Biology Student’s Companion Resource SB025

CHAPTER 9: HOMEOSTASIS

SUBTOPIC : 9.1 Concept of homeostasis

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Define homeostasis
b) Describe the homeostatic control system.

MAIN
IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
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POINT

Definition of What is homeostasis? What is internal environment?

homeostasis ✓ A state in which the internal environment is being
maintained within a range that cells can tolerate • Internal environment is all the
(Biology: Starr Taggart, 11th edition) fluid not inside the body’s cell.
• It consists of interstitial fluid and
✓ Dynamic consistency of the internal environment. blood plasma: extracellular fluid
(Biology: Raven 6th edition)
▪ Dynamic is used because the conditions are never
absolutely constant but fluctuate continuously within
narrow limits

✓ The existence of a stable internal environment.

(Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology, 9th edition)

✓ The consistency of the body's internal environment

(Biology life on earth, 7th edition)

review!

Homeostasis is the activity of cells throughout the body to

maintain the physiological state within a narrow range that
is compatible with life. Homeostasis is regulated by
negative feedback loops and, much less frequently, by
positive feedback loops. Both have the same components
of a stimulus, sensor, control center, and effector;
however, negative feedback loops work to prevent an
excessive response to the stimulus, whereas positive
feedback loops intensify the response until an end point is
reached.
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Mechanism What is the mechanism involved in homeostasis?

involved in Feedback mechanism
homeostatic ✓ Help control what goes on in cells
✓ They also are major homeostatic controls over how
multicellular body functions
✓ There are two types of feedback mechanism
➢ Negative feedback mechanism
➢ Positive feedback mechanism

NEGATIVE feedback mechanisms

✓ Correct the deviations from set point
▪ Some activity changes a specific condition in the internal
environment
▪ If the changes past a certain point, a response reverse
the changes

POSITIVE feedback mechanisms

✓ Controls initiate a chain of events that intensify change

from an original condition
▪ The end result is that change tends to proceed in the
same direction as the initial stimulus
▪ After a limited time, the intensification reverses the
change

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Homeostatic How does homeostatic control system operate?

control ✓ Receptor, control center and effector are in charge of it
system Collectively, they detect, process and respond to
information/stimulus

Hint!
Do you know what disrupted homeostasis? Stimulus and response are both changes in the same
variables.

Component STIMULUS
of ✓ Any disruption that changes a controlled condition
homeostatic ▪ changes in physical or chemical factors
control
system RECEPTOR
✓ A body structure that monitors changes in a controlled
condition
▪ stimulus of changes in physical or chemical factors is
detected by receptor

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▪ What will receptor do then?

✓ Sends INPUT in the form of nerve impulses or
chemical signals to a control center
▪ Example of receptor?
✓ Cells of islets of Langerhans

CONTROL CENTER
✓ Receives and processes the information / input supplied
from the receptor

▪ What will control center do then?

✓ Triggers the action/output that will correct the
changes and send to effector
✓ Output from the control center can occur in several
forms e.g., nerve impulses, hormones or other
chemical signals
▪ Example of control center?
✓ Cells of islets of Langerhans, hypothalamus

EFFECTOR
✓ A body structure that receives output from the control
center

▪ What will effector do then?

✓ produces a response or effect that changes the
controlled condition (through negative feedback
mechanisms) restore condition back to normal
▪ Example of effector?
✓ Liver, muscle
Check this out!
Homeostatic mechanisms work continuously to maintain
stable conditions in the human body. Sometimes, however,
the mechanisms fail. When they do, homeostatic
imbalance may result, in which cells may not get
everything they need, or toxic wastes may accumulate in
the body. If homeostasis is not restored, the imbalance may
lead to disease or even death. Diabetes is an example of a
disease caused by homeostatic imbalance. In the case of
diabetes, blood glucose levels are no longer regulated and
may be dangerously high. Medical intervention can help
restore homeostasis and possibly prevent permanent
damage to the organism.
Normal aging may bring about a reduction in the efficiency
of the body’s control systems. This makes the body more
susceptible to disease.
For example: older people may have a harder time
regulating their body temperature. This is one reason they
are more likely than younger people to develop serious
heat-induced illnesses such as heat stroke.

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SUBTOPIC : 9.2 Negative feedback mechanism

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Define negative feedback
b) Describe the regulation of blood glucose level:
i. glycogenesis
ii. glycogenolysis; and
iii. gluconeogenesis

MAIN IDEAS /KEY

EXPLANATION NOTES
POINT

✓ A form of regulation in which accumulation of an end product

of a process slows the process.
Definition of negative
feedback mechanism ✓ In physiology, a primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a
change in a variable triggers a response that counteracts the
initial change.
(Campbell 11th edition)

Regulation of blood glucose level. Check this out!

✓ Involves negative feedback mechanism but; both receptor and Glycogen is mainly
control center are cells of islets of Langerhans (in pancreas) stored in the liver
(where it makes up as
much as 10% of liver
weight and can be
released back into the
blood stream) and
muscle (where it can
be converted back to
glucose but only used
by the muscle).
Therefore, excess
glucose is removed
from the blood
stream and stored.

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Regulation of blood When blood glucose level increase

glucose level • Receptor: β-cells of Langerhans in pancreas are stimulated →
i. glycogenesis to secrete insulin
• Insulin triggers uptake of glucose from the blood by:
➢ stimulate the effector (liver, muscle cells and other
tissues) to store glucose as glycogen (in liver &
muscle cell); or
➢ increase the metabolic rate of cell
• This will cause the blood glucose level return (back) to normal
level

ii. glycogenolysis When blood glucose level decrease,

✓ Receptor: α-cells of Langerhans in the pancreas are
stimulated
• to secrete glucagon
✓ Glucagon stimulates effector: the liver cells
• to convert glycogen to glucose
✓ Blood glucose level return to normal

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iii. gluconeogenesis ✓ Gluconeogenesis is the generation of glucose from non-sugar

carbon substrates like glycerol, lactate, pyruvate, and glucogenic
amino acids
✓ takes place in liver, cortex of kidneys etc.
✓ occurs during periods of fasting, starvation, or intense exercise
and is highly endergonic (energy intensive).

✓ Why gluconeogenesis?
During a prolonged fast or vigorous exercise, glycogen stores
become depleted, and glucose must be synthesized de novo in
order to maintain blood glucose levels.

Differences between Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

Glycogenesis Glycogenolysis

Glycogenesis refers to the production of glycogen Glycogenolysis refers to the metabolic degradation
from glucose of glycogen to glucose,

Glycogenesis, or the synthesis of glycogen from Glycogenolysis occurs in muscle and liver cells in
glucose, happens in liver and muscle cells response to hormonal and neural signals.
One ATP is necessary for any glucose unit It produces much more energy.
incorporated into glycogen's polymeric branched
structure during glycogen synthesis.

Differences between Glycogenolysis and Gluconeogenesis

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SUBTOPIC : 9.3 Human homeostatic organ: Structure and functions of kidney

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
a) Illustrate and explain the microscopic structure of nephron focusing structure of glomerulus and Bowman
capsule.
b) Analyse the processes in urine formation:
i. Ultrafiltration
ii. Reabsorption
iii. Secretion
c) Describe the counter current multiplier mechanism in urine formation.
d) Explain the role of ADH in regulation of water content in blood.

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
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Kidney – A major excretory and

osmoregulatory organ
– A pair bean-shaped organ
– About 10 cm in length
– Each kidney consists about a
million nephrons

– Structure of kidney:
• Renal cortex
• Renal medulla
• Renal pelvis

Microscopic Nephron
structure of 1. basic structural and functional unit of the kidney
nephron 2. Total (nephron) tubule length: approximately 80 km
3. Have enormous surface area for the exchange of materials

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Glomerulus
• is a network of small blood vessels (capillaries), located at the beginning of a nephron
in the kidney.
• three main cell types in the glomerulus are:
i. the glomerular podocytes,
ii. the fenestrated capillary endothelial cells and
iii. the mesangial cells.

Bowman’s capsule
- Is a part of the nephron (double-walled) that forms a cup-shaped swelling capsule
surrounding the glomerulus (located in the cortex).

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✓ The structure of Bowman’s capsule also contributes to the efficient ultrafiltration

process
– The wall of Bowman’s capsule consists of a specialized epithelial cell called podocytes
– Podocytes: cover most of the capillaries
– Foot processes of adjacent podocytes are separated by narrow gaps called filtration slits
– the perforated walls of the capillaries and the podocytes form a filtration membrane
▪ Permits fluid and small solutes to pass

Proximal convoluted tubule

• Lumen is continuous with the Bowman’s capsule
• Highly coiled
• Located in the cortex
• The epithelial luminal surface of proximal convoluted tubule is covered with densely
packed microvilli : to increase the surface area, facilitating their reabsorptive function
• The cytoplasm of the (epitelial) cells is densely packed with mitochondria:to supply
energy for active transport of sodium ions out of the proximal tubule.
• Water passively follows the sodium out along its concentration gradient.

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Loop of Henle
- Long U-shaped portion of the tubule that conducts urine within each nephron of the kidney
- Have descending limb & ascending limb. Loop of Henle begins in the cortex, receiving
filtrate from the proximal convoluted tubule, extends into the medulla as the descending
limb.
- The descending limb is permeable to water and less permeable to salt.
- The ascending limb have two region: Thick and thin region.
- Ascending limb is impermeable to water.

Distal convoluted tubule

- Distal convoluted tubule is lined with simple cuboidal cells that are shorter than those of
the proximal convoluted tubule.
- The lumen appears larger in distal convoluted tubule than the proximal convoluted tubule
lumen because the proximal convoluted tubule has microvilli.
- Distal convoluted tubule can be recognized by its numerous mitochondria, basal enfoldings
and lateral membrane interdigitations with neighboring cells.
- Distal convoluted tubule is highly coiled;
- and located in the cortex

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Collecting duct
- The collecting duct system is the last part of nephron
- Collecting duct functions to collects urine from the nephrons (cellular structures in the
kidney that filter blood and form urine) and moves it into the renal pelvis and ureters.
- Located in the medulla

Blood supply
within nephron
Main blood vessels:
1. Renal artery:
supplies oxygenated
blood from aorta to
kidney
2. Renal veins:
carries deoxygenated
blood from kidney to
posterior vena cava

An individual nephron and its blood supply:

Renal artery Afferent arteriole Glomerulus

Efferent arteriole Vasa recta Renal vein

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Processes in Involved 3 processes:

urine 1. Ultrafiltration
formation 2. Reabsorption
3. Secretion

1.Ultrafiltration – Takes place between the glomerulus and the Bowman’s capsule
– Occurs due to the hydrostatic pressure caused by the blood pressure
– Blood enters the glomerulus via afferent arteriole (larger diameter)
and leaves via efferent arteriole (smaller diameter)
• Produce high hydrostatic pressure
✓ Forces small molecules (glucose, amino acids, sodium,
potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, other salts, water and urea);
except red blood cell, plasma proteins and platelets
• through the walls of capillaries and Bowman’s capsule into the
capsular space

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2.Reabsorption – The process of absorbing useful substances (glucose, amino acids,

vitamins, most of the water, sodium and chloride ions) from the
tubule into capillaries which wrapped around tubule

– Occurs in:
1. Proximal convoluted tubule
2. Loop of Henle
3. Distal convoluted tubule
4. Collecting duct

Reabsorption in Proximal convoluted tubule

proximal Most reabsorption occurs: over 80 %
convoluted • All glucose, amino acids, vitamins and hormones, 85% of NaCl and
tubule other ions (by active transport)
• 40-50% of urea by diffusion
• 85% of water as concentration of ions increases in plasma.
• Water moves out (reabsorp) from tubule by osmosis

Reabsorption at Function:
Loop of Henle – To create a water potential gradient
✓ Between the filtrate and the interstitial fluid in the medulla
– The longer loop of Henle → urine produced is more concentrated
–
1. Descending limb
• Thin walls
• Highly permeable to water: water reabsorption occurs by
osmosis
• Impermeable to NaCl and other solutes

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2. Ascending limb
• Impermeable to water but permeable to NaCl and urea
✓ Thin segment (transport NaCl passively)
✓ Thick segment (transport NaCl actively)

Reabsorption at – Distal convoluted tubule receives a hypotonic (high water

distal concentration) filtrate from the ascending limb
convoluted – Distal convoluted tubule impermeable to water but (the permeability
tubule to water) depends on hormonal control
• ADH (antidiuretic hormone)
✓ under regulation of ADH, distal convoluted tubule became
more permeable towards water

• aldosterone
✓ under regulation of aldosterone, distal convoluted tubule
became more permeable towards NaCl and water
(secondary effect)

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Reabsorption at – The collecting duct drains the filtrate from cortex to medulla to the
collecting duct renal pelvis
– Permeability to water and urea is under hormonal control (anti-
diuretic hormone (ADH)).

– When the filtrate pass along the collecting duct,

• water moves out by osmosis to the interstitial fluid
• Some urea will also diffuse out along with NaCl, contributes to
the high concentration of solute (lower water potential) in the
interstitial fluid (aids the water reabsorption in descending limb
of loop of Henle)
• This urea is recycled by diffusion into the ascending limb of
loop of Henle

3. Secretion – Substances from blood capillaries were secreted into the tubule
– Occurs in the distal convoluted tubule (mainly) and the proximal
convoluted tubule
– In distal tubule; H+ and NH3 secreted from the blood into the filtrate to
maintain blood pH level.
– Secretion of K+ occurs under hormonal control by aldosterone
✓ Proximal & distal tubule also actively secretes harmful or toxic
substances (Example: drugs such as penicillin and caffeine) into
the filtrate
✓ to be removed (from human blood) by urine

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Counter ✓ Reabsorption occurs in loop of Henle is contribute by counter-

current current multiplier reaction
multiplier ✓ Counter current multiplier: The interaction between the flow of
mechanism in filtrate through the ascending and descending limbs of loop of Henle
urine and the flow of blood in the vasa recta
formation.
Function:
▪ To establish and maintain a high salt concentration in the loop of
Henle extending from the cortex through the medulla
▪ Enable water to be reabsorb into the vasa recta to conserve water.

In the descending limb :

• As the filtrate flow from cortex to medulla, water is drawn out by
osmosis
• NaCl become more concentrated in the tubule, increasing the
osmolarity of the filtrate
• Filtrate concentration is highest at the bottom of the loop of
Henle (hairpin loop of Henle)

At the ascending limb:

• Filtrate concentration is high in the tubule
• As the filtrate move through the thin segment, NaCl passively
diffuse out into the interstitial fluid
• and at the thick segment, NaCl is actively pumped out into
interstitial fluid
• Produce a high concentration of NaCl around the descending
limb
• Water potential in the interstitial fluid is lower
• Causes water in the descending limb drawn out by osmosis
• Creating a concentration gradient in the medulla
• The water and NaCl moves into the vasa recta surrounding the
loop of Henle

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–
SUMMARY :
Urine formation

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Role of ADH in – Control the normal blood osmotic pressure (normal water potential of
regulation of blood plasma) controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
water content ▪ produced in hypothalamus
in blood. ▪ released by posterior pituitary gland
– Target tissue :
✓ Distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts
– Actions :
✓ Increases permeability to water and urea

review!
The most common disease of man and animals related to antidiuretic
hormone is diabetes insipidus. This condition can arise from either of two
situations:
• Hypothalamic ("central") diabetes insipidus results from a deficiency in
secretion of antidiuretic hormone from the posterior pituitary. Causes of
this disease include head trauma, and infections or tumors involving the
hypothalamus.
• Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus occurs when the kidney is unable to
respond to antidiuretic hormone. Most commonly, this results from some
type of renal disease, but mutations in the ADH receptor gene or in the gene
encoding aquaporin-2 have also been demonstrated in affected humans.
The major sign of either type of diabetes insipidus is excessive urine
production. Some human patients produce as much as 16 liters of urine per
day! If adequate water is available for consumption, the disease is rarely
life-threatening, but withholding water can be very dangerous.
Hypothalamic diabetes insipidus can be treated with exogenous antidiuretic
hormone.

If dehydration/
blood osmotic
pressure high/
water potential
low

Less intake of water caused an increased in blood osmotic pressure

(BOP)/ osmolarity/ low blood volume
• (This condition) is detected by osmoreceptor in hypothalamus
• Leads to the stimulation of the posterior pituitary gland to secrete
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• ADH acts on nephron tubule:
- increases water permeability of distal tubule and
collecting duct
• More water is reabsorbed back (into the blood vessel) by osmosis
• Blood osmotic pressure/ blood volume returns back to normal level
• This regulation involved negative feedback mechanism.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
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If high water
intake/ blood
osmotic
pressure low/
water potential
high

High intake of water caused a decreased in blood osmotic pressure/

osmolarity/ high blood volume
• (this condition) is detected by osmoreceptor in hypothalamus
• Inhibits the posterior pituitary gland to secrete antidiuretic hormone
(ADH)
- reduce water permeability of distal tubule and
collecting duct
• Less water is reabsorbed (into the blood vessel) by osmosis
• Blood osmotic pressure/ blood volume returns back to normal level
• Involved negative feedback mechanism

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