RajaRajeswari College of Engineering

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Govt. of Karnataka, Affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi )
#14, Ramohalli Cross, Kumbalgodu, Mysore Road, Bengaluru – 560074
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

21CS33/ ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Module-1
BJT Biasing: Fixed bias, Collector to base Bias, voltage divider bias
Operational Amplifier Application Circuits: Peak Detector, Schmitt trigger, Active Filters, Non-Linear
Amplifier, Relaxation Oscillator, Current-to-Voltage and Voltage-to-Current Converter, Regulated Power
Supply Parameters, adjustable voltage regulator, D to A and A to D converter.
Operational Amplifier Application Circuits:
Operational Amplifier, also called as an Op-Amp, is an integrated circuit, which can be used to
perform various linear, non-linear, and mathematical operations. An op-amp is a direct coupled high
gain amplifier. You can operate op-amp both with AC and DC signals

Construction of Operational Amplifier

An op-amp consists of differential amplifier(s), a level translator and an output stage. A
differential amplifier is present at the input stage of an op-amp and hence an op-amp consists
of two input terminals. One of those terminals is called as the inverting terminal and the
other one is called as the non-inverting terminal. The terminals are named based on the phase
relationship between their respective inputs and outputs.
Characteristics of Operational Amplifier
The important characteristics or parameters of an operational amplifier are as follows −

 Open loop voltage gain

 Output offset voltage
 Common Mode Rejection Ratio
 Slew Rate
Open loop voltage gain
The open loop voltage gain of an op-amp is its differential gain without any feedback
path.Mathematically, the open loop voltage gain of an op-amp is represented as −
Av=v0/v1−v2

Output offset voltage

The voltage present at the output of an op-amp when its differential input voltage is zero is
called as output offset voltage.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) of an op-amp is defined as the ratio of the closed
loop differential gain, Ad and the common mode gain, Ac
Mathematically, CMRR can be represented as −
 CMRR=Ad/Ac

Slew Rate
Slew rate of an op-amp is defined as the maximum rate of change of the output voltage due to
a step input voltage.
Mathematically, slew rate (SR) can be represented as
SR=Maximum of dV0/dt

Where, V0 is the output voltage. In general, slew rate is measured in either V/μ Sec or V/m Sec
Types of Operational Amplifiers
An op-amp is represented with a triangle symbol having two inputs and one output.
Op-amps are of two types: Ideal Op-Amp and Practical Op-Amp.
Ideal Op-Amp
An ideal op-amp exists only in theory, and does not exist practically. The equivalent
circuit of an ideal op-amp is shown in the figure given below −

An ideal op-amp exhibits the following characteristics −

 Input impedance Zi=∞ΩZi=∞Ω
 Output impedance Z0=0ΩZ0=0Ω
 Open loop voltage gaine Av=∞Av=∞
 If (the differential) input voltage Vi=0VVi=0V, then the output voltage will
be V0=0VV0=0V
 Bandwidth is infinity. It means, an ideal op-amp will amplify the signals of any frequency
without any attenuation.
 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) is infinity.
 Slew Rate (SR) is infinity. It means, the ideal op-amp will produce a change in the output
instantly in response to an input step voltage.
Practical Op-Amp
Practically, op-amps are not ideal and deviate from their ideal characteristics because of some
imperfections during manufacturing. The equivalent circuit of a practical op-amp is shown in
the following figure −
A practical op-amp exhibits the following characteristics −
 Input impedance, ZiZi in the order of Mega ohms.
 Output impedance, Z0Z0 in the order of few ohms..
 Open loop voltage gain, AvAv will be high.
When you choose a practical op-amp, you should check whether it satisfies the following
conditions −
 Input impedance, ZiZi should be as high as possible.
 Output impedance, Z0Z0 should be as low as possible.
 Open loop voltage gain, AvAv should be as high as possible.
 Output offset voltage should be as low as possible.
 The operating Bandwidth should be as high as possible.
 CMRR should be as high as possible.
 Slew rate should be as high as possible.
Op-amps can be used in both linear and non-linear applications. The following are the basic
applications of op-amp −

 Inverting Amplifier
 Non-inverting Amplifier
 Voltage follower

Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier takes the input through its inverting terminal through a resistor R1R1,
and produces its amplified version as the output. This amplifier not only amplifies the input but
also inverts it (changes its sign).
 Non-Inverting Amplifier

A non-inverting amplifier takes the input through its non-inverting terminal, and produces its
amplified version as the output. As the name suggests, this amplifier just amplifies the input,
without inverting or changing the sign of the output.

Voltage follower

A voltage follower is an electronic circuit, which produces an output that follows the input
voltage. It is a special case of non-inverting amplifier.
If we consider the value of feedback resistor, Rf as zero ohms and (or) the value of resistor, 1 as
infinity ohms, then a non-inverting amplifier becomes a voltage follower. The circuit diagram of
a voltage follower is shown in the following figure −

Op amps are used in a wide variety of applications in electronics. Some of the more common
applications are: as a voltage follower, selective inversion circuit, a current-to-voltage converter, active
rectifier, integrator, a whole wide variety of filters, and a voltage comparator.

PEAK DETECTOR:
Peak detector circuits are used to determine the peak (maximum) value of an input signal. It
stores the peak value of input voltages for infinite time duration until it comes to reset
condition. The peak detector circuit utilizes its property of following the highest value of an
input signal and storing it.
Circuit Working of Peak detector

The figure below shows the circuit of a basic positive peak detector-

It consists of a diode and capacitor along with an op-amp as shown above. The circuit does
not require any complex component in order to determine the peak of the input waveform.

Working Principle

• During +ve half cycle when the input voltage is positive, the diode is conducting/ON and
capacitor charges to the peak of the input voltage.

• Second, when the input voltage is negative during –ve half cycle, the diode is non-
conducting/OFF and the capacitor discharges through the load resistor.

• As long as the discharging time constant is much greater than the period of the input
signal (T), the output voltage will be approximately equal to the peak value of the input
voltage.

• This can achieved by making discharging time constant RC can be made much longer than
the period of the input signal (RC ≥ 10 T), will get almost perfect peak detection of low-
level signals.

• If the peak-detected signal has to drive a small load, to avoid loading effects by connecting
the voltage follower (op-amp buffer) isolates the small load resistor from the peak
detector. This prevents the small load resistor from discharging the capacitor too quickly.

• The figure below shows the output voltage waveform for an applied input signal.
 • As we can see in the waveform shown above, at time t 1, the circuit misses the peak of
the input signal as it is less than the previous peak of the input signal. Thereby allowing
the capacitor to hold the value of the previously occurred peak.
• As it is a positive peak detector, one can also construct a negative peak detector circuit,
that will hold the lowest or most negative signal voltage. This is basically done
by reversing the polarities of the diode in the circuit.
Applications of Peak detector
1. It is used in the analysis of spectral and mass spectrometer.
2. Peak detector finds its application in destructive testing.
3. It is used for instrumentation measurement, mostly in amplitude modulated wave
communication.
4. It widely finds applications in sound measuring instruments.

Schmitt Trigger
Schmitt trigger can be defined as it is a regenerative comparator. It employs positive feedback
and converts sinusoidal input into a square wave output. The output of Schmitt Trigger swings
at upper and lower threshold voltages, which are the reference voltages of the input waveform.
It is a bi-stable circuit in which the output swings between two steady-state voltage levels (High
and Low) when the input reaches certain designed threshold voltage levels.
Classification of Schmitt Trigger:
These are classified into two types namely inverting Schmitt trigger and non inverting
Schmitt trigger. Similarly,.

Inverting Schmitt Trigger:

The inverting Schmitt trigger can be defined as an element of output is connected to the
positive terminal of the operational amplifier.The input voltage Vin is applied to the inverting
input terminal and the feedback voltage goes to the non- inverting terminal. This means, the
circuit uses positive voltage feedback (i.e., feedback voltage aids the input voltage).
If the input voltage at the inverting terminal is slightly positive than feedback voltage at
the non-inverting terminal, the output voltage will be negative (negative saturation, –Vsat); and
if the input voltage more negative than the reference feedback voltage, the output will be
positive (positive saturation, +Vsat).
 Hence, the voltage at the output switches from +Vsat to –Vsat or vice-versa;
are called Upper Trigger Point (UTP) and Lower Trigger Point (LTP). The
difference between two trigger points is called Hysteresis.
The upper and lower trigger points can be written as;

Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger:

The non-inverting amplifier can be defined as the input signal is given at the negative
terminal of the operational amplifier. The input voltage Vin is applied to the non-inverting input
terminal and the feedback voltage also goes to the non-inverting terminal. The inverting terminal is
grounded..
Initially, assume that the output is in the negative saturation (–Vsat). Then the feedback voltage is also
negative. This feedback voltage will hold the output in negative saturation, until the input voltage
 becomes positive enough to make voltage positive.

Let VA is the voltage at point A. Hence, VA = IR2. Since no current passes through the Op-Amp, entire
current flows through R2.

Applications of Schmitt trigger:

Schmitt trigger is used in many applications, where level needs to be sensed. Hysteresis is
used to reduce the multiple transitions that can occur around.
o Digital to analog conversion
o Level detection
o Line reception.
Filters are electronic circuits that allow certain frequency components and / or reject some
other. You might have come across filters in network theory tutorial. They are passive and
are the electric circuits or networks that consist of passive elements like resistor, capacitor,
and (or) an inductor.
This chapter discusses about active filters in detail.

Types of Active Filters

Active filters are the electronic circuits, which consist of active element like op-amp(s) along
with passive elements like resistor(s) and capacitor(s).
Active filters are mainly classified into the following four types based on the band of
frequencies that they are allowing and / or rejecting −

 Active Low Pass Filter

 Active High Pass Filter
 Active Band Pass Filter
 Active Band Stop Filter
Active Low Pass Filter
If an active filter allows (passes) only low frequency components and rejects (blocks) all
other high frequency components, then it is called as an active low pass filter.
The circuit diagram of an active low pass filter is shown in the following figure −
We know that the electric network, which is connected to the non-inverting terminal of an op-
amp is a passive low pass filter. So, the input of a non-inverting terminal of an opamp is the
output of a passive low pass filter.
Observe that the above circuit resembles a non-inverting amplifier. It is having the output
of a passive low pass filter as an input to the non-inverting terminal of op-amp. Hence, it
produces an output, which is (1+RfR1)(1+RfR1) times the input present at the non-inverting
terminal.
We can choose the values of RfRf and R1R1 suitably in order to obtain the desired gain at
the output. Suppose, if we consider the resistance values of RfRf and R1R1 as zero ohms
and infinity ohms, then the above circuit will produce a unity gain low pass filter output.
Active High Pass Filter
If an active filter allows (passes) only high frequency components and rejects (blocks) all
other low frequency components, then it is called an active high pass filter.
The circuit diagram of an active high pass filter is shown in the following figure −
We know that the electric network, which is connected to the non-inverting terminal of an op-
amp is a passive high pass filter. So, the input of a non-inverting terminal of opamp is the
output of passive high pass filter.
Now, the above circuit resembles a non-inverting amplifier. It is having the output of a
passive high pass filter as an input to non-inverting terminal of op-amp. Hence, it produces
an output, which is (1+RfR1)(1+RfR1) times the input present at its non-inverting terminal.

We can choose the values of RfRf and R1R1 suitably in order to obtain the desired gain at
the output. Suppose, if we consider the resistance values of RfRf and R1R1 as zero ohms
and infinity ohms, then the above circuit will produce a unity gain high pass filter output.
Active Band Pass Filter
If an active filter allows (passes) only one band of frequencies, then it is called as an active
band pass filter. In general, this frequency band lies between low frequency range and high
frequency range. So, active band pass filter rejects (blocks) both low and high frequency
components.
The circuit diagram of an active band pass filter is shown in the following figure
Observe that there are two parts in the circuit diagram of active band pass filter: The first
part is an active high pass filter, while the second part is an active low pass filter.
The output of the active high pass filter is applied as an input of the active low pass filter.That
means, both active high pass filter and active low pass filter are cascaded in order to obtain
the output in such a way that it contains only a particular band of frequencies.
The active high pass filter, which is present at the first stage allows the frequencies that are
greater than the lower cut-off frequency of the active band pass filter. So, we have to
choose the values of RBRB and CBCB suitably, to obtain the desired lower cut-off
frequency of the active band pass filter.
Similarly, the active low pass filter, which is present at the second stage allows the
frequencies that are smaller than the higher cut-off frequency of the active band pass filter.
So, we have to choose the values of RARA and CACA suitably in order to obtain the
desired higher cut-off frequency of the active band pass filter.
Hence, the circuit in the diagram discussed above will produce an active band pass filter
output.
Active Band Stop Filter
If an active filter rejects (blocks) a particular band of frequencies, then it is called as
an active band stop filter. In general, this frequency band lies between low frequency range
and high frequency range. So, active band stop filter allows (passes) both low and high
frequency components.
The block diagram of an active band stop filter is shown in the following figure −

Observe that the block diagram of an active band stop filter consists of two blocks in its first
stage: an active low pass filter and an active high pass filter. The outputs of these two blocks
are applied as inputs to the block that is present in the second stage. So, the summing
amplifier produces an output, which is the amplified version of sum of the outputs of the
active low pass filter and the active high pass filter.
Therefore, the output of the above block diagram will be the output of an active band stop ,
when we choose the cut-off frequency of low pass filter to be smaller than cut-off frequency
of a high pass filter.
The circuit diagram of an active band stop filter is shown in the following figure −
We have already seen the circuit diagrams of an active low pass filter, an active high pass
filter and a summing amplifier. Observe that we got the above circuit diagram of active band
stop filter by replacing the blocks with the respective circuit diagrams in the block diagram of
an active band stop filter.