Op Amp and its Applications

1 Summary
In this report we see about Op-Amp and its Applications.What are the applications of
Op-Amp? What are the terms and factors for the selection of Op-Amps by deriving
their equations ? And see how to simulate Op-Amp onto Multisim software.

2 Introduction
An operational amplifier is an integrated circuit .Its basic role is to amplify and output
the voltage difference between the two input pins. An operational amplifier is not
used alone but is designed to be connected to other circuits to perform a great
variety of operations.

We will see multiple applications of the Op-amp and their equations, where we build
the circuit and saw their simulation onto Multisim

Some Advantages of Op-Amp

● Enables substantial amplification of an input signal

When an operational amplifier is combined with an amplification circuit, it can

amplify weak signals to strong signals.It behaves like a megaphone where the input
signal is a person’s voice and the megaphone is the operational amplifier circuit.For
example, such a circuit can be used to amplify minute sensor signals.

● Enables elimination of noise from an input signal

By operating as a filter of input signals, the operational amplifier circuit is able to
extract the signal with the target frequency.For example, when an operational
amplifier circuit is used for voice recognition or in a voice recorder, it can extract
frequencies close to the targeted sound while shutting out all other frequencies as
noise.
3 Preliminaries – Some points to be noted
before undertaking simulation
• In Op-Amp circuits, one should choose resistors large enough not to load
the outputs significantly. A rule of thumb is to choose resistor values in the
range, 3K Ω to 50 KΩ. Note that internal impedance of most of power supplies
is around 50 Ω. So, the circuit impedances should be much higher than 50 Ω.

• The values of all the component in the respective application must be taken
according to their derived equations.

4 Applications of Op-Amp
4.1 Non-Inverting Amplifier
A non-inverting op amp is an operational amplifier circuit with an output voltage that
is in phase with the input voltage. Its complement is the inverting op amp, which
produces an output signal that is 180o out of phase.

Non-inverting op amps work following the op amp golden rules:

1. The Current Rule: No current flows into the inputs of the op amp (I +=I-=0).
2. The Voltage Rule: The output of the op amp attempts to ensure that the
voltage difference between the two inputs is zero (V +=V-).

Non-inverting op amp circuit

 Consider the non-inverting op amp circuit shown above. According to the Voltage
Rule, the voltage at the inverting (-) input will be the same as at the non-inverting (+)
input, which is the applied voltage Vin.

The current going through R1 can then be given as Vin/R1.

According to the Current Rule, the inputs draw no current, so all that current must
then flow through R2.

The output voltage can then be given as Vout=Vin+(Vin/R1)R2.

The gain is then Vout/Vin=1+(R2/R1)

The gain will never be less than 1, so the non-inverting op amp will produce an
amplified signal that is in phase with the input.

Simulation on MULTISIM

Non-Inverting Op-Amp with Output Waveform on MULTISIM

The advantages of non-inverting op-amp include the following:-

 The output signal can be attained devoid of phase inversion.
 The voltage gain is changeable.
 The voltage gain is positive.
 Better matching of impedance can be obtained with the non-inverting amplifiers.

4.2 Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier (also known as an inverting operational amplifier or
an inverting op-amp) is a type of operational amplifier circuit which
 produces an output which is out of phase with respect to its input by 180
degree.

This means that if the input pulse is positive, then the output pulse will be
negative and vice versa. The figure below shows an inverting operational
amplifier built by using an op-amp and two resistors.

Inverting op amp circuit

Mathematically the voltage gain offered by the circuit is given as

Where,

However, we know that an ideal op amp has infinite input impedance due to
which the currents flowing into its input terminals are zero i.e. I1 = I2 = 0. Thus,
Ii = If. Hence,

We also know that in an ideal op amp the voltage at inverting and non-
inverting inputs are always equal.

As we have grounded the non-inverting terminal, zero voltage appears at the

non – inverting terminal. That means V2 = 0. Hence, V1 = 0, also. So, we can
write

From, above two equations, we get,

The voltage gain of the inverting operational amplifier or inverting op amp is,

This indicates that the voltage gain of the inverting amplifier is decided by the
ratio of the feedback resistor to the input resistor with the minus sign
indicating the phase-reversal. Further, it is to be noted that the input
impedance of the inverting amplifier is nothing but Ri.

Simulation on MULTISIM

Inverting Op-Amp with Output Waveform on MULTISIM

The advantages of non-inverting op-amp include the following:-

It follows the negative feedback. The gain factor of these amplifiers is very high. The
output generated will be out of phase with the applied input signal. The potential
values at both the inverting and the non-inverting terminals maintained at zero.
 4.3 Inverting Summing Amplifier

The most commonly used Summing Amplifier is an extended version of the Inverting
Amplifier configuration i.e., multiple inputs are applied to the inverting input terminal
of the Op Amp, while the non-inverting input terminal is connected to ground.

Due to this configuration, the output of Voltage Adder circuit is out of phase by
180o with respect to the input.

A general design of the Summing Amplifier is shown in the following circuit.

Normal Inverting Amplifier circuit has only one voltage / input at its inverting
input terminal. If more input voltages are connected to the inverting input
terminal as shown, the resulting output will be the sum of all the input voltages
applied, but inverted.

Inverting summing amplifier circuit

Before analyzing the above circuit, let us discuss about an important

point in this setup: The concept of Virtual Ground. As the Non-Inverting
Input of the above circuit is connected to ground, the Inverting Input terminal
of the Op Amp is at virtual ground. As a result, the inverting input node
becomes an ideal node for summing the input currents.

Instead of using a single input resistor, all the input sources have their own
input drive resistors. A circuit like this amplifies each input signal. The gain for
each input is given by the ratio of the feedback resistor Rf to the input
resistance in the respective branch.
Inverting Summing Amplifier Output Voltage Calculation

Let R1 be the input impedance and V1 be the input voltage of the first channel.
Similarly, R2 – V2 for second channel, R3 – V3 for third channel and so on up to
Rn – Vn for nth channel.

It is already been said that a summing amplifier is basically an Inverting

Amplifier with more than one voltage at the inverting input terminal. The output
voltage for each channel can be calculated individually and the final output
voltage will be the sum of all the individual outputs.

To calculate the output voltage of a particular channel, we have to ground all

the remaining channels and use the basic inverting amplifier output voltage
formula for each channel.

If all the channels are grounded except the first channel, then output for first
channel is given by:

 VOUT1 = – (Rf / R1) V1 

Where,  – (Rf / R1)  is the voltage gain for first channel (AV1).

Similarly, if all the channels are grounded except the second channel, then
output for second channel is given by:

 VOUT2 = – (Rf / R2) V2 

Where,  – (Rf / R2)  is the voltage gain for second channel (AV2).

Likewise, the output for nth channel is given by:

 VOUTn = – (Rf / Rn) Vn 

And  – (Rf / Rn)  is the voltage gain for nth channel (AVn).

The output signal is the algebraic sum of individual outputs or in other words it
is the sum of all the inputs multiplied by their respective gains.
  VOUT = VOUT1 + VOUT2 + . . . + VOUTn 

 VOUT = – [(Rf / R1) V1 + (Rf / R2) V2 + . . . + (Rf / Rn) Vn] 

 VOUT = V1 AV1 + V2 AV2 + . . . + Vn AVn 

Sometimes, it is necessary to just add the input voltages without amplifying

them. In such situations, the value of input resistance R1, R2, R3 etc. must be
chosen equal to that of the feedback resistor Rf. As a result, the gain of the
amplifier will be unity. Hence, the output voltage will be an addition of the input
voltages.

Theoretically, we can apply as many input signals to the input of the summing
amplifier as required. However, it must be noted that all of the input currents
are added and then fed back through the resistor Rf, so we should be aware of
the power rating of the resistors.

Simulation on MULTISIM

Inverting Summing Amplifier with Output Waveform on MULTISIM

4.4 Non-Inverting Summing Amplifier

A Non-Inverting Summing Amplifier can also be constructed using the Non-

Inverting Amplifier configuration of the Op Amp. Here, the input voltages are
applied to the non-inverting input terminal of the Op Amp and a part of the
output is fed back to the inverting input terminal, through voltage-divider-bias
feedback.

The circuit of a Non-Inverting Summing Amplifier is shown in the following

image. For the sake of convenience, the following circuit consists of only three
inputs, but more inputs can be added.

Non-Inverting summing amplifier circuit

Non-Inverting Summing Amplifier Output Voltage

Calculation

To understand the working of a Non-Inverting Summing Amplifier, we have to

divide the circuit into two parts:

 Input Resistor / Source Section

 Non-Inverting Amplifier Section

If VIN is the combination of all the input signals, then this is applied at the non-
inverting terminal of the Op Amp. From the above circuit, we can calculate the
output voltage of the Non-Inverting Amplifier with VIN as input and Rf and Ri as
the feedback divider resistors as follows:

 VOUT = VIN (1 + (Rf / Ri)) 

As the output voltage is figured out, we have to now determine the value of
VIN. If V1, V2 and V3 are the three main input sources and R1, R2 and R3 are their
input resistances, then VIN1, VIN2 and VIN3 are the inputs of respective channels
when other corresponding channels are grounded. So,

 VIN = VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3 

As the concept of virtual ground doesn’t apply here, all channels will have an
effect on other channels. Let us calculate the VIN1 portion of the VIN and by
simple mathematics, we can easily derive the other two values i.e., VIN2 and
VIN3.

Coming to VIN1, when V2 and V3 are grounded, their corresponding resistors

cannot be ignored as form a voltage divider network. So,

 VIN1 = V1 [(R2 || R3) / (R1 + (R2 || R3))] 

Similarly, we can calculate the other two values VIN2 and VIN3 as

 VIN2 = V2 [(R1 || R3) / (R2 + (R1 || R3))] 

 VIN3 = V3 [(R1 || R2) / (R3 + (R1 || R2))] 

So,

 VIN = VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3 

 VIN = V1 [(R2 || R3) / (R1 + (R2 || R3))] + V2 [(R1 || R3) / (R2 + (R1 || R3))] + V3 [(R1 ||
R2) / (R3 + (R1 || R2))] 

Finally, we can calculate the Output voltage VOUT as

 VOUT = VIN (1 + (Rf / Ri)) 

 VOUT = (1 + (Rf / Ri)) {V1 [(R2 || R3) / (R1 + (R2 || R3))] + V2 [(R1 || R3) / (R2 + (R1 ||
R3))] + V3 [(R1 || R2) / (R3 + (R1 || R2))]} 

If we consider the special equal weighted condition where all the resistors are
having the same values, then the output voltage is:
  VOUT = (1 + (Rf / Ri)) ( (V1 + V2 + V3) / 3) 

Simulation on MULTISIM

Non-Inverting Summing Amplifier with Output Waveform on MULTISIM

Applications Of Summing Amplifier

It allows audio experts to combine signals from various channels and reproduce
them into a single track.

Every single audio input can be configured independently without affecting the
output. Another common application of the summing amplifier is the digital to analog
converter.

4.5 Differential Amplifier

The differential amplifier is a voltage subtractor circuit which produces an

output voltage proportional to the voltage difference of two input signals
applied to the inputs of the inverting and non-inverting terminals of an
operational amplifier.

Thus far we have used only one of the operational amplifiers inputs to connect
to the amplifier, using either the “inverting” or the “non-inverting” input
terminal to amplify a single input signal with the other input being connected
to ground.

But as a standard operational amplifier has two inputs, inverting and no-
inverting, we can also connect signals to both of these inputs at the same time
producing another common type of operational amplifier circuit called
a Differential Amplifier.

But by connecting one voltage signal onto one input terminal and another
voltage signal onto the other input terminal the resultant output voltage will
be proportional to the “Difference” between the two input voltage signals
of V1 and V2.

Then differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two voltages

making this type of operational amplifier circuit a Subtractor unlike a summing
amplifier which adds or sums together the input voltages. This type of
operational amplifier circuit is commonly known as a Differential
Amplifier configuration and is shown below:

Differential amplifier circuit

By connecting each input in turn to 0v ground we can use superposition to

solve for the output voltage Vout. Then the transfer function for a Differential
Amplifier circuit is given as:
When resistors, R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 the above transfer function for the
differential amplifier can be simplified to the following expression:

Differential Amplifier Equation

Simulation on MULTISIM

Differential Amplifier with Output Waveform on MULTISIM

4.6 Instrumentation Amplifier

An instrumentation amplifier is one kind of IC (integrated circuit), mainly used

for amplifying a signal. This amplifier comes under the family of the differential
amplifier because it increases the disparity among two inputs. The main
function of this amplifier is to diminish surplus noise that is chosen by the
circuit. The capacity to refuse noise is familiar to every IC pins which are known
as the CMRR (common-mode rejection ratio). The instrumentation amplifier
IC is an essential component in the designing of the circuit due to its
characteristics like high CMRR, open-loop gain is high, low drift as well as low
DC offset, etc.

Instrumentation amplifier’s final output Vout is the amplified difference of the

input signals applied to the input terminals of op-amp 3.Let the outputs of op-
amp 1 and op-amp 2 be Vo1 and Vo2 respectively.
 Instrumentation Amplifier using Op-Amp

Then, Vout = (R3/R2)(Vo1-Vo2)

The potential at node A is the input voltage V1. Hence the potential at node B
is also V1, from the virtual short concept. Thus, the potential at node G is also
V1.

The potential at node D is the input voltage V2. Hence the potential at node C
is also V2, from the virtual short. Thus, the potential at node H is also V2.

Input Stage of the Instrumentation Amplifier using Op-Amp

The working of the instrumentation amplifier is, Ideally the current to the input

stage op-amps is zero. Therefore the current I through the resistors R1, Rgain,
and R1 remain the same.
Applying Ohm’s law between nodes E and F,

I = (Vo1-Vo2)/(R1+Rgain+R1) ……………………….(1)

I = (Vo1-Vo2)/(2R1+Rgain)

Since no current is flowing to the input of the op-amps 1 & 2, the current I
between the nodes G and H can be given as,

I = (VG-VH) / Rgain = (V1-V2) / Rgain……………………….(2)

Equating equations 1 and 2,

(Vo1-Vo2)/(2R1+Rgain) = (V1-V2)/Rgain

(Vo1-Vo2) = (2R1+Rgain)(V1-V2)/Rgain ……………………….(3)

The output of the difference amplifier is given as,

Vout = (R3/R2) (Vo1-Vo2)

Therefore, (Vo1 – Vo2) = (R2/R3)Vout

Substituting (Vo1 – Vo2) value in equation 3, we get

(R2/R3)Vout = (2R1+Rgain)(V1-V2)/Rgain

i.e. Vout = (R3/R2){(2R1+Rgain)/Rgain}(V1-V2)

This above equation gives the output voltage of an instrumentation amplifier.

The overall gain of the amplifier is given by the

term (R3/R2){(2R1+Rgain)/Rgain}.

The overall voltage gain of an instrumentation amplifier can be controlled by

adjusting the value of resistor Rgain.

The common mode signal attenuation for the instrumentation amplifier is

provided by the difference amplifier.

Advantages of Instrumentation Amplifier

The advantages of the instrumentation amplifier include the following-

The gain of a three op-amp instrumentation amplifier circuit can be easily
varied by adjusting the value of only one resistor Rgain.

The gain of the amplifier depends only on the external resistors used.

The input impedance is very high due to the emitter follower configurations of
amplifiers 1 and 2

The output impedance of the instrumentation amplifier is very low due to the
difference amplifier3.

The CMRR of the op-amp 3 is very high and almost all of the common mode
signal will be rejected.

Applications of Instrumentation Amplifier

The applications of the instrumentation amplifier include the following-

These amplifiers mainly involve where the accuracy of high differential gain is
required, strength must be preserved in noisy surroundings, as well as where
huge common-mode signals are there. Some of the applications are

Instrumentation amplifiers are used in data acquisition from small

o/p transducers like thermocouples, strain gauges, measurements
of Wheatstone bridge, etc.

These amplifiers are used in navigation, medical, radar, etc.

These amplifiers are used to enhance the S/N ratio (signal to noise) in audio
applications like audio signals with low amplitude.

These amplifiers are used for imaging as well as video data acquisition in the
conditioning of high-speed signal.

These amplifiers are used in RF cable systems for amplification of the high-

frequency signal.
Difference between Operational Amplifier and Instrumentation Amplifier

The key differences between the operational amplifier and instrumentation

amplifier include the following-

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is one kind of an integrated circuit

The instrumentation amplifier is one type of differential amplifier

Instrumentation amplifier can be built with three operational amplifiers.

The differential amplifier can be built with a single operational amplifier.

The output voltage of difference amplifier gets affected because of the

mismatch resistors

Instrumentation amplifier offers gain with a single resistor of its primary phase
which does not need a resistor matching.

Instrumentation Amplifier with Waveform on MULTISIM

 5 Op-Amp as Integrator

An integrator is basically an inverting amplifier where we replace feedback

resistor with a capacitor of suitable value.

Integrator

As its name implies, the Op-amp Integrator is an operational amplifier circuit

that performs the mathematical operation of Integration, that is we can cause
the output to respond to changes in the input voltage over time as the op-amp
integrator produces an output voltage which is proportional to the integral of
the input voltage.

When a step voltage, Vin is firstly applied to the input of an integrating

amplifier, the uncharged capacitor C has very little resistance and acts a bit like
a short circuit allowing maximum current to flow via the input resistor, Rin as
potential difference exists between the two plates. No current flows into the
amplifiers input and point X is a virtual earth resulting in zero output. As the
impedance of the capacitor at this point is very low, the gain ratio of XC/RIN is
also very small giving an overall voltage gain of less than one, ( voltage follower
circuit ).

As the feedback capacitor, C begins to charge up due to the influence of the

input voltage, its impedance Xc slowly increase in proportion to its rate of
charge. The capacitor charges up at a rate determined by the RC time constant,
( τ ) of the series RC network. Negative feedback forces the op-amp to produce
an output voltage that maintains a virtual earth at the op-amp’s inverting
input.

Since the capacitor is connected between the op-amp’s inverting input (which
is at virtual ground potential) and the op-amp’s output (which is now
negative), the potential voltage, Vc developed across the capacitor slowly
increases causing the charging current to decrease as the impedance of the
capacitor increases. This results in the ratio of Xc/Rin increasing producing a
linearly increasing ramp output voltage that continues to increase until the
capacitor is fully charged.

At this point the capacitor acts as an open circuit, blocking any more flow of DC
current. The ratio of feedback capacitor to input resistor ( XC/RIN ) is now
infinite resulting in infinite gain. The result of this high gain (similar to the op-
amps open-loop gain), is that the output of the amplifier goes into saturation
as shown below. (Saturation occurs when the output voltage of the amplifier
swings heavily to one voltage supply rail or the other with little or no control in
between).

The rate at which the output voltage increases (the rate of change) is
determined by the value of the resistor and the capacitor, “RC time constant“.
By changing this RC time constant value, either by changing the value of the
Capacitor, C or the Resistor, R, the time in which it takes the output voltage to
reach saturation can also be changed for example.
Here, in the circuit, as the non inverting input is grounded, the electric
potential of inverting input will also be zero as non inverting input. In an ideal
op amp, no current entires to the op amp through both inverting and non
inverting inputs.
Now, if we apply Kirchhoff current law at node 1 of the above circuit,

Now, if we apply Kirchhoff current law at node 1 of the above circuit, shown in
figure 2, we get

Integrating both side, we get,

This is the integral function of input voltage.

The AC Op-amp Integrator with DC Gain Control

Unlike the DC integrator amplifier above whose output voltage at any instant
will be the integral of a waveform so that when the input is a square wave, the
output waveform will be triangular. For an AC integrator, a sinusoidal input
waveform will produce another sine wave as its output which will be 90o out-
of-phase with the input producing a cosine wave.

Further more, when the input is triangular, the output waveform is also
sinusoidal. This then forms the basis of a Active Low Pass Filter as seen before
in the filters section tutorials with a corner frequency given as-

Op-amp Differentiator Waveforms

 Integrator’s Waveform on MULTISIM

6 Op-Amp as Differentiator

An op amp differentiator is basically an inverting amplifier with a capacitor of

suitable value at its input terminal. The figure below shows the basic circuit
diagram of an op amp differentiator.

Differentiator

The input signal to the differentiator is applied to the capacitor. The capacitor
blocks any DC content so there is no current flow to the amplifier summing
point, X resulting in zero output voltage. The capacitor only allows AC type
input voltage changes to pass through and whose frequency is dependant on
the rate of change of the input signal.

At low frequencies the reactance of the capacitor is “High” resulting in a low

gain ( Rƒ/Xc ) and low output voltage from the op-amp. At higher frequencies
the reactance of the capacitor is much lower resulting in a higher gain and
higher output voltage from the differentiator amplifier.

However, at high frequencies an op-amp differentiator circuit becomes

unstable and will start to oscillate. This is due mainly to the first-order effect,
which determines the frequency response of the op-amp circuit causing a
second-order response which, at high frequencies gives an output voltage far
higher than what would be expected. To avoid this the high frequency gain of
the circuit needs to be reduced by adding an additional small value capacitor
across the feedback resistor Rƒ.

The charge on the capacitor equals Capacitance times Voltage across the
capacitor

Thus the rate of change of this charge is:

but dQ/dt is the capacitor current, i

from which we have an ideal voltage output for the op-amp differentiator is
given as:

Therefore, the output voltage Vout is a constant –Rƒ*C times the derivative of

the input voltage Vin with respect to time. The minus sign (–) indicates
a 180o phase shift because the input signal is connected to the inverting input
terminal of the operational amplifier.

One final point to mention, the Op-amp Differentiator circuit in its basic form

has two main disadvantages compared to the previous operational amplifier
integrator circuit. One is that it suffers from instability at high frequencies as
mentioned above, and the other is that the capacitive input makes it very
susceptible to random noise signals and any noise or harmonics present in the
source circuit will be amplified more than the input signal itself. This is because
the output is proportional to the slope of the input voltage so some means of
limiting the bandwidth in order to achieve closed-loop stability is required.

Improved Op-amp Differentiator Amplifier

Adding the input resistor RIN limits the differentiators increase in gain at a

ratio of Rƒ/RIN The circuit now acts like a differentiator amplifier at low
frequencies and an amplifier with resistive feedback at high frequencies giving
much better noise rejection.

Additional attenuation of higher frequencies is accomplished by connecting a

capacitor Cƒ in parallel with the differentiator feedback resistor, Rƒ. This then
forms the basis of a Active High Pass Filter as we have seen before in the filters
section.

Op-amp Differentiator Waveforms

Differentiator’s Waveform on MULTISIM