Language features in written texts

Language features have a powerful impact on the way we make meaning from the things we read
and view.

Language refers to the use of words, signs and symbols in a structured and conventional way. In
English, you consider how texts use features of language, whether it be spoken, written, visual or a
combination of these (multimodal).

Language features employed in all varieties of prose

The following language features as common to all prose texts.

 diction (vocabulary, lexical choice)  figurative language

 syntax (sentence structure) - simile
 punctuation - metaphor
 imagery - personification
 narrative voice/point of view (or - metonymy
persona for non-fiction) - etc.

Diction refers to the words chosen by a writer

When considering diction, you could consider:

 Word classes (nouns, verbs and adjectives) and their effect.

 The connotation of words. Denotation is the literal meaning of a word. Connotations are the
ideas and feelings associated with a word.
 The use of abstraction or the use of concrete terms.
 How specific or ambiguous a word is.
 The impact of diction on the tone of a text.
 The impact of diction on register – the level of formality of language. Is the language
colloquial or formal?
 The use of words that are emotive.

Imagery refers to vivid descriptions that appeal to our senses

For a description to count as imagery, it must be more than a simple statement. Olfactory,
gustatory, tactile, visual, and auditory imagery refers to images those descriptions that target a
specific sense.

Figurative language is the use of or figures of speech

Figures of speech include metaphor, extended metaphor, simile, personification (all being
techniques of comparison), hyperbole (or overstatement), understatement, onomatopoeia,
oxymoron or paradox, allusion, idiom, pun, etc. Idiom, metonymy, allusion and irony are devices
that you might like to learn.
 Language features in still images
Visual language features are also known as visual elements, visual techniques and/or visual
conventions, depending on who you talk to.

Visual elements

The content of the image The technical construction of the image

Creates meaning through symbolism and connotation Creates meaning through emphasis and spatial relationships

Representation of people/characters Salience - a strategy of emphasis, highlighting what is

Body language, including important in a text. In images, salience is created
- Facial expression through strategies like placement of an item in the
- Gaze and bodily orientation foreground, size and contrast in tone or colour.
- Posture
- Gesture Composition, including:
- Proximity (social distance) - Foregrounding and backgrounding
- Centring and marginalisation
Symbolic codes

- Bodily contact

Technical codes
- Action and reaction - Relative size
Occupation and role - Rule of thirds
Nationality/ethnicity - Juxtaposition
Clothing/costume - Leading lines and focal point
Physical build/appearance
Viewer perspective
The use of well-known people (such as celebrities - Camera angle/Viewing angle
or historical figures) - Shot distance/Viewing distance
- Framing
Representation of objects - Focus and depth of field
Representation of animals
Representation of places Lighting and colour (also symbolic)

Written codes
Still images such as film posters and advertisements will often include written elements, such as a title, tag-
line, captions, inset quotations and so on. Deal with them as you would written language.

Language features in film texts

We can analyse film texts in the same way we analyse still images, except that we must count for the
fact that there is also movement and sound. The language features of film texts include:

 Camera shots, angles, framing and camera movement

 Composition of images and use of focus
 Mise-en-scéne: setting, costume and make-up, acting and lighting – i.e. all the visual
elements the director has control over
 Editing, including the arrangement of scenes and cuts within scenes (such as shot/reverse
shot)
 The soundtrack, including dialogue, music and sound effects
 Non-fiction: Persuasive and interpretive texts
Texts that purport to be based on facts, and that seek to explain, instruct, or persuade are considered non-
fiction. Expository texts explain an issue or topic or put forward a view. Persuasive texts seek to convince
others.

Even though non-fiction is based in fact, these texts are never neutral. They always reflect certain opinions,
attitudes and values; usually those of the writer.

The English ATAR divides this category of texts according to a text’s primary purpose:

 Interpretive texts are those whose primary purpose is to explain and interpret personalities,
events, ideas, representations or concepts. They include autobiography, biography, media feature
articles, documentary film and other non-fiction texts. Also known as expository texts.

 Persuasive texts are those whose primary purpose is to put forward a point of view and persuade a
reader, viewer or listener. They include advertising, debates, arguments, discussions, polemics and
essays and articles.

The distinctions are neither static nor discrete and particular texts can belong to more than one category. This
means that interpretive and persuasive texts may share many of the same textual features.

Features of prose non-fiction

Content, language and structure work together to suit context, audience and purpose.

1. Content: the selection of detail 2. The structure of the text

Common conventions include: This can refer to:

 Use of authorities and experts  the ordering and arrangement of ideas and
 Facts and statistics information
 openings and conclusions
 Background detail
 elements such as bullet points or dialogue,
 Personal observation
headings or subheadings
 Case studies
 withholding information
 Interviews and quotes
 repetition of words, phrases or ideas
 Narratives
 Anecdotes
 Omissions – what has been left out

3. The use of language

At its most basic, this refers to:

 rhetoric  figurative language

 persona - simile
 diction (vocabulary, lexical choice) - metaphor
 syntax (sentence structure) - personification
 punctuation - metonymy
 imagery - etc.
 Persuasive and interpretive forms
The syllabus says persuasive texts include advertising, debates, arguments, discussions, polemics
and essays and articles, whereas interpretive texts include autobiography, biography, media
feature articles, documentary film and other non-fiction texts.

There is a lot of overlap between interpretive and persuasive texts. Whether a text is interpretive or
persuasive really comes down to the primary purpose of the text, and the way this influences
content, style and tone.

Opinion piece Usually written by an expert (an academic, researcher, someone experienced in a
particular field etc.) or a regular columnist known for a particular ideological bent or
subject knowledge. Authoritative, assertive confident tone usually. Often uses
formal or sophisticated language but can be wry, humorous or satirical too.

Regularly appear in online newspapers where they may be referred to as blog posts.

Editorial An article that expresses the views of a magazine or newspaper editor (or a group of
senior journalists) about a current issue. Tends to argue in a knowledgeable and
reasonable tone, usually formal/conservative in language.

Speech Written for a live audience. Therefore, acknowledges the audience/context and/or
includes a greeting/welcome. States a personal viewpoint or contention clearly,
often ends with call to action. Will blend the rhetorical strategies of logos, pathos
and ethos. The importance of context and audience in shaping the content and style
of a text is no more crucial than in a live speech. Think very carefully about who a
speech is delivered to before you write one or analyse one.

Debate Responds in the affirmative or negative to a proposition. If both sides are presented,
one will rebut the other. In a public debate, speakers will generally use the
conventions of a persuasive speech, but will acknowledge the context in which they
argue and the points of other speakers. Doing both sides of a debate is a great way
to show you can write in different voices, or from different perspectives.

Letter A letter to the editor of a newspaper, or an open letter published online or in a

newspaper, is one way a writer might put forward a viewpoint. It’s a great way to
show voice, and writing a series of short letters from different perspectives can be
an interesting way to show your ability to shape language for effect.

Feature article An article about a topical issue, event or personality, but not as time-sensitive as a
news report. May give detailed background information. Has a headline and a kicker,
by-line, date of publication. Includes quotes from interviews. (Often accompanied by
images and qualify as multimodal texts if this is the case.)

While a feature article may appear balanced and acknowledge both sides of an
issue, writers often favour one particular perspective.

 Headline aims to draw attention, and a kicker (or stand-first) paragraph opens the article
and poses a central question, or summarises the issue in an engaging or sensational
manner.
 Will include expert opinion, interviews, statistics, anecdotes and narrative incursions,
reference to case studies or historical examples etc.
 The writer’s voice may be intrusive, or it may give way to foreground the experiences
and opinions of others.
 Features of persuasive and interpretive texts

Selection of detail – content, evidence and illustration

Hard evidence
Authority Use of authorities and experts; expert Having an expert opinion often
testimony, quotes, etc. Statements by reinforces the central argument of the
Use of authorities and experts; famous people, experts on the subject, text through adding credibility to the
expert testimony, quotes, etc. quoting from reliable sources piece. People are more likely to believe
people with qualifications in a field.

Facts, figures and statistics; The use of figures and numbers to convince the audience of a central point; the
Definitions; Research findings use of research or reference to scholarly works

Background detail or contextual Background information, often placed early in a text, helps contextualise an issue
detail for the audience.

Biographical detail Often used in personality profiles: A personality profile is written to bring an
audience closer to a person in or out of the news. Interviews and observations, as
well as creative writing, are used to paint a vivid picture of the person.

Historical or literary references References to the historical record, or references to highly regarded writings

The personal touch

Personal experience and Information that is drawn from what has happened to the writer personally, or
observations which he or she has seen first-hand.

Anecdotes Short little stories that involve the They are used as illustration which often
writer or somebody he/ she knows. make the topic more personal to the
audience.

Narrative incursions When descriptions of people, events Quite common in the opening of
or incidents are rendered using persuasive texts as the writer ‘sets the
narrative techniques, including scene’ or ‘paints a picture’.
characterisation, setting, conflict and
tension.

Interviews and quotes Ordinary people may be interviewed They may act as focalisers or may be the
and quoted subject of the text.

Case studies These are examples of people who the For example, “Anne Ball, 37, has been
issue being discussed has affected the victim of discrimination ever since
which add more weight to the she can remember.”
argument as it has not only happened
to the speaker.

Author’s opinion and personal When the writer draws on his or her own experience or offers opinions and
belief assumptions about a subject. The author, who may be an expert or a layperson,
may present his or her thinking as if they are facts.
(In journalism, this is known as
editorialising)
Language features – words, phrases, sentences and appeals
Persona – the role adopted by the writer; result of words, phrases, details and mode of address
Persona: the mask or role The writer can relate to an audience in a E.g. Authoritative and knowledgeable; a passionate
adopted by a writer. particular way. We can also call this ‘mode advocate for the cause, an apparently neutral observer,
of address’, which is the way the writer an everyday person working through a complex issue; a
Essentially synonymous speaks to the reader. close friend or intimate, an ordinary person in the same
with the authorial voice of situation as the reader, etc.
a text

Tone - describes the way the ‘voice’ is delivered. For example, the tone of a voice or the tone in a
passage of writing could be friendly or angry or persuasive.
Closely linked to persona. Not what you say, but how you say it. Tone E.g. humourous, wry, angry, ironic, wistful, pleading,
An effect of the use of is the attitude implied in a piece of writing. proud, desperate, serious, blasé, humble, joyful,
words and phrases. aggressive, celebratory, cynical, scathing, indignant,
warm, optimistic, hopeful, despairing, etc.
The words and phrases
Diction/Lexical choice Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. Words have both denotations and connotations
Some words are concrete, some are abstract. Some are specific, others ambiguous.
Some are formal, others informal.

Connotative language Phrases with positive or negative implications; pejorative phrases, ‘loaded’ language that evokes an
idea or feeling

Figurative language Including symbolism, metaphor, simile, personification (all being techniques of comparison), hyperbole
(or overstatement), understatement, oxymoron or paradox, allusion, idiom, metonymy, irony,
euphemism, dysphemism, etc.

Emotive language Choosing descriptive and connotative words that appeal to the audience’s emotions e.g. of anger,
empathy, sadness and pity or disgust; or even their optimism, joy, hope, serenity, love, altruism or
relief.

Inclusive language; use of When the writer uses pronouns such as ‘we’, ‘ours’ and ‘us’. This can position us to feel as though the
personal pronouns writer is one of us, on our side, and gives a sense that they are someone you can relate to.
Direct address When the speaker or writer communicates a message directly to another individual or group of
individuals - identified by name, nickname, the pronoun you, or an expression that's either friendly or
unfriendly.
Idiomatic or colloquial Idiom – “She ran rings around him”, “Tax increases are a hot potato”. “At the drop of a hat”, etc.
language Colloquialisms, slang.

Formal or informal The use of colloquialisms, slang, contractions and idioms may be devices that construct informal
language; Register language. More refined, official, elaborate or technical terms may evoke formality. These are closely
linked to the tone and voice of a text. Consider ‘Let us commence’ vs ‘let’s start’, or ‘I will endeavour to’
vs ‘I’ll give it a go.’
Jargon, discourse Specific words used by specific groups.
Imagery and description Vivid descriptions that appeal to the senses
Alliteration and assonance Repetition of initial consonant or vowel sounds Adds emphasis, draws attention, can be
memorable, can be pleasing to listen to.
Erotesis (rhetorical A question that is asked in such a way that Asked in order to create a dramatic effect or to
questions) everyone knows the answer. make a point rather than to get an answer.
Analogy a comparison between one thing and another, typically for the purpose of explanation or clarification
Allusion an expression designed to call something to mind without mentioning it explicitly; an indirect or
passing reference

Exhortation Emphatically urging someone to do something.

Maxims and popular Maxims include popular sayings, commonly “A friend in need is a friend indeed.”
sayings accepted principles, and truisms.

Assertions A confident and forceful “The government must apologise to Indigenous people because it has
statement of fact or belief done them wrong, and because the nation must be healed.”
Generalisations Broad statements inferred from specific For example, “It is clear from the evidence that all girls
 cases benefit from single-sex classes”

Use of humour Ridicule, lampooning, sarcasm, irony, satire, understatement, overstatement, puns, etc.
Exaggeration Used to imply something is better or For example, “We’re all being brainwashed by TV
worse, more important or less important. advertising!” or “The city is being overrun by criminals!”

Sensationalism Use of provocative language, images and exaggeration

Personal attacks / Expression of disapproval, a belittling or abusive comment. Expressions of admiration and approval
denigration, or praise
Epithets A defamatory or abusive word or phrase
Colourful language Vulgar or rude language; particularly “They’re certainly up the creek now!” or “What a bunch
unusual or distinctive expressions. of silly old buggers.” Can create humour, create
informality, may offend conservative audience
Concession Acknowledging that some alternate views or positions are correct
Pre-empting Acknowledge an opposing view before it is raised, so that it can be rebutted
Polarisaton, binary Division into two sharply contrasting groups or sets of opinions or beliefs; use of strong contrasts or
oppositions, antithesis offering two distinctly different choices; Expression of an opposition or contrast of ideas
Syntax - Sentences and their arrangement
Anaphora The repetition of a word or phrase at the “My life is my purpose. My life is my goal. My life is my
beginning of successive clauses. inspiration.”

Parallel construction Repetition of same grammatical The cheese was tasty, the cheese was fresh, and
construction in a sentence or sentences. ultimately, the cheese was gone.

Triadic sentence Use of a tricolon: three parallel words, "I require three things in a man. He must be handsome,
phrases, or clauses. ruthless, and stupid."
"You are talking to a man who has laughed in the face of
death, sneered at doom, and chuckled at catastrophe."
Declarative sentences Statements and declarations “There are five million people at risk.”
“I am no wine connoisseur, but I know what I like.”
Exclamatory sentences Exclamations: a sudden cry or remark “It’s hideous!”
expressing surprise, strong emotion, or “We’re all going to die!”
pain.

Interrogative sentences Questions “Why do all my underpants have holes in them?”

Imperative sentences Commands Do it. Pass the salt. Move out of my way! Shut the front
door. Be there at five. Clean your room.
Simple sentences A sentence consisting of only one clause. The cat sat on the mat.
I ate all the cheese.
Complex sentences A sentence containing a subordinate clause I got a little sick because I ate all the cheese.
or clauses.

Periodic sentences One in which the main idea of the sentence Despite hearing warnings from many, and knowing deep
(the main clause) is placed at the end down it was wrong, I still ate all the cheese.

Loose sentences the main idea (independent clause) is Bells rang, filling the air with their clangour, startling
elaborated by the successive addition of pigeons into flight from every belfry, bringing people
modifying clauses or phrases. into the streets to hear the news.

Balanced sentences A balanced sentence is a sentence made up Buy a kilo of cheese and have an excellent day.
of two parts that are roughly equal in “Every man has a right to utter what he thinks truth, and
length, importance, and grammatical every other man has a right to knock him down for it.”
structure

Incomplete or fragmented Bits are missing. “I wish I hadn’t eaten all that…”
sentences
Rhetorical appeals - Part of the language of argument.
Also known as methods of proof. This is achieved through a blending of style and content.
When authors ‘appeal’ they target specific emotions, values or principles

Pathos Fear, justice, compassion, sense of guilt/responsibility, tradition or custom, religion, loyalty and
Appeals to the heart obligation, patriotism or national pride, group loyalty, tribalism or identity, self-interest, personal gain,
 money, financial concerns (the ‘hip=pocket nerve’), fashion, modernity, being ‘up-to-date’, masculinity
and femininity, etc.

Logos See use of facts, statistics, authorities and experts under selection of detail.
Appeals to the head
Ethos Construction of the speaker/writer as credible

Structural choices – the arrangement and progression of content

Common structures of non-fiction texts
Chronological In date or time order

Prioritised the most important facts first (like a news article)

Separated into blocks e.g. in a feature article

by subheadings

Question and answer e.g. in information leaflets

Problem and solution e.g. in agony aunt columns, or self-help guides

Letter structure A salutation (Dear…) and an appropriate ending (Yours sincerely…)

Starting in the middle Starting in the middle of an event, then providing further information to give several possible
viewpoints

Inverted pyramid Such as in news reports, where the information becomes more detailed as the article
structure progresses

Building to a climax The sense that a text is moving towards a climax can create a sense of tension and drama.
The main point or central idea is usually encapsulated towards the end of the text.

Common structural devices

Introductions and The ideas included at the start and the end are always significant. The use of a lead
conclusions paragraph may capture attention. Sometimes the lead is buried in the body of the article.

Paragraphing Each paragraph develops an idea. An idea may be extended over more than one, Short
paragraphs often used for emphasis, surprise or tension.

Call to action Persuasive texts often conclude with the writer or speaker asking for action or change

Recursion, repetition, Returning to an earlier point to re-emphasise something, illustrate it in a different manner,
re-emphasis or show how it is true in different ways.

Development Taking a point just made and developing it further or teasing out the implications.

Illustration and Some parts of a text are not part of the argument but serve to illustrate or support a point
exemplification

Narrative incursion A form of illustration that uses narratives to explain or support a point

Transition A movement from one point to another

Cause and effect A text, or part of a text, can be built around a movement from a cause to an effect

Problem-solution Many texts begin by setting up a problem, often in the form of a question, and then showing
the reader the solution to the problem
Question-answer Texts can pose a question that is then answered.

Comparison, contrast Texts can explore an idea by offering examples of things that are similar to it, or different
from it.

Circular structure An idea or example in the opening of a text are returned to at the end.