Unit 4 - Electronic Devices - WWW - Rgpvnotes.in

Program : B.
Tech
Subject Name: Electronic Devices
Subject Code: EC-304
Semester: 3rd
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Subject Name- Electronics Device Subject Code: EC303
Unit IV
Small Signal analysis: Small signal Amplifier, Amplifier Bandwidth, Hybrid model, analysis of transistor
amplifier using h-parameter, Multistage Amplifier: Cascading amplifier, Boot-strapping Technique,
Darlington amplifier and cascode amplifier, coupling methods in multistage amplifier, Low and high
f e ue y espo se, Hy id π model, Current Mirror circuits.
Large Signal analysis and Power Amplifiers: Class A, Class B, Class AB, Class C, Class D, Transformer
coupled and Push-Pull amplifier.
4.1. Small Signal Amplifier:

Small signal condition: When the input signal (vin and iin) is small so that output signal (vout and iout) is
confined in the active region of the output characteristics of the device, the device is operating in a
condition of small signal. More specifically, the condition of small signal are verified when the
variations in output are so small that the parameter values of the device can be regarded as
constant. In these conditions, the amplifiers can be analyzed using the small-signal models of the
BJT. The small signal conditions occur for the first stages constituting an amplification system.
In conditions of the small signal, the amplifier can be considered linear. The output signal is
proportional to the input signal. This property derives from the fact that the components of the
circuit are described by linear equations.
4.2. Amplifier Consideration
For an amplifier circuit, the overall gain of the amplifier is an important consideration. CE Amplifier
has voltage gain greater than unity and its voltage gain is further increased by cascading. The
characteristics of CE amplifier are such that, this configuration is very suitable for cascading in
amplifier circuits. Hence most of the amplifier circuits use CE configuration. It is shown in figure 4.1.
Figure.4.1. CE Amplifier
4.3. Role of Capacitors in Amplifiers
Other than the coupling purpose, there are other purposes for which few capacitors are especially
employed in amplifiers.
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4.3.1. Input Capacitor Cin : The input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the amplifier,
couples AC signal to the base of the transistor. This capacitor C in if not present, the signal source will
be in parallel to resistor R2 and the bias voltage of the transistor base will be change. Hence C in
allows, the AC signal from source to flow into input circuit, without affecting the bias conditions.
4.3.2. Emitter By-pass Capacitor Ce: The emitter by-pass capacitor C e is connected in parallel to the
emitter resistor. It offers a low reactance path to the amplified AC signal. In the absence of this
capacitor, the voltage developed across RE will feedback to the input side thereby reducing the
output voltage. Thus in the presence of Ce the amplified AC will pass through this.
4.3.3. Coupling Capacitor CC: The capacitor CC is the coupling capacitor that connects two stages
and prevents DC interference between the stages and controls the operating point from shifting.
This is also called as blocking capacitor because it does not allow the DC voltage to pass through it.
In the absence of this capacitor, RC will come in parallel with the resistance R1 of the biasing
network of the next stage and thereby changing the biasing conditions of the next stage.
4.4. Amplifier Parameter:
 Gain variation with frequency: Because of the introduced reactive elements and the parasitic

reactive elements the response of the amplifier is function of frequency.
Cut-off frequencies The mid-band is delimited by two frequencies, the lower cut-off frequency f l
(determined by coupling and by-pass capacitors) and the upper cut-off frequency fu (determined by
the junction capacitance and the parasitic effects).
 Amplifier bandwidth:
The gain of an amplifier is affected by the capacitance associated with its circuit. This capacitance
 The reduction of gain in the low frequency band is due to the coupling and bypass
reduces the gain in both the low and high frequency ranges of operation.
 The reduction of gain in the high frequency band is due to the internal capacitance
capacitors selected. They are essentially short circuits in the mid and high bands.
of the amplifying device, e.g., BJT, FET, etc.. This capacitance is represented by
capacitors in the small signal equivalent circuit for these devices. They are
essentially open circuits in the low and mid bands.
Figure.4.2.Frequency Response of CE amplifier

4.5. Hybrid (h) Parameter model:
The equivalent circuit of a transistor can be dram using simple approximation by retaining its
essential features. These equivalent circuits will aid in analyzing transistor circuits easily and rapidly.
If the input current i1 and output Voltage V2 are takes as independent variables, the input voltage V1
and output current i2 can be written as
Figure.4.3. Hybrid parameter model

The four hybrid parameters h11, h12, h21and h22 are defined as follows:
h11= [V1/ i1] with V2= 0 Input Impedance with output port short circuited.
h22= [i2/ V2] with i1= 0 Output admittance with input port open circuited.
h12= [V1/ V2] with i1= 0 reverse voltage transfer ratio with input port open circuited.
h21= [i2/ i1] with V2= 0 Forward current gain with output port short circuited
The dimensions of h–parameters are as follows:
h11-Ω
h22–mhos
h12, h21–dimension less.
As the dimensions are not alike, they are hybrid in nature, and these parameters are called as hybrid
parameters.
h11 = input; h22 = output; h21= forward transfer; h22 = Reverse transfer.
The Hybrid Model for Two-port Network:
V1= h11 i1+ h12V2

I2= h21i1+ h22V2
V1= hii1+ hrV2

I2 = hfi1+ h0V2
Figure.4.4.Hybrid model for two port network
4.6. Hybrid-Parameter Model for the CommonEmitter BJT
Notations used in transistor circuits:

hie= h11e= Short circuit input impedance
hoe= h22e= Open circuit output admittance
hre = h12e= Open circuit reverse voltage transfer ratio
hfe= h21e= Short circuit forward current Gain.

Figure.4.5. Hybrid model for CE amplifier

4.5. Multistage Amplifier:
In practical applications, the output of a single stage amplifier is usually insufficient, though it is a
voltage or power amplifier. Hence they are replaced by Multi-stage transistor amplifiers. In Multi-
stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input of next stage using a coupling
device. These coupling devices can usually be a capacitor or a transformer. This process of joining
two amplifier stages using a coupling device can be called as Cascading.
The following figure shows a two-stage amplifier connected in cascade.
4.3.1. Coupling in Multistage amplifiers:
Figure.4.6. Multistage amplifier
The overall gain is the product of voltage gain of individual stages:
AV=AV1×AV2=V2/V1×V0 /V2=V0/V1AV=AV1×AV2
Where AV = Overall gain, AV1 = Voltage gain of 1st stage, and AV2 = Voltage gain of 2nd stage.
If there is n number of stages, the product of voltage gains of those n stages will be the overall gain
of that multistage amplifier circuit.
Figure.4.7. Two stage CE-CE cascade amplifier
4.3.2. Purpose and Types of coupling device:

The basic purposes of a coupling device are:
 To transfer the AC from the output of one stage to the input of next stage.
 To block the DC to pass from the output of one stage to the input of next stage, this means to isolate
the DC conditions.
Joining one amplifier stage with the other in cascade; using coupling devices form a Multi-stage
amplifier circuit. There are four basic methods of coupling, using these coupling devices such as
resistors, capacitors, transformers etc. Let us have an idea about them.
4.3.2.1. Resistance-Capacitance Coupling
This is the mostly used method of coupling, formed using simple resistor-capacitor combination. The
capacitor which allows AC and blocks DC is the main coupling element used here. The coupling
capacitor passes the AC from the output of one stage to the input of its next stage. While blocking
the DC components from DC bias voltages to affect the next stage
4.3.2.2. Impedance Coupling
The coupling network that uses inductance and capacitance as coupling elements can be called as
Impedance coupling network. In this impedance coupling method, the impedance of coupling coil
depends on its inductance and signal frequency which is jωL.
4.3.2.3. Transformer Coupling
The coupling method that uses a transformer as the coupling device can be called as Transformer
coupling. There is no capacitor used in this method of coupling because the transformer itself
conveys the AC component directly to the base of second stage. The secondary winding of the
transformer provides a base return path and hence there is no need of base resistance. This coupling
is mostly used because of its efficiency and its impedance matching and hence it is mostly used.
4.3.2.4. Direct Coupling
If the previous amplifier stage is connected to the next amplifier stage directly, it is called as direct
coupling. The individual amplifier stage bias conditions are so designed that the stages can be
directly connected without DC isolation. The direct coupling method is mostly used when the load is
connected in series, with the output terminal of the active circuit element. For example, head-
phones, loud speakers etc.
4.4. Boot-strapping Technique:
Bootstrapping (Using positive feedback to feed part of the output back to the input, but without
causing oscillation) is a method of apparently increasing the value of a fixed resistor as it appears to
A.C. signals, and thereby increasing input impedance. A basic bootstrap amplifier is shown in Fig. 4.4
where capacitor CB is the Bootst ap Capa ito , hi h p o ides A.C. feed a k to a esisto i se ies
with the base. The value of CB will be large, about 10 x the lowest frequency handled x the value of
the se ies esisto ƒminR3).

Figure.4.8 Bootstrapping applied to an Emitter Follower

Although positive feedback is being used, which would normally cause an amplifier to oscillate, the
voltage gain of the emitter follower is less than 1, which prevents oscillation.
In Fig. 4.8 the base of the emitter follower is biased from a potential divider via R3. By feeding the
output waveform back to the left hand side of R3 the voltage at this end of R3 is made to rise and fall
in phase with the input signal at the base end of R3.
Because the output waveform of the emitter follower is a slightly less amplitude than the base
waveform (due to the less than 1 gain of the transistor) there will be a very small signal current
waveform across R3. Such a small current waveform suggests a very small current is flowing;
therefore the resistance of R3 must be very high, much higher than in fact it is. The input impedance
of the amplifier has therefore been increased.
The effe ti e A.C. alue of ‘3 is i eased y ‘3 ÷ −A o) where Ao is the open loop gain of the
amplifier.
The main drawback of this method of increasing input impedance compared with other methods is
that the use of positive feedback is likely to increase noise and distortion.
4.5. Darlington amplifier
This transistor is also called as a Darlington pair, contains of two

BJTs that are connected to deliver a high current gain from a low
base current. In this transistor, the emitter of the input transistor
is connected to the o/p of the base of the transistor and the
collectors of the transistor are wired together. So, the input
transistor amplifies the current even further amplifies by the o/p
transistor. A Darlington transistor acts as a single transistor with
high current gain, it means that a small amount of current is used
from a microcontroller or a sensor to run a larger load.
Current gain is the most important characteristic of a transistor

and it is indicated with hFE. When the Darlington transistor is
switched ON, then the current supplies through the load to the circuit Figure.4.9.Darlington amplifier
Load current=i/p current X transistor gain
A Darlington transistor contains two transistors, but it acts as a single transistor with a current gain
that equals the total current gain is equal to current gains of the transistor1 and transistor 2.
Total current gain (hFE)= current gain of transisotr1 (hFE1) X current gain of transistor2 (hFE2)

4.5.1. Structure of Darlington Transistor:
The collectors of the two transistors are connected together, and the emitter of the transistor TR1
energies the base terminal of the TR2 transistor. This structure attains β multiplication because for a
base and collector current (ib and β. ib), where the current gain is greater than unity that is defined as
Ic=Ic1+Ic2
Ic= β1.IB+ β2.IB2
But the base current of the transistor TR1 is equal to I E1(emitter current), and emitter of the TR1
transistor is connected to the base terminal of the transistor TR2
IB2 = IE1
=Ic1+ IB
=β1.IB +IB
= IB(β1 + 1)
Substitute this IB2 value in the above equation

Ic= β1.IB+ β2. IB(β1 + 1)
Ic= β1.IB+ β2. IBβ1 + β2. IB
= (β1+ (β2.β1) + β2). IB
In the above equation, β1 and β2 are gains of individual transistors.

Here, the overall current gain of the first transistor is multiplied by the second transistor that is
specified by β, & a couple of bipolar transistors are combined to form a single Darlington transistor
with a very high i/p resistance and value of β.
4.6. Cascode amplifier
While the CB amplifier is known for wider bandwidth than the CE configuration, the low input
impedance of CB is a limitation for many applications. The solution is to precede the CB stage by a
low gain CE stage which has moderately high input impedance. The cascode amplifier is combined
common-emitter and common-base. This circuit have a lot of advantages over the single stage
amplifier like, better input output isolation, better gain, improved bandwidth, higher input
impedance, higher output impedance, better stability, higher slew rate etc. The reason behind
the increase in bandwidth is the reduction of Miller effect.
Analysis:
Figure 4.10 shows CE stage feeding a CB stage. This arrangement is designed to provide high input
impedance with low voltage gain to ensure that the input Miller capacitance is at a minimum with
the CB stage providing good high frequency operation. There are two transistors, a bottom transistor
and a top transistor, called Q1 and Q2 respectively. Assuming both transistors are operating in the
active region, an increase in Vin causes an increase in the current through the transistors as they are
in series. As long as Q2 (top) is biased active, it will change its V be with the current flowing. As current
changes through RL, the voltage dropped across RL changes, and thus the voltage Vout ha ges. “o it s
similar to a normal common emitter amplifier, as long as everything is biased properly.

Q2
Q1
Figure.4.10. Cascode amplifier
4.7. Miller’s theorem:

The Mille s theorem establishes that in a linear circuit, if there exists a branch with impedance Z,
connecting two nodes with nodal voltages V1 and V2, we can replace this branch by two branches
connecting corresponding nodes to ground by impedances Z/(1-K) and K*Z/(K-1) where K = V2/V1.
It is shown in the figure below:
Figure.4.11. Miller Effect

Miller Effect Capacitance
In a BJT amplifier this capacitance becomes noticeable between: the Base-Collector junction
at high frequencies in CE BJT amplifier configurations. It is called the Miller Capacitance. It
effects the input and output circuits.
Ii = I1 + I2 ........eqn(1)
Figure.4.12. Miller effect

4.8. Low and high frequency response:
Frequency Response of an amplifier shows how the gain of the output responds to input signals at
different frequencies. Graphical representations of frequency response curves are called Bode
Plots and as such Bode plots are generally said to be a semi-logarithmic graphs because one scale (x-
axis) is logarithmic and the other (y-axis) is linear as shown in Fig.4.13. At low frequencies the
coupling and bypass capacitors can no longer be replaced
by the short circuit approximation because of the increase in reactance of these
elements. The frequency dependent parameters of the small signal equivalent circuits and
the stray capacitive elements associated with the active device and the network
will limit the high frequency response of the system.
Analysis: The frequency response of circuit is the variation in its behavior with changes in the input signal
frequency as it shows the band of frequencies over which the output (and the gain) remains fairly constant.
The range of frequencies either big or small between ƒL and ƒH is called the circuit’s bandwidth. We
determine the voltage gain (in dB) for any sinusoidal input within a given frequency range. Frequency
points ƒL and ƒH relate to the lower corner or cut-off frequency and the upper corner or cut-off frequency
points respectively were the circuits gain falls off at high and low frequencies. These points on a frequency
response curve are known commonly as the -3dB (decibel) points. So the bandwidth is simply given as:
Bandwidth(BW) = ƒH - ƒL
Figure.4.13.Frequency Response of BJT amplifier
The decibel, (dB) which is 1/10th of a bel (B), is a common non-linear unit for measuring gain and is
defined as 20log10(A) where A is the decimal gain, being plotted on the y-axis. Zero decibels, (0dB)
correspond to a magnitude function of unity giving the maximum output. The -3dB point is also known as

the half-power points since the output power at this corner frequencies will be half that of its maximum
0dB value as shown.
2
P= = � ×�
V or I = 70.71 % of maximum or 0.7071 max at fl or fh
. × 2
If R=1, then P = 0r (o.o7071 X I)2
Therefore P = 0.5 V or 0.5 I
BJT Amplifier Low-Frequency Response:
In the low-frequency region of the single-stage BJT amplifier, it is the RC combinations formed by the
network capacitors CC, CE and the network resistive parameters that determine the cutoff frequencies.
High-Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers:
 The gain decreases at high frequencies due to internal feedback capacitance. The
highest frequency of operation of BJT will be limited by internal capacitance’s of
BJT.
 The on and off switching times of BJT will be high and speed will be limited due to
internal charge storage effects.
4.8. Hybrid π model:
The hybrid-pi model is a linearized two-port network approximation to the BJT using the small-signal
base-emitter voltage, VBE, and collector-emitter voltage, VCE, as independent variables, and the small-
signal base current, IB, and collector current, Ic, as dependent variables.
A basic, low-frequency hybrid-pi model for the bipolar transistor is shown in figure 4.9. The various
parameters are as follows.
��
gm= at VCE = 0
�
is the transconductance, evaluated in a simple model, where:

Ic is the quiescent collector current (also called the collector bias or DC collector
current)
 VT = kT/e is the thermal voltage, calculated from Boltzmann's constant, k, the charge of an electron, e
and the transistor temperature T in kelvins. At approximately room temperature (295 K, 22 °C or
71 °F), VT is about 25 mV.
� � �0
rπ =
�
at VCE = 0 =
� ��
where:
 IB is the DC (bias) base current.

 � is the current gain at low frequencies (generally quoted as hfe from the h-parameter
model).


�
R0= at VBE = 0 is the output resistance due to the Early effect ( is the Early
�
voltage).
Related terms
The output conductance, gce, is the reciprocal of the output resistance, ro:
gce= 1/r0
The transresistance, rm, is the reciprocal of the transconductance gm:
rm= 1/gm
Full Hybrid Pi model: The full model introduces the virtual terminal, B', so that the base spreading
resistance, rbb, (the bulk resistance between the base contact and the active region of the base under
the emitter) and rb'e (representing the base current required to make up for recombination of minority
carriers in the base region) can be represented separately. Ce is the diffusion capacitance representing
minority carrier storage in the base. The feedback components, rb'c and Cc, are introduced to represent
the Early effect.
Figure.4.14.Hybrid Pi model
Physical explanation of parameters of high frequency model of BJT
 Rbb’ is the base spreading resistance of BJT which represents the bulk resistance of the material

between the base terminal and the physical inaccessible internal node of BJT.
Rb’e is the internal base node to emitter resistance. It accounts for the increase recombination
base current as emitter current increases. It is in parallel with the collector circuit and hence
reduces the collector current value from emitter current. This resistance will be high order of
kilo ohms as the decrease in the collector current due to base recombination currents will be

very less.
Rb’c is the Feedback resistance from internal base node to collector node. It is included in the
model to take in to account early effect. As collector to base reverse bias is increased(action)
the effective width increases and collector current increases(feedback response).This feedback

effect(early effect) is accounted for by Rb’c.

Rce represents the bulk resistance of the material between collector to emitter.
Ce is the Diffusion capacitance of emitter base junction. Diffusion capacitance of emitter base
junction is directly proportional to emitter bias current and forward base transit time. Forward
transit time is defined as the average time the minority carrier spends in base. The Diffusion

capacitance of emitter base junction accounts for the minority charge stored in base.
CC represents the transition or space charge capacitance of base collector junction.
4.9. Current mirror:
Current mirror serves as a simple current regulator, supplying nearly constant current to a load
over a wide range of load resistances.

We know that in a transistor operating in its active mode,

Ic = β IB
α = Ic /IB.
α = β/ β+ fo a y t a sisto .
Maintaining a constant base current through an active transistor results in the regulation of
collector current. The α atio o ks si ila ly: if e itte u e t is held o sta t, olle to current
will remain at a stable, regulated value so long as the transistor has enough collector-to-emitter
voltage drop to maintain it in its active mode. Therefore, if we have a way of holding emitter
current constant through a transistor, the transistor will work to regulate collector current at a
constant value.
Remember that the base-emitter junction of a BJT is nothing more than a PN junction, just like a
diode, a d that the diode e uatio spe ifies ho u h u e t ill go th ough a PN ju tio
given forward voltage drop and junction temperature:
ID = Is (exp(qVD/NKT)-1)
If both junction voltage and temperature are held constant, then the PN junction current will be
constant. Following this rationale, if we were to hold the base-emitter voltage of a transistor
constant, then its emitter current will be constant, given a constant temperature. Consider the
figure 4.15.
Figure.4.15.Constant VBE gives constant IB, constant IE, and constant IC.
The t a sisto s olle to u e t is al ost e ual to its e itte u e t, as the α atio of a typical
transistor is almost unity. If e ha e o t ol o e the t a sisto s e itte u e t y setti g diode
current with a simple resistor adjustment, then we ha e o t ol o e the t a sisto s olle to
current. In other words, collector current mimics, or mirrors the diode current.
Current through resistor Rload is therefore a function of current set by the bias resistor, the two
being nearly equal. This is the function of the current mirror circuit: to regulate current through
the load resistor by conveniently adjusting the value of Rbias. Current through the diode is
described by a simple equation: power supply voltage minus diode voltage (almost a constant
value), divided by the resistance of R bias.
Be ause te pe atu e is a fa to i the diode e uatio , a d e a t the t o PN ju tio s to
behave identically under all operating conditions, we should maintain the two transistors at
exactly the same temperature. The current mirror circuit shown with two NPN transistors in
Figure 4.16 is sometimes called a current-sinking type, because the regulating transistor conducts
current to the load from ground si ki g u e t , athe tha from the positive side of the
battery sou i g u e t .

Figure.4.16.Current mirror circuits.

A current mirror is a transistor circuit that regulates current through a load resistance, the
regulation point being set by a simple resistor adjustment.
 Transistors in a current mirror circuit must be maintained at the same temperature
for precise operation. When using discrete transistors, you may glue their cases
together to do this.
 Current mirror circuits may be found in two basic varieties: the
current sinking configuration, where the regulating transistor connects the load to
ground; and the current sourcing configuration, where the regulating transistor
connects the load to the positive terminal of the DC power supply.
4.11. Power Amplifier:
A power amplifier is an electronic amplifier designed to increase the magnitude of power of a given
input signal. The power of the input signal is increased to a level high enough to drive loads of output
devices like speakers, headphones, RF transmitters etc. Unlike voltage/current amplifiers, a power
amplifier is designed to drive loads directly and is used as a final block in an amplifier chain. The
input signal to a power amplifier needs to be above a certain threshold. So instead of directly passing
the raw audio/RF signal to the power amplifier, it is first pre-amplified using current/voltage
amplifiers and is sent as input to the power amp after making necessary modifications.
Figure.4.17. Power amplifiers efficiency and output

A Power amplifier is large signal amplifier and this is generally a last stage of a multistage amplifier. The
function of a practical power amplifier is to amplify a weak signal until sufficient power is achieved to
operate a loudspeaker or output device. Typical output power rating of a power amplifier will be 1W or
higher.
SIGNAL VOLTAGE VOLTAGE Driver Output

SPEAKER
AMPLIFIER AMPLIFIER stage stage
Figure.4.18.Stages of Power amplifier

The driver stage operates as a class A power amplifier and supplies the drive for the output stage. The last output
stage is essentially a power amplifier and its purpose is to transfer maximum power to the output device. The output
stage generally employ class B amplifiers in push-pull arrangement. A large signal amplifier means much larger portion
of load line is used during signal operation compared to small signal amplifier. A small signal amplifier operate over a
linear portion of load line. In case of power amplifier, we cannot use small signal approximation directly to calculate
voltage gain, current gain and input/output impedance. Ideal power amplifier will deliver 100% of the power it draws
from the supply to load.
 Class A,
Classification of power amplifier:
 Class B,
 Class A B,
 C amplifiers
Class A amplifier
The power amplifiers are classified according the conduction angle they produced. Conduction angle
measures the portion of the input cycle that is reproduced at the output of a power amplifier. Class A
amplifier as long as the output signal is not clipped. With this kind of amplifier, collector current flows
throughout the cycle. Stated another way, no clipping of the output signal occurs at any time during the
cycle. Now, we discuss a few equations that are useful in the analysis of class A amplifiers.
Besides voltage gain, any amplifier has a power gain, defined as

�
�=
��
In words, the power gain equals the ac output power divided by the ac input power.
+VCC IC
RC A
R1
Q
VO B
VIN R2 VCE
RE
CE
Figure.4.19. Class A power Amplifier

Figure 4.19 shows the output characteristics with operating point Q. here at point A (I CQ) and point B (VCEQ)
Represent no signal collector current and collector –emitter voltage respectively. It may be observed that
when an a.c input signal is applied, the operating point Q shifts up and down causing output current and
voltage to vary about it. The output current is increased to I Cmax and ICmin . In the same fashion, the
collector emitter voltage increases to Vce max and falls to Vce min.
The Class A amplifier is the simplest form of power amplifier that uses a single switching transistor in the
standard common emitter circuit configuration as seen previously to produce an inverted output. The
t a sisto is al ays iased ON so that it o du ts du i g o e o plete y le of the i put sig al a efo
producing minimum distortion and maximum amplitude of the output signal.
Efficiency
The efficiency of an amplifier represents the amount of ac power delivered (transferred) from the dc
source. The efficiency of the amplifier is calculated using

��
%� = %
�
Maximum efficiency:
For the class A series-fed amplifier, the maximum efficiency can be determined using the maximum voltage
and current swings. For the voltage swing it is maximum VCE(p-p) =VCC
For the current swing it is
Maximum IC(p-p)= ��
�
��
��
Using the maximum voltage swing �� = �
� / �
The maximum power input can be calculated using the dc bias current set to one-half the maximum value:
��
��
Maximum � = VCC maximum Ic = VCC
� / �
But we know that:

��
%� = %
�
2
��/8��
2 x100% =25%
��/2��
The maximum efficiency of a class A series-fed amplifier is thus seen to be 25%.Since this maximum
efficiency will occur only for ideal conditions of both voltage swing and current swing, most series-fed
circuits will provide efficiencies of much less than 25%.
Class B amplifier:
Class A is the common way to run a transistor in linear circuits because it leads to the simplest and most
stable biasing circuits. But class A is not the most efficient way to operate a transistor. In some
applications, like battery-powered systems, current drain and stage efficiency become important
considerations in the design. Figure.4.14. shows a basic class B amplifier. When a transistor operates as
class B, it clips off half a cycle. To avoid the resulting distortion, we can use two transistors in a push-pull
arrangement like that of Figure 4.14.Push-pullmeans that one transistor conducts for half a cycle while the
other is off, and vice versa. Here is how the circuit works: On the positive half cycle of input voltage, the
secondary winding of T1 has voltage V1 and V2, as shown. Therefore, the upper transistor conducts and the
lower one cuts off. The collector current through Q1 flows through the upper half of the output primary
winding. This produces an amplified and inverted voltage, which is transformer-coupled to the
loudspeaker. On the next half cycle of input voltage, the polarities reverse. Now, the lower transistor turns
on and the upper transistor turns off. The lower transistor amplifies the signal, and the alternate half cycle
appears across the loudspeaker. Since each transistor amplifies one-half of the input cycle, the loudspeaker
receives a complete cycle of the amplified signal.
T1 Q1 T2
V2 +VCC
VIN SPEAKER
Q2
Figure.4.20. Class B push Pull amplfier

Maximum efficiency:
The efficiency of the class B amplifier can be calculated using the basic equation
�� / ��
%� = % = %= %
� �� [ � � � ] 4 �
Using � � = �� /� shows that the larger the peak voltage, the higher the circuit efficiency, up to a
maximum value when VL(p) = VCC, this maximum efficiency then being
�
� � � �� = %=78.5%
4
Power Dissipation:
The power dissipated (as heat) by the output power transistors is the difference between the input power
delivered by the supplies and the output power delivered to the load.
� = � − ��
WhereP2Q is the power dissipated by the two output power transistors. The dissipated power handled by
each transistor is then
�
� =
Advantage and Disadvantages class B amplifier: Since there is no bias in Fig. class B amplifier, each transistor is at
cutoff when there is no input signal, an advantage because there is no current drain when the signal is zero.
Another advantage is improved efficiency where there is an input signal. The maximum efficiency of a
class B push-pull amplifier is 78.5 percent, so a class B push-pull power amplifier is more commonly used
for an output stage than a class A power amplifier. The main disadvantage is the use of
transformers.Audiotransformersarebulkyandexpensive.Althoughwidelyused at one time, a transformer-
coupled amplifier like Fig. class B amplifier is no longer popular.
Crossover Distortion
In the push-pull configuration, the two identical transistors get into conduction, one after the
other and the output produced will be the combination of both. When the signal changes or
crosses over from one transistor to the other at the zero voltage point, it produces an amount of
distortion to the output wave shape. For a transistor in order to conduct, the base emitter
junction should cross 0.7v, the cut off voltage. The time taken for a transistor to get ON from OFF
or to get OFF from ON state is called the transition period. At the zero voltage point, the
transition period of switching over the transistors from one to the other, has its effect which leads
to the instances where both the transistors are OFF at a time. Such instances can be called as Flat
spot or Dead band on the output wave shape.
Figure.4.21. Crossover distortion

Class C amplifier:
A class C amplifier can produce more power than a class B amplifier. Consider the case of a radio
transmitter in which the audio signals are raised in their frequency to the medium or short wave band to
that they can be easily transmitted. The high frequency introduced is in radio frequency range and it serves
as the carrier of the audio signal. The process of raising the audio signal to radio frequency called
modulation.
The modulated wave has a relatively narrow band of frequencies centered on the carrier frequencies. At
any instant, there are several transmitters transmitting simultaneously. The radio receiver selects the
signals of desired frequencies to which it is tuned, amplifies it and converts it back to audio range.
Therefore, tuned voltage amplifiers are used. In short, the tuned voltage amplifiers selects the desired
radio frequency signal out of a number of RF signals present at that instant and then amplifies the selected
RF signal to the desired level as shown in fig.4.22.
Class C operation means that the collector current flows for less than 180° of the ac cycle. This implies that
the collector current of a class C amplifier is highly non-sinusoidal because current flows in pulses. To avoid
distortion, class C amplifier makes use of a resonant tank circuit. This results in a sinusoidal output voltage.
The resonant tank circuit is tuned to the frequency of the input signal.
When the circuit has a high quality factor (Q) parallel resonance occurs at approximately
�=
��
Figure.4.22. Class C Amplifier Output

At the resonance frequency, the impedance of the parallel resonant circuit is very high and is purely resistive. When
the circuit is tuned to the resonant frequency, the voltage across RL is maximum and sinusoidal. The higher the Q of
the circuit, the faster the gain drops off on either side of resonance.
Class AB amplifier:
Class AB is another type of push pull amplifier which is almost similar to that of a Class A push pull amplifier
and the only difference is that the value of biasing resistors R1 and R2 are so selected that the transistors
are biased just at the cut in voltage (0.7V). This reduces the time for which both transistors are
simultaneously OFF (the time for which input signal is between (-0.7V and +0.7V) and so the cross over
distortion gets reduced. Of the above said classes Class A has least distortion, then Class AB and then Class
B. Any way Class AB configuration has reduced efficiency and wastes a reasonable amount of power during
zero input condition. Class B has the highest efficiency (78.5%), then Class B (between 78.5 to 50%) and
then Class A (50%).

Figure.4.23. Class AB amplifier
During the first half-cycle of operation, transistor Q1 is driven into conduction whereas transistor Q2 is driven off.
The current I1 through the transformer results in the first half-cycle of signal to the load. During the second half-cycle
of the input signal, Q2 conducts whereas Q1 stays off, the current I2 through the transformer resulting in the second
half-cycle to the load. The overall signal developed across the load then varies over the full cycle of signal operation.
The small bias voltage given using diodes D1 and D2, as shown in the above figure, helps the operating point to be
above the cut off point. Hence the output waveform of class AB results as seen in the above figure. The crossover
distortion created by class B is o e o e y this lass AB, as ell the i effi ie ies of lass A a d B do t affe t the
circuit.
Class D Power Amplifier:

A Class D audio amplifier is basically a non-linear switching amplifier or PWM amplifier. Class-D amplifiers
theoretically can reach 100% efficiency, as there is no period during a cycle were the voltage and current
waveforms overlap as current is drawn only through the transistor that is on.
Figure.4.24Class D power Amplifier

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Program : B.

Subject Name- Electronics Device Subject Code: EC303

4.1. Small Signal Amplifier:

4.2. Amplifier Consideration

4.3. Role of Capacitors in Amplifiers

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4.4. Amplifier Parameter:

Figure.4.2.Frequency Response of CE amplifier

Figure.4.3. Hybrid parameter model

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The Hybrid Model for Two-port Network:

V1= h11 i1+ h12V2

V1= hii1+ hrV2

Figure.4.4.Hybrid model for two port network

4.6. Hybrid-Parameter Model for the CommonEmitter BJT

Notations used in transistor circuits:

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Figure.4.5. Hybrid model for CE amplifier

4.3.1. Coupling in Multistage amplifiers:

Figure.4.6. Multistage amplifier

The overall gain is the product of voltage gain of individual stages:

Figure.4.7. Two stage CE-CE cascade amplifier

4.3.2. Purpose and Types of coupling device:

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The basic purposes of a coupling device are:

4.3.2.1. Resistance-Capacitance Coupling

4.3.2.2. Impedance Coupling

4.3.2.3. Transformer Coupling

4.3.2.4. Direct Coupling

4.4. Boot-strapping Technique:

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Figure.4.8 Bootstrapping applied to an Emitter Follower

4.5. Darlington amplifier

This transistor is also called as a Darlington pair, contains of two

Current gain is the most important characteristic of a transistor

Load current=i/p current X transistor gain

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4.5.1. Structure of Darlington Transistor:

Substitute this IB2 value in the above equation

In the above equation, β1 and β2 are gains of individual transistors.

4.6. Cascode amplifier

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Figure.4.10. Cascode amplifier

4.7. Miller’s theorem:

Figure.4.11. Miller Effect

Figure.4.12. Miller effect

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4.8. Low and high frequency response:

Figure.4.13.Frequency Response of BJT amplifier

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V or I = 70.71 % of maximum or 0.7071 max at fl or fh

Therefore P = 0.5 V or 0.5 I

BJT Amplifier Low-Frequency Response:

High-Frequency Response of BJT Amplifiers:

4.8. Hybrid π model:

is the transconductance, evaluated in a simple model, where:

 IB is the DC (bias) base current.

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The transresistance, rm, is the reciprocal of the transconductance gm: