this law is that a third homogeneous wire can be added in a
thermocouple circuit as long as its extremities are kept at the same temperature. So a
device for measuring the thermoelectromotive force can be introduced into a circuit at any
point without effecting the net emf if all the connections at the same temperature.
In Figure 1: if T1=T2, then from the Seebeck principle the net emf is zero.

EXP. (3.4): Law of successive or intermediate temperatures:

If two dissimilar homogeneous materials produce a net emf of Ei , 0 when the two
junctions are at T, TI, the emf generated when the junctions are at T and T0 is given by:

Figure (1): Thermocouple circuit with intermediate metal type C.

Equation (1) is evident from Figure 2 and the Seebeck principle:

4
Figure (2): Emfs are additive for materials.

Note that equation 1 follows from the last result, where TI satisfies: T0 TI T .
Questions:
1. A thermocouple of type J (iron-constantan) has the following input-output data from
standard tables:
T ( C ): 0 30 300
emf (mV): 0 1.5 15
2. Discuss the validity of the law of intermediate temperatures on the basis of
Seebeck principle over a wide temperature range (0 t0 500 C).

References:

1. Considine, D. M., Process instruments and control handbook. McGraw-Hill, 1974.

2. Benedict, P. E., Fundamentals of temperature, pressure and flow measurements.
John Wiley, 1984.
3. Bolton, W., Mechatronics: electronic control systems in mechanical
engineering. Longman, 1997.

5
Experiment Four
Temperature Sensors
Objectives:
To understand the static and dynamic characteristics of measuring devices and in particular
temperature measuring devices

Introduction
One of the most important variables in chemical industries is the temperature. It is not only
used as a direct control variable, but also as a means to infer about other controlled
variables (inferential control). Table 1 below shows the most popular sensors used for
temperature measurement.
The term sensor is used to identify an element that produces a signal when subjected an
input physical change. Often the term transducer is used interchangeably with the term
sensor.

Important Sensors for Temperature Measurement

1. Expansion thermometers
a. Liquid-in-glass thermometers
b. Solid-expansion thermometers (bimetallic strip)
c. Filled-system thermometers (pressure thermometers)
i. Gas-filled
ii. Liquid-filled
iii. Vapor-filled
2. Resistance-sensitive devices
a. Resistance thermometers
b. Thermistors
3. Thermocouples

EXP. (4.1) Expansion thermometers:

Liquid-in-glass thermometers:
indicate temperature change caused by the difference between the temperature
coefficient of expansion for glass and the liquid employed. Mercury and alcohol are the
most widely used liquids.

EXP. (4.2) Solid Expansion thermometers (Bimetallic strip):

Bimetallic strip thermometer:
The working principle depends on different expansion coefficients of metals as a function of
temperature. Fig. (1) shows a typical bimetallic strip thermometer. The temperature-
sensitive element is a composite of two different metals fastened together into a strip. A
common combination is invar (64% Fe, 36% Ni), which has a low coefficient, and another
nickel-iron alloy that has a high coefficient.

6
 Fig.(1): Details of bimetallic strip thermometer [1].

EXP. (4.3)Filled-system thermometers (pressure thermometers):

A typical filled-system thermometer is shown in Fig.(2) The fluid expands or contracts due
to temperature variations which is sensed by the Bourdon spring and transmitted to an
indicator or transmitter. These elements are popular in the chemical process industries due
to their design simplicity and relatively low cost.

Resistance thermometers Devices (RTD): Fig.(3) shows RTD which based on

the principle that the electrical resistance of pure metals increases with an increase in
temperature. This provides an accurate way to measure temperature because
measurements of electrical resistance can be made with high precision.

Fig.(2): Filled system thermometer [1,4].

The resistance of most metals increases linearly with temperature:

The most commonly used metals are platinum, nickel, tungsten, and copper. A Wheatstone
bridge is generally used for the resistance reading and, consequently, for the temperature
reading.

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Fig.(3): Resistance thermometer device (RTD): a- Assembly. b- Components [1,4].

Thermistors:
Modern thermistors are usually mixtures of oxides such as the oxides of nickel,
manganese, iron, copper, cobalt and titanium, other metals and doped ceramics. The
material is formed into various forms such as beads discs and rodes as shown in Fig.(4).
Thermistors can have either a negative temperature coefficient (NTC), where the resistance
decreases with temperature, or a positive temperature coefficient(PTC) depending on the
type of materials used. They were originally named from a shortened form of the term
thermally sensitive resistor. The resistance-temperature relationship can be described by:

R = Ke b / T (2)

Where K and b are constants.

Fig.(4): Thermistor construction [2,4].

Fig.(5): Thermocouple circuit

Thermocouples:
The thermocouple is the best-known industrial temperature sensor. It works on a principle
discovered by Seebeck in 1821. The Seebeck effect, or Seebeck principle, states that an
electric current flows in a circuit of two dissimilar metals if the two junctions are at different

8
temperatures. Fig.(4) shows a simple circuit in which M1 and M2 are the two metals,
TH is the temperature being measured, and TC, is reference temperature. The voltage
produced by this thermoelectric effect depends on the temperature difference between
the two junctions and on the metals used.

Static Characteristics:
The output values given when steady state condition is attained, after a certain input is
received, are known as static characteristics of the sensor. The most important static
characteristics are:
1. Range: The limits between which the input can vary.
2. Error: The difference between the true (standard) value and the result of
measurement.
3. Accuracy: The extent to which the value indicated by the measuring device is wrong. It
is the sum of all the possible expected errors including the calibration accuracy.
4. Precision: It describes an instrument’s degree of freedom from random errors.
5. If a large number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a high precision
instrument, then the spread of readings will be very small.
6. Repeatability: It describes the closeness of output readings from the measuring device
when the same input is applied repetitively over a short period of time, with the same
measurement conditions, same instrument and observer, same location and same
conditions of use maintained throughout.
7. Reproducibility: describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when
there are changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument,
location, conditions of use and time of measurement. Fig.(6) compares the accuracy,
repeatability and reproducibility.
8. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the ratio of the change in response of an instrument to the
change in the stimulus (how much output you get per unit input).
9. Hysteresis: The difference between the measuring device readings during a
continuously increasing and decreasing change of the input. Fig.(7) shows a typical
hysteresis curve.
Target

Fig.(6): Comparison of accuracy and precision.

9
Fig.(7): Measuring device static characteristics with hysteresis.

Dynamic Characteristics:

The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its behaviour between the
time the input value changes and the time the instrument output attains a steady value in
response.

In any linear, time-invariant measuring system, the following general relation can be
written between input and output for time t > 0:

Where y and u are the output and input respectively, a 0, a 1, ...a n and b0 are constant model
parameters.

1. Zero-order dynamics: An instrument is said to show zero-order dynamics, if it

responds instantaneously to the applied input. Mathematically, this means that:
a n= a n - 1 =...a 1 =0 . Consequently, the instrument sensitivity (gain) is given by:

Fig.(8) shows the response of such instrument.

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Fig.(8): Zero-order instrument dynamic response.

2. First-order dynamics: An instrument is said to show first-order dynamics, if it reaches

63 percent of the final steady state value after a time equals one instrument time
constant. First-order dynamic instruments follow a dynamic

Fig.(9): First-order dynamic characteristics.

The above equation is solved for the output after replacing: d / dt by the D operator to
get:

11
Where: Ke and t e are the instrument sensitivity and time constant respectively. The
exact solution of Eq.(6) due to step change in u is shown in Fig.(9). In this figure the output
response reaches 99 percent of its final value after five time constants ( 5t e ).
A good example for such instrument (first order instrument) is the liquid-in-glass
thermometer. If a thermometer at room temperature is plunged into boiling water, the
output does not rise instantaneously to a level indicating 100°C, but instead
approaches a reading indicating 100°C in a manner similar to that shown in Fig.(9).

Requirements:
1. Study experimentally the static and dynamic characteristics of the available
temperature measuring instruments in the Lab.
2. Investigate the dynamic linearity of the selected temperature sensor using the
mirror image method.

Procedure:
Several experiments can be performed in the temperature measurement unit:-

Exp. No. 1: The use of liquid in glass thermometer, Vapor pressure & bi-metallic
expansion devices for measurement of fixed scale point.

1. Partially fill the vacuum flask with ice and water and place one of the glass tube
thermometers in the mixture.
2. Fill 2/3 of the stainless steel beaker with pure water and place rubber disc on top,
place the beaker on heater plate and turn on the main switch. Set the heater
plate to a temperature of about 200°C.
3. Once the water has reached boiling point, turn the temperature setting down to
about 120°C.
4. Record the temperature of the water in the beaker and in the vacuum flask.
5. Repeat using vapor pressure thermometer & the bi-metallic expansion
thermometer instead of liquid in glass thermometer.

Exp.No.2: Response of different temperature measuring devices as temperature

changes with time.
1. Fill 2/3 of the stainless steel beaker with pure water and place rubber disc on top,
place the beaker on heater plate and don’t turn on the main in this stage.
2. Place the Glass thermometer, Platinum resistance, Thermistor and the Thermocouple
in the unheated water in the beaker and switch on the heater plate and set the
heater plates to temperature 200°C.
3. Start recording the temperature using the computerized unit.
4. Record the temperature of the thermometer each 30 sec.
5. Once the water has reached boiling point, turn the heater off and stop
recording.
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Exp.No.3

a- The Peltier thermo-electric effect.

1. Partially fill the vacuum flask with ice and water, and fill 2/3 of the stainless steel
beaker with pure cold water and place rubber disc on top, place the beaker on
heater plate and don’t turn on the main in this stage.
2. Put water in a beaker and measure the ambient temperature by using the glass
thermometer.
3. Select one of the shrouded type K thermocouple and do the instructed connection.
4. Now place the thermometer with the thermocouple in the unheated water in
the beaker and switch on the heater plate and set the heater plate to
temperature of about 200°C.
5. Start recording the temperature and millivolt signal by using the computerized unit.
6. Record the temperature of the thermometer each 30 sec.
7. Once the water has reached 40°C, stop recording and turn the temperature setting
down to about 120°C.
b- Seebeck effect.

1. Select two of the shrouded type K thermocouples and connect them as instructed.
2. Place BOTH thermocouples in the vacuum flask and record the millivolt.
3. Place one thermocouple in the stainless steel beaker on the hot plate together
with a glass thermometer, and record the millivolt.
4. Place the thermocouple that has been immersed in the vacuum flask into the hot
water with the other thermocouple, note the millivolt reading.
5. Now reverse the positions of the thermocouples (Hot beaker thermocouple to
vacuum flask), and record the millivolt.

Exp. No. 4

Voltage calibration of different thermometer types using water-ice reference.

1. Select two of the shrouded type K thermocouples.
2. Partially fill the vacuum flask with ice and water, and fill 2/3 of the stainless steel
beaker with pure water and place rubber disc on top, place the beaker on heater
plate and don’t turn on the main in this stage.
3. Connect the two thermocouples as instructed, and put one of the thermocouple in
vacuum flask and the other in the beaker with a glass thermometer.
4. Plug in the Platinum resistance plug and the Thermistor plug to the unit and place
the probes in the water in the beaker.
5. Switch on the heater plate and set the temperature to 200°C.
6. Start recording the temperature and the millivolt signal by using the computerized
unit at regular intervals until the water boils.

Exp. No. 5

The law of intermediate metals and intermediate temperature associated with

thermocouple.
1. Select two of the shrouded type K thermocouples.
13
 2. Partially fill the vacuum flask with ice and water, and fill 2/3 of the stainless steel
beaker with pure water and place rubber disc on top, place the beaker on heater
plate and don’t turn on the main in this stage.
3. Connect the two thermocouples as instructed by using the two green thermocouple
extension leads supplied, and put one of the thermocouple in vacuum flask and the
other in the beaker.
4. Switch on the heater plate and set the temperature to 200°C. Once the water has
reached boiling point, turn the temperature setting down to about 120°C.
5. Record the millivolt reading.
6. Immerse either junction A, B, or C in the ice-water mixture or the boiling water
and record the millivolt.
7. Break the junction B and rejoin this using a RED or BLACK copper
connecting lead, and record the millivolt.
8. Immerse the two new junctions either in the ice-water or boiling water, and
record the millivolt.
9. Remove the RED or BLACK copper lead and record the millivolt.
10. Take the thermocouple from the ice-water and hold it in your hand until the
millivolt meter display is constant and then record the millivolt.
11. Replace the thermocouple in the ice-water and allow the millivolt meter to
return to its original reading.
12. Now remove the other thermocouple from the boiling water ALLOW TO COOL
SLIGHTLY and then hold in your hand as before until the millivolt meter display is
constant and record the millivot reading.

Exp. No. 6

Connection of thermocouple in parallel for averaging of measured temperature and

series for signal amplification
1. Partially fill the vacuum flask with cold water, and fill 2/3 of the stainless steel
beaker with pure water and place rubber disc on top, place the beaker on
heater plate and turn on the main switch. Set the temperature to about 200°C.
2. Once the water has reached 70°C, turn the temperature setting down to about
120°C.
a. For parallel;
i. Select two of the type K thermocouples, connect the two type K
thermocouple to any two of the thermocouple sensor sockets.
ii. Place one thermocouple in the vacuum flask and the other in a
beaker, full of hot water of about 70°C.
iii. Depress the switches INDIVDUALLY and record the
temperature. Then depress both switches together and record the
temperature.
b. For Series;
i. select four type K thermocouples (two shrouded and two exposed
tip) and connect them as instructed.
ii. The BLACK thermocouples plugs are shown as B, the RED
thermocouples plugs are shown as R, the thermocouples junctions

14
 are shown as K. The pair of thermocouples shown as H are in the
stainless steel beaker and the pair of thermocouples shown as C are
shown in the vacuum flask.
3. Once the water in the stainless steel beaker starts boiling, observe and record the
millvolt meter display.

Calculation:
Each number indicates to experiment number:

1. Record the temperature of the water by using Glass thermometer, Vapor pressure,
Bi-metallic expansion device, Platinum resistance, Thermistor & Thermocouple, and
explain why the temperature doesn’t reach 0°C and 100 °C.
2. Plot the temperature readings of the devices used versus time and note the
response of each measuring device.
3. Record the reading of millivolt as indicated and explain the negative reading you
get in both Peltier thermo-electric effect & Seebeck effect.
4. Refer to the tables in the lab sheet for a type of thermocouple that you used in this
experiment showing the millivolt signal and corresponding temperature when the
reference junction is held at 0°C and at each temperature reading, compare
between the recorded millivot reading and the millivolt from the table that
corresponds to that temperature.
5. Record the reading of millivolt as indicated and explain your results.
6. Record the reading of millivolt as indicated and explain your results.

Temperature Measurement
Part 1

Thermometer Temperature (oC )

Glass thermometer
Vapor pressure
Bi-metallic
Platinum resistance
Thermistor
Thermocouple

Part 2
Temperature (oC )
Time
Glass thermometer

15
Part 3
a- Peltier thermo-electric:
Ambient temperature:

Temperature (oC )
Time
Glass thermometer

b- Seebeck effect:
Voltage

Both thermocouples in cold water

Thermocouple (1) in cold and (2) in hot

Thermocouple (2) in cold and (1) in hot

Part 5
Intermediate metal:
Voltage for the junction without intermediate metal:
Voltage
Junction A in hot water
Junction B in hot water
Junction C in hot water
Junction A in ice
Junction B in ice
Junction C in ice
Voltage for the junction with intermediate metal:
Voltage
Junction B in hot water
Junction B’ in ice
Intermediate Temperature:
Voltage

E hot – E ice
E hot-E hand
E hand- E ice

16
Part 6
Parallel connection: Series connection:
Temp by depress switch # 1
Temp by depress switch # 2
Temp by depress switch # 3 Voltage =
Temp by depress switch #4
Temp by depress switch #5

17
EXPERIMENT SEVEN

LEVEL MEASUREMENT
ABSTRACT:
An experiment was performed to study the Control Modes by means of Level Measurement
Apparatus, then we were make two experiments in this apparatus, first one to study the
ON_OFF mode, second one two study PROPORTIONAL AND INTEGRAL modes, results
showed that the proportional and integral can arrive to the desired set point faster and
more accurate than the only proportional mode or on _off mode.

INTRODUCTION:

P3009 process pressure control has been designed to demonstrate the functioning of a 3
term pneumatic pressure controller and enable ‘process’ and ‘controller’ parameters to be
varied so that their effects on the system can be investigated. The pressure controller may
be operated in any of the following modes of control:

a- Manual control.
b- Proportional control.
c- Proportional and integral control.
d- Proportional and derivative control.
e- Proportional and integral and derivative control (3 terms).

Thus it is possible to select the control mode to give the desired conditions which can then
be optimized by suitable adjustment of the process and controller parameters.

OBJICTIVES OF EXPERIMET:
1- To explain the operation and characteristics of the closed-loop automatic control
circuit.
2- To demonstrate and explain the operation and the characteristics of the ON/OFF
control mode.
3- To investigate the main characteristics of the proportional integral control mode.
4- To recognize the characteristic of the addition of integral mode to the
proportional mode and the resultant characteristics.

EXPERIMENT APPARATUS:
The process model consists of small pressure vessel ( of 8 liters capacity), together with inlet
and outlet airlines see Figure (3.1) pneumatic pressure control apparatus P3009. A filter-
regulator I used to control pressure of the inlet airline to the pressure vessel, and a control
valve adjusts the flow of air through a pressure vessel bypass line so that the pressure can
be regulated.
Needle valve V1 and V2 are included in the inlet line to the vessel, one on either side of the
bypass valve connection. A further needle valve V3 I situated in the outlet line from the
pressure vessel. By suitable adjustments of these valves various changes to the process

18
parameter can be made. For safety purpose a relief valve is also fitted to the pressure
vessel.
The control and measuring equipment associated with this apparatus consists of a 3 terms
pneumatic pressure controller, an auto-manual selector station, a chart recorder and the
control valve previously mentioned. Using the 3 term controller, manual adjustment of the
proportional, integral, and derivative action can be made, and the controller provides a 3 to
15 psig output signal for the control valve. The pressure signal from the pressure vessel to
the chart recorder ( this via the auto-manual station) I transferred by flexible line. The auto-
manual; station enables the control of the bypass valve to be selected as required. The chart
recorder is a 2 pen device enabling both process signal
(i.e. pressure within the vessel) and the controller output signal to be measured and
recorded.

Figure (3.1) pneumatic pressure control apparatus

THEORY:
CONTROL TERM
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL

This mode of control can position the final control element in proportion to the error signal.
Thus for a range of errors about the set point each value of error has a corresponding
output from the controller. The range of error that covers the controller output range of
0(zero) to 100% is called the proportional band.
This mode can be expressed in algebraic form as:

19
 P  K P * E P  P0
Where:
P: controller output
KP: proportional constant between error and output
EP : error from the set point
P0 : initial controller output with no error

The proportional band PB is given in percent as:

100%
PB 
Kp

Proportional controllers are used where process conditions do not cause frequent and
intermittent large load change, which would be likely to produce unacceptable offset. Offset
is the difference between the desired value and the actual value of the parameter being
controlled and I an inherent characteristic of proportional control action when a load change
occurs. The higher the gain however the lower the value of offset.

INTEGRAL CONTROL
The integral action mode of a controller is only apparent when an error exists. If no error
exists then the output remains at the preset value. As soon as disturbance occurs, the error
is acted on by the integral term to produce a rate of change of final control element setting.
For small integral times this rate of change is fast.
The action of the integral term is to repeat the signal generated by the proportional band in
a time equal to the integral time.
The algebraic representation of integral action is:
DP
 KI * EP
Dt

I.e. the rate of change of controller output a constant KI * error signal.

The value of constant KI is set on the controller either as repeat/ min or its reciprocal
(integral time TI ), since KI = 1/ TI

DERIVATIVE CONTROL
As opposed to the previous terms the derivative action does not act directly as the error but
as the rate of change of error. For a rapid change of error the derivative action will be more
pronounced.
The concept of derivative action can be expressed in algebraic form is:
DE P
P  KD *  P0
Dt

Where:
KD : derivative time.
DEP /Dt: rate of change of error.
` P: controller output.
P0 : output with no change in error.

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EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:
(ON-OFF MODE)
1. Done for a set point = 50% of tank level and a disturbance of drain = 25%
2. The included chart shows the cycling period around the set point (Hysteresis).

(PROPRTIONAL & INTEGRAL MODE)

1- Set the pressure to 1bar.
2- Disable the derivative term by setting it to zero.
3- Set the proportional band value and vary the integral time constant from
(0.1 to infinity), record the range of oscillation.

RESULTS:
PROPRTIONAL MODE:
KP=2 & PB=50% SET POINT = 40% LEVEL OF WATER IN RESERVIOR.
Maximum Level = _________%
Minimum level is =___________%
Oscillation range = __________ %

PROPRTIONAL& INTEGRAL MODE:

KP=5& KI=2 SET POINT = 40% LEVEL OF WATER IN RESERVIOR.
Maximum Level = ________ %
Minimum level is =__________%
Oscillation range = __________ %
KP=5& KI=2 SET POINT = 61% LEVEL OF WATER IN RESERVIOR.
Maximum Level = _____________ %
Minimum level is =______%
Oscillation range = _________%

21
EXPERIMENTS (EIGHT-ELEVEN)

PROCESS CONTROL
Introduction

A continuous process is one in which the output or product is at continuous flow. Examples
are in chemical process, refining process for gasoline, or a paper machine with continuous
output of paper onto rolls. Process control for these continuous processes cannot be
accomplished fast enough using a PLC’s on-off control. The control scheme most often used
is PID (proportional- integral-derivative) control. PID control can be accomplished by
mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, or electronic control systems as well as by some PLCs and
most PACs.

Many advanced PLCs and all large PLC systems have PID control functions, and are
therefore able to accomplish process control effectively. In this manual, we discuss the
basic principles of On/Off Control, PID control, Feedforward and other types of control
used in the industry utilizing a National Instruments Programmable Automation
Controller.

Process Description
The setup consists of the following component

1. Electric Control Box 8. Flow Meter (Upper)

2. Tank 1 9. Flow Meter (Lower)
3. Tank 2 10. Electric Flow Control Valve
4. Pressure Sensor 11. Manual Flow Control Valve
5. Ultrasonic Level Meter 12. Heater
6. Thermocouple Tank 1 13. Pump
7. Thermocouple Tank2 14. Level switch

22
Running the Experiments:
To run the experiments, complete the following steps:
1. Turn the PT001 Process Trainer [ON], and make sure the “Power
2. On” Status LED on the Electrical Control Box is [ON[
3. Run the PT001 Software.
4. Click on [Run Experiments] to access the experiments menu.
5. When you run an experiment (Non-Simulation Experiment), make sure the message
“CompactDAQ is connected” appears on the bottom of the screen.
The experiments screen is shown in the figure below:

1. Buttons Pane
2. Process Flow Chart
3. Parameters and/or Explanations Box
4. Chart
5. Level Meter Button
6. Pump Button
7. Level Meter Picture
8. Pump Picture
Figure 2 - Experiment's Screen

1.1 You can access the sensors in Experiment 1 “Acquiring Physical Phenomena” by
clicking on its button or picture in the Process Flow Chart. An example is Level Meter
Button (No. 5) or Level Meter Picture (No. 7) as shown above.

1.5 In chart (No. 4) shown in the above figure, you can see the relationship between the
input current, voltage, and the measured value for any sensor or the process variable
(PV), Setpoint, or Controller’s Output.

1.5 Other experiments have slightly different Buttons. Panel (No (1.has [Start Process],
[Stop Process], and [Quit] buttons. To start the control process you need to click on
the [Start Process] button.

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1.5 Some experiments have controller parameters that can only be changed by Lab
Administrators. To be able to change any of the parameters in the Parameters and/or
Explanation Box (No3( you need to consult with your lab administrator. Changing the
controller’s parameters is not recommended, as the system will become unstable if
the parameters entered are not correct.

6. Stop the experiment by pressing the [Stop Process] button, and then click on the
[Quit] button to go back to the experiments menu. Observe that the “Process
Indicator” LED will now be turned off.

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Experiment Eight
Acquiring Physical Phenomena
Computer-based measurement systems are used in a wide variety of applications:
laboratories, field services and on manufacturing plant floors. These systems act
as general-purpose measurement tools that are well suited for measuring
voltage signals. Many real-world sensors and transducers require signal
conditioning before a computer-based measurement system can effectively and
accurately acquire these signals. The front-end signal conditioning system can
include functions such as signal amplification, attenuation, filtering, electrical
isolation, simultaneous sampling, and multiplexing. In addition, many transducers
require excitation currents or voltages, bridge completion, linearization, or high
amplification for proper and accurate operation. Therefore, most computer-
based measurement systems include some form of signal conditioning in
addition to plug-in data acquisition DAQ devices.

Objective:

1. To introduce the student to the principles of computer-based signal

acquisition of physical phenomena using CompactDAQ.
2. To introduce and acquire signals from the different types of sensors used
in the PT001 Process Trainer.
Theory:
Data acquisition involves gathering signals from measurement sources and digitizing the
signal for storage, analysis, and presentation on a personal computer (PC). Data acquisition
(DAQ) systems come in many different forms of flexibility when choosing your system.
Scientists and engineers can choose from PCI, PXI, CompactPCI, PCMCIA, USB, Firewire,
parallel, or serial ports for data acquisition in test, measurement, and automation
applications.

There are five components to be considered when building a basic DAQ system:

1. Transducers and sensors

2. Signals
3. Signal conditioning
4. DAQ hardware
5. Driver and application software

Transducers:

Data acquisition begins with the physical phenomenon to be measured. This

physical phenomenon can be the temperature in a room, the intensity of a light
source, the pressure inside a chamber, the force applied to an object, or many
other phenomena. An effective DAQ system can measure all of these different
phenomena.

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A transducer is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into a
measurable electrical signal, such as voltage or current, or frequency. The
ability of a DAQ system to measure different phenomena depends on the
transducers ability to convert the physical phenomena into a signal measurable by
the DAQ hardware. Transducers are synonymous with sensors in DAQ systems.
There are specific transducers for many different applications, such as measuring
temperature, pressure, or fluid flow. The table below shows a short list of some of
the transducers used in the PT001 Process Trainer and the phenomena they can
measure.

Phenomena Transducer Signal

Temperature Thermocouple mV signal
Distance (Level) Ultrasonic Level Meter 4 – 20 mA
Fluid Flow Electromagnetic Flow 4 – 20 mA
Pressure Meter
Piezoelectric Transducers 4 – 20 mA
Flow Control Valve
Position Potentiometer 0 – 10 V
Feedback
Table 1: Transducers and Sensors used in PT001

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Introduction

An On/Off controller is the simplest form of control device. The output

from the device is either On or Off, with no middle state. An On/Off
controller will switch the output only when the controlled parameter crosses a
setpoint.

“On/Off” is the most commonly used form of control, and for most applications it is
perfectly adequate. It’s used where precise control is not necessary, in systems which
cannot handle the energy being turned On and Off frequently, and where the mass of the
system is so great that temperatures change extremely slowly.

Advantages of the On/Off control include simplicity and price however, its use is limited
in process control due to continuous cycling of controlled variables which will cause
excessive wear on the control valve.

In this section the student will have the chance to perform two experiments in
On/Off Control:

1. On/Off Level Control

2. On/Off Temperature Control

Objective:

1. To introduce the student to the principle of On/Off control as the simplest

form of control in the industry.
2. To introduce some of the terms used in On/Off Control, such as the Switching
Differential and the Operating Differential.

Level Control:

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Experiment Nine

PID Feedback control

Introduction

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control is the most common control algorithm used

in the industry and has been universally accepted in industrial control. The popularity of
PID controllers can be attributed partly to their robust performance in a wide range of
operating conditions and partly to their functional simplicity, which allows engineers to
operate them easily.

As the name suggests, PID algorithm consists of three basic coefficients; proportional,
integral and derivative, which are varied to get optimal response. Closed loop systems, the
theory of classical PID and the effectiveness of PID control by using typical process response
curves are discussed.

In this section the student will have the chance to perform the following
experiments:

1. PID Feedback Level Control

2. PID Feedback Flow Control
3. PID Feedback Pressure Control
4. Set point Profile Generation – (Level Control)

Objective:
1. To introduce the student to closed loop systems.
2. To introduce the principle of PID Feedback control and its differences to
the On/Off control.
3. To observe the behavior and performance of PID controllers while
controlling different process variables at different set points.
4. To introduce the behavior of PID controller in controlling relatively fast
(Flow Control) and slow (Level and Pressure Control) processes.
5. To give the student an understanding about disturbance rejection and set
point tracking abilities of PID controllers.
6. To introduce the principle of set point profile and its importance in the
industry.

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PID FEED BACK LEVEL CONTROL

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PID FEED BACK FLOW CONTROL

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PID FEED BACK PRESSURE CONTROL

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SETPOINT PROFILE GENERATION

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EXPRIMENT TEN

LEAD_LAG COMPENSATION ( LEVEL CONTROL)

Introduction
Lead and lag compensators are used quite extensively in level control. A lead
compensator can increase the stability or speed of the response of a system; a lag
compensator can reduce (but not eliminate) the steady state error. Depending on
the effect desired, one or more lead and lag compensators may be used in various
combinations.

Objective

1. To introduce the concept of Lead/Lag compensation.

2. To demonstrate the difference between the two types
of controllers (Lead and Lag).
3. To demonstrate the behavior of the controller at
different setpoints.
4. To demonstrate the Lead/Lag Controller’s ability to
reject disturbances.

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EXPRIMENT ELEVEN

FEEDBACK/FEED FORWARD LEVEL CONTROL

Introduction
Feedforward control is a strategy used to compensate for disturbances in a system
before they affect the controlled variable. A feedforward control system measures a
disturbance variable, predicts its effect on the process, and applies corrective action.
Objective
1. To introduce the concept of feedforward control.
2. To demonstrate the disturbance rejection features of feedforward
controllers.
3. To demonstrate the advantages of adding a feedforward controller to the PID
feedback controller (from previous exp.).
Theory
Combined feedforward plus feedback control can significantly improve performance over
simple feedback control whenever there is a major disturbance that can be measured
before it affects the process output. In the most ideal situation, feedforward control can
completely eliminate the effect of the measured disturbance on the process output.
Even when there are modeling errors, feedforward control can often reduce the effect of
the measured disturbance on the output better than that achievable by feedback
control alone. However, the decision as to whether or not to use feedforward control
depends on whether the degree of improvement in the response to the measured
disturbance justifies the added costs of implementation and maintenance. The financial
benefits of feedforward control can be derived.

Figure 31 - Traditional Feedforward/Feedback

Control Structure

Figure 31 shows a typical application of feedforward control. The continuously

stirred tank reactor is under feedback temperature control. Feedforward
control is used to rapidly suppress feed flow rate disturbances.

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Figure 32 - Block Diagram Equivalent
to Upper Figure

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