AS BIOLOGY Chapter 8.

The circulatory system

8.1 The circulatory system

8.1.1 state that the mammalian circulatory system is a closed

double circulation consisting of a heart, blood and blood
vessels including arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and
veins
 Why need a transport system?
Single-celled organisms, such as bacteria and amoeba
(below), can obtain nutrients and excrete waste simply by
diffusion.
nutrients waste products

Multi-cellular organisms, such as insects, fish and

mammals, require a more specialized transport
system. Why is this?
 Surface area to volume ratio
In larger organisms, diffusion of
substances would occur far too
slowly to enable them to
survive: the rate of diffusion
decreases with the square of
the distance it has to travel.

This is not just because of its

size, however: more important
is an organism’s surface area
to volume ratio.
Food and oxygen cannot reach the cells fast enough to supply
cellular respiration. The waste products cannot be removed
fast enough to prevent them damaging the cells. A transport
system is needed.
Surface area and volume
 Components of circulatory systems
Multi-cellular animals overcome the limitations of diffusion by
having a specialized circulatory system. This comprises:

 a heart
 a fluid in which substances are transported
 vessels through which the fluid can flow.

The two types of

circulatory system are
open (e.g. molluscs,
arthropods) and
closed (e.g.
vertebrates, a few
invertebrates).
 Single and double circulations

• Single circulation of • double circulation of

fish: blood passes once mammals: blood
through the heart in passes twice through
each complete the heart in each
circulation complete circulation
Closed circulatory systems
Single circulations
Double circulations
 Closed double circulation
• Double circulation means that blood passes through the heart
twice on a complete circuit
• Closed means blood cells do not leave the heart, blood vessels
or blood
• Consists of the heart, blood vessels and the blood
The mammalian circulatory system
Advantages of double circulation
• Pressure is lost when blood flows through
capillaries of lungs.

• For double circulation, the low-pressure blood is

returned to the heart, which raises the pressure
again when pumping it into the blood vessels that
lead to the rest of the body.

• In fish, the low-pressure blood continues on its way

through the body of the fish.

• This means that blood flow is much slower in

fish compared to mammals.

• Transport of oxygen is more effective and faster

with double circulation
 Advantages of
double
circulation

• Simultaneous high
pressure delivery
of oxygenated
blood to all regions
of the body
• Oxygenated blood
reaches the
respiring tissues
undiluted by
deoxygenated
blood
8.3 The heart

8.3.1 describe the external and internal structure of the

mammalian heart
8.3.2 explain the differences in the thickness of the walls of
the:
• Atria and ventricles
• Left ventricle and right ventricle
 The chambers of the heart
The four chambers of the heart have special names:

• An upper chamber is called an atrium (plural atria).

• A lower chamber is called a ventricle.

right left
atrium atrium

right left
ventricle ventricle
 Blood vessels

Pulmonary
artery Aorta

Pulmonary
Vena cava vein

Arteries: carry blood away from the heart

Veins: carry blood towards the heart
 Valves in the heart

 Preventing backflow
Naming the heart valves
 bicuspid
Tricuspid valve
valve

Semilunar Semilunar
valve valve
 How are valves held in place?

The valves between the atria and ventricles are connected to the inner walls of
the heart by tough tendons.

valve open
 How are valves held in place?

The tendons allow the valves to close and hold the valve flaps in place. They
prevent the valves from flipping up and turning inside out.

valve open valve closed

 How do valves work?

In the heart, the tendons holding the valve are like the arm holding
the door.
One end of each tendon is fixed to the wall of the heart and so the
valve can only open in one direction.
blood is pumped away
from the heart into
arteries and returns to
the heart in veins

Left ventricle
 Pulmonary: Associated with the lungs
Thickest muscle wall! – Left Ventricle, Right Ventricle, then the two atria: Thinnest muscle wall!
 Aorta: has valves to prevent backflow
Pulmonary artery: has valves to
prevent backflow
Vena cava
(head)
Vena cava (lower
body)
Right atrium Aortic valve
Pulmonary valve Left atrium
Right atrioventricular Left atrioventricular
valve valve

Left ventricle
Right ventricle

Pulmonary: Associated with the lungs

Thickest muscle wall! – Left Ventricle, Right Ventricle, then the two atria: Thinnest muscle wall!
 relative thickness:
– of the muscle wall of the left >
right ventricles
– of the muscle wall of the atria <
the ventricles

Explain why?
• The left ventricle pumps blood to the whole body, and the right
ventricle only pumps blood to the lungs.
• So the left ventricle has to pump blood farther…
• Which means a greater force is required, so more pressure is
required from the left ventricle.
The diagram below shows a section through the lower part of
the heart, with two of the heart’s four chambers visible.

This is a good example of an

“application question.” You
need to apply what you know
about the heart to be able to
decipher this diagram.

X Y
A. Right ventricle Right atrium
B. Left atrium Right atrium
C. Left ventricle Right ventricle
D. Right ventricle Left ventricle

Labels X and Y show the walls of two chambers of the heart. Which
two chambers are they?
Which is the correct sequence of blood flow in normal human
circulation?
A. Pulmonary vein  right atrium  aorta  vena cava
B. Vena cava  pulmonary vein  aorta  right atrium
C. Vena cava  right atrium  pulmonary vein  aorta
D. Pulmonary vein  vena cava  aorta  right atrium
8.3 The heart

8.3.3 describe the cardiac cycle ,with reference to the

relationship between blood pressure changes during systole
and diastole and the opening and closing of valves
 • When pumping blood, the
heart follows a sequence of
THE HEART CYCLE
contractions and
relaxations known as the
heart cycle.
• The rate is controlled by the
pacemaker and is
autogenic (self making).
• When the cardiac muscles
contract, the heart
becomes smaller and blood
is squeezed out. This is
called systole.
• When the muscles relax,
the heart becomes larger
and blood flows into the
atria and ventricles. This is
called diastole.
 THE HEART CYCLE

Atrial systole

ventricular systole
Diastole
 Stages of a heartbeat
Semilunar valves
Stage 1: Diastole closed, preventing
blood from flowing
into the ventricles
• A heartbeat begins with
the heart muscle
relaxed and valves
closed.

• Blood flows into the

two atria and both sides The muscle of the
fill up with blood. atria relax allowing
blood to flow into
the heart from the
This blood has to be veins
pushed through the valves
to get into the ventricles.
How does this happen?
 Stages of a heartbeat

Stage 2: Atrial systole Semilunar valves

remain closed/shunt

• The atria contract and

the blood is squeezed
which causes the
atrioventricular valves
open.
The muscle of the
• Blood then flows from atria contract,
the atria into the squeezing the
blood into the
ventricles. ventricles.

The muscle of
What happens to the open the ventricles
valves when the atria are remain relaxed.
empty?
 Stages of a heartbeat
The atrioventricular
valves are forced
shut/closed by the
Stage 2 (continued): pressure of the
blood

• The valves between

the atria and the
ventricles close.

This prevents any

backflow.

What happens next

to the blood in the
ventricles?
 Stages of a heartbeat
The semilunar valves
are forced open by
Stage 3: ventricular systole the pressure of the
blood

• Almost immediately, the

ventricles contract and the The muscle of the
blood is squeezed again. atria relax

• The pressure of the blood

forces open the valves
leading out of the heart.
• Blood is pumped out of the
heart. The muscle of
the ventricles
What happens to the open contract, forcing
blood out of the
valves when the ventricles are ventricles into the
empty? arteries
 Stages of a heartbeat
The semilunar valves
close
Stage 3 (continued):

• When the ventricles are

empty, the semilunar
valves close and the
heart muscle relaxes.

This completes the

sequence of contraction and
relaxation in one heartbeat.
The muscle of
What will happen next? the ventricles
relaxes
 Stages of a heartbeat

Stage 1 (again):
The atria fill up with blood
as the heartbeat sequence
begins again.

Why are the walls

of the atria thinner than the
walls of the ventricles?

Why is the wall of the left

ventricle thicker than the
right ventricle?
Stages of a heartbeat
The sequence of a heartbeat
5-2-6-8-4-1-3-7
 Atrioventricular
valve opens
Atrioventricular
valve closes
 Measuring the heart rate - ECG
• ECG (electrocardiograph)
 Ventricular pressure higher than
aortic, so aortic valve opens,
ventricle empties.

Here atrial drops below ventricular pressure and the ventricle is full.
Here atrial pressure is higher than the ventricle. This is ventricular filling.
8.3 The heart

8.3.4 explain the roles of the sinoatrial node, the

atrioventricular node and the Purkyne tissue in the cardiac
cycle (knowledge of nervous and hormonal control is not
expected
Control of heart beat
Control of Cardiac Cycle

• Sinoatrial node sends out

wave of excitation causing
atria to contract
• also triggers the
atrioventricular node to send
electrical impulse to ventricles.

• sending out wave of excitation

to the Purkyne tissue which
conducts the wave to the hello
apex of the heart causing the
ventricles to contract
http://library.med.utah.edu/kw/pharm/hyper_heart1.html
Further reading (HL option H):
Systole: When a heart chamber
Whatis contracting
causes the heart sounds?
Diastole: When a heart chamber is relaxed
Past exam question: explain how the structures shown below ensure blood flows in the
correct direction.
Past exam question: explain how the structures shown below ensure blood flows in the
correct direction.
• During atrial systole (contraction), the pressure in the atria is greater than in the ventricle,
so blood flows from the atria to the ventricles.
• When the ventricle contracts (ventricular systole), the pressure is higher in the ventricles
and the valve closes.

• Papillary muscles
contract to pull on
valve tendon
causing it to close
which prevents
backflow.
To answer questions about the heart
correctly make sure you can….
•Determine when each valve is closed or open
based on the pressure in different chambers.
•Explain why blood flows in the correct direction.
•Explain how rate and timing of contractions is
controlled.
Subtopic 2 Blood vessels
 8.1 The circulatory system

8.1.2 describe the functions of the main blood vessels of the

pulmonary and systemic circulations, limited to pulmonary
artery, pulmonary vein, aorta and vena cava
8.1.3 recognize arteries, veins and capillaries from microscope
slides, photomicrographs and electron micrographs and make
plan diagrams showing the structure of arteries and veins in
transverse section (TS) and longitudinal section (LS)
The blood circulation in mammals
 Blood vessels
• Arteries carry blood away from
heart at high pressure.
• Veins carry blood back to heart
at low pressure.
• Capillaries are fine networks of
tiny tubes linking arteries and
veins.
Identifying blood vessels
The structure of arteries, veins and capillaries

Artery Vein
Capillary
Small lumen Large lumen
(the tube inside (the tube inside
where blood is) where blood is)
8.1 The circulatory system

8.1.4 explain how the structure of muscular arteries, elastic

arteries, veins and capillaries are each related to their functions
 Arteries and veins walls made up of three layers
Arteries and veins both have walls made up of three layers:
• an inner endothelium (lining tissue), made up of a layer of flat
cells (squamous epithelium) fitting together like jigsaw pieces;
this layer is very smooth, minimising friction with the moving
blood
• a middle layer, containing smooth muscle, collagen and elastic
fibres
• an outer layer, containing elastic fibres and collagen fibres.
 The structure of arteries
High blood pressure (120 mm Hg) and thick walls
Tunica intima
Flat cells (squamous
epithelium: minimizes Oxygenated
friction blood

Tunica media
Smooth muscle, Tunica externa
collagen and Elastic fibres and
elastic fibers collagen fibers
Large number of elastic Collagen fibers prevent
fibres: allow stretching during artery from bursting.
ventricular systole which Aorta is wide to allow
mediates pressure. During large blood volume to
ventricular diastole, the wall flow.
recoils further helping to push
the blood along
 Inner layer

middle layer

outer layer

• The distinctive characteristics of an artery wall are its strength

and elasticity.
• Blood leaving the heart is at a very high pressure. Blood
pressure in the human aorta may be around 120 mm Hg, or 16
kPa.
• To withstand such pressure, artery walls must be extremely
strong. This is achieved by the thickness and composition of
the artery wall.
Elastic artery

• Elastic arteries are

the large arteries that
start from the heart.
• They include aorta and its
major branches and
pulmonary arteries.
• Their diameter is high and
they conduct blood under
high pressure.
• Significantly, the middle
layer of elastic arteries
contain a higher amount of
elastic fibers.
 The elasticity of artery walls
• Blood is pumped out of the heart in pulses, rushing out at high
pressure as the ventricles contract, and slowing as the
ventricles relax.
• The artery walls stretch as the high-pressure blood surges into
them, and then recoil inwards as the pressure drops.
• Therefore, as blood at high pressure enters an artery, the artery
becomes wider, reducing the pressure a little.
• As blood at lower pressure enters an artery, the artery wall
recoils inwards, giving the blood a small ‘push’ and raising the
pressure a little.
• The overall effect is to ‘even out’ the flow of blood.
 Maintaining high blood pressure
Blood pressure is the main force that drives blood from the
heart around the body.

 During systole (heart contraction), blood is pumped

through the aorta and other arteries at high pressure. The
elastic fibres of arteries enable them to expand and allow
blood through.

 During diastole (heart relaxation), the blood pressure in

the arteries drops. The elastic recoil of the artery walls
help force the blood on.

As blood moves through smaller arterioles into capillaries,

and then into venules and veins, its velocity and pressure
drop continuously.
 Pressure changes in the circulatory system

• In the arteries, blood is at high pressure because it has just been pumped out of the
heart. The pressure oscillates (goes up and down) in time with the heart beat. The
stretching and recoil of the artery walls helps to smooth the oscillations, so the
pressure becomes gradually steadier the further the blood moves along the arteries.
The mean pressure also gradually decreases, particularly as the blood flows through
arterioles (small arteries).
• The total cross-sectional area of the capillaries is greater than that of the arteries that
supply them, so blood pressure is less inside the capillaries than inside arteries.
• In the veins, blood is at a very low pressure, as it is now a long way from the
pumping effect of the heart.
 SEM

35 mm Hg 10 mm Hg

Muscular arteriole

Proportionally more smooth muscle than elastic arteries:

allows for control of blood flow to different areas of body
 Muscular artery

• Muscular arteries (or

distributing arteries): This type
of artery distributes blood to
various parts of organs and
living tissues.
• Their walls have a greater
number of smooth muscles.
• The diameter range of the
muscular arteries varies from
0.1 to 10 mm, this range is
smaller than elastic arteries and
larger than arterioles diameter.
 The smooth muscle fibers in branch arteries
and arterioles
• as arteries reach the tissue, they branch into
smaller and smaller vessels called arterioles
• With increasing distance from the heart, the
tunica media progressively contains more
smooth muscle fibers and fewer elastic fibres.
• Smooth muscle can contract, narrowing the
diameter of the arteriole and so reducing bold
flow, this helps to control the volume of blood
• By vary the constriction and dilation of the
arteries, the blood flow maintains and can
regulate blood flow from the arteries into
capillaries
Typical mistake:
Do not state that the muscle in artery walls pumps blood through
them – this is not correct.
Component and role Structure in relation to function
Arteries: have the thickest and strongest walls; the tunica media is the thickest
layer
Aorta: receives blood • The walls stretch to accommodate the huge surge
pumped from the heart of blood when the ventricles contract.
in a ‘pulse’ (pressure • The high proportion of elastic and collagen fibres of
about 120 mmHg) the tunica externa prevent rupture as blood surges
Main arteries: from the heart.
distribute blood under • The high proportion of elastic fibres are first
high pressure to stretched and then recoil, keeping the blood flowing
regions of the body. and propelling it forwards after each pulse passes.
• Arteries become • With increasing distance from the heart the tunica
wider, so lowering media progressively contains more smooth muscle
the pressure fibres and fewer elastic fibres. By varying the
• Supply the smaller constriction and dialation of the arteries, blood flow
branch arteries that is maintained. Muscle fibres stretch and recoil,
distribute blood to tending to even out the pressure but a pulse can
the main organs still be detected
Arterioles: deliver • The walls have a high proportion of smooth muscle
blood to the tissues fibres and so are able to regulate blood flow from
the arteries into the capillaries.
 The structure of veins
Artery Vein

SEM

Arteriole Venule
Artery Capillary Vein
bed
Oxygenated Deoxygenated
blood blood
 The structure of veins

Tunica media:
• thinner than in arteries.
• few elastic and muscle fibers, more collagen.
• contain semilunar Valves to prevent backflow.
• 5 mm Hg
 Semilunar valves
• How blood at low pressure is returned to the heart from
the legs?

Direction of blood flow

in vein (toward heart) Valve (open)

Skeletal muscle

Semilunar valve
Blood flow in veins
 What’s wrong with these veins?
• The semilunar valves in the vein can’t prevent one way flow
of blood!

• People who sit or stand all day…

• the blood forms pools in the
veins…
• this puts pressure on the veins….
Normal valve Incompetent valve
• Forcing them outward….
• The valves can no longer touch
each other…
 Varicose veins
If a vein wall becomes weakened, valves
may no longer close properly. This allows
backflow of blood, causing the vein to
become enlarged and bumpy, and
become varicose.

This usually happens in superficial

veins, near the skin surface in the
lower legs, as opposed to deep
veins, which lie underneath muscles.

Varicose veins can be surgically

removed without affecting blood flow,
as most blood is returned to the heart
by deep veins.
 Structure of veins in relation to function
Component and role Structure in relation to function
Veins: have the thin walls; the tunica externa is the thickest layer
Venules: collect blood • The walls consist of endothelium and a very thin
from the tissues. They tunica media of a few scattered smooth muscle
are formed by the fibres.
union of several
capillaries (pressure
about 15 mmHg)
Veins: receive blood • The tunica externa, containing elastic and collagen
from the tissues under fibres, is present.
low pressure (pressure • The tunica media contains a few elastic fibres and
about 5 mmHg) muscle fibres.
• The veins become • The presence of valves prevents the back-flow of
wider, so lowering blood.
pressure and • When people tense the muscles, they squeeze
increasing the flow inwards on the veins, temporarily raising the
rate pressure of the blood.
• Gravity pulls blood downwards.
• Normally, contraction and relaxation of leg muscles squeezes in
on leg veins;
• Valves in them ensure blood moves upwards and not
downwards.
• When standing to attention, these muscles are still, so blood
accumulates in the feet.
Capillary structure
• One cell thick
• enormous area
• extensive branching
• roughly 7 µm thick
• have small holes for fluid
to leak out of
Squamous endothelial cell
• 7 micrometers in
diameter, so
brings blood as
close as possible
to cells.
• Squamous
endothelial cell
walls as little as 1
micrometer thick.
• Pore/intercellular
cleft ( 4nm wide):
Allows for fluid to
flow out of
capillaries, solutes
also. Diffusion
also occurs.
• RBCs are brought as close to 1 micrometer from the cells
they are delivering O2 to.
 Structure of capillaries in relation to function

Component and role Structure in relation to function

Capillaries:
Capillaries: serve the • Narrow tubes, about the diameter of a single
tissues and cells of the red blood cell (about 7 um), reduce the flow
body. The blood is under rate to increase exchange between blood and
lower pressure (about 35 tissue.
mmHg) • Thin walls of a single layer of endothelial cells
• Capillaries bring blood • The walls have gaps between cells sufficient to
as close as possible to allow some components of the blood to escape
each group of cells in and contribute to tissue fluid.
the body.
Guide to blood vessels
 Difference between arteries, capillaries
and veins
Artery Capillary Vein
Outer layer (tunica externa) of Present- Absent Present
collagen and elastic fibres thick layer – thin
layer
Middle layer (tunica media) of Present- Absent Present
elastic fibres, collagen and thick layer – thin
smooth muscle fibres layer
Endothelium (inner lining) of Present Present Present
pavement epithelium – a single
layer of cells fitting together
like jigsaw pieces, with a
smooth inner surface that
minimizes friction
Valves Absent Absent Present
Cross sections of an artery, vein and nerve
Arteries, capillaries and veins
 Past exam question
Explain the relationship between the structure and function
of arteries, veins and capillaries. (Total 8 marks)
 ([3 max] for information on arteries)
thick wall / elastic fibres to help withstand the high(er) pressure;
outer fibrous coat prevents artery from rupturing under the high pressures;
lumen small compared to wall thickness to maintain high pressure;
except lumen large near the heart to conduct a large volume of blood;
valves in aorta and pulmonary artery to prevent back flow into ventricles in
diastole;
layers of (smooth) muscle to allow arteries to contract / elastic recoil;
allows the pressure to be altered (vasoconstriction and vasodilation);
([3 max] for information on veins)
thin wall / more collagen and fewer elastic fibres (than arteries) since pressure
low(er);
very little muscle since not needed for constriction;
valves to prevent back flow between pulses;
([3 max] for information on capillaries)
no muscle / elastic tissue since pressure very low;
endothelial layer one cell thick to allow permeability / diffusion of chemicals /
tissue fluid;
small diameter leads to exchange;
some pores to allow rapid diffusion;
no valves since pressure very low;
Subtopic 3 Blood, tissue fluid and lymph
8.1 The circulatory system

8.1.5 recognize and draw red blood cells, monocytes,

neutrophils and lymphocytes from microscope slides,
photomicrographs and electron micrographs
8.1.6 state that water is the main component of blood and
tissue fluid and relate the properties of water to its role in
transport in mammals, limited to solvent action and high
specific heat capacity
8.1.7 state the functions of tissue fluid and describe the
formation of tissue fluid in a capillary network
 Blood – the transport medium

• Cells (formed elements)

• plasma
The composition of blood
The composition of the blood
Blood smear
 Red blood cells - erythrocytes

Red colour caused by the pigment haemoglobin.

 Features of erythrocytes
What are the specialized features of an erythrocyte?
• flattened, biconcave disc shape:
ensures large surface area to
volume ratio for efficient gas • large amount of
exchange haemoglobin: for
transporting oxygen

• no nucleus or
organelles:
maximises space
for haemoglobin,
• diameter (6–8 µm) larger than so more oxygen
capillary diameter: slows can be transported
blood flow to enable diffusion of
oxygen
 White blood cells - leucocytes

• White blood cells all have a

nucleus, although the shape of
this varies in different types of
white cell
• Most white blood cells are
larger than red blood cells,
although lymphocytes may be
slightly smaller
• White blood cells are either
spherical or irregular in shape,
never looking like a biconcave
disc
 White blood cells – fighting disease

Phagocytes engulf and digest unwanted cells

Lymphocyte respond to particular pathogens by secreting

antibodies or by directly destroying them
 Identification based on nucleus

Monocyte (immature
Lymphocyte
macrophage)
• Nucleus takes up
most of the cell • Nucleus oval or
Neutrophil volume。 kidney shaped.
• Generally 3 lobes.
• Connected by thin
segment.
Diagram of the types of blood cells
Blood plasma
Exchange in the tissues and the formation
of tissue fluid
Capillary bed 200-300 mL of blood at any given time
Capillary bed 200-300 mL of blood at any given time

High hydrostatic Low hydrostatic

pressure in arteriole, pressure pressure in
so fluid is pushed out venule but still high
of capillary. Dissolved concentration of solutes
substances diffuse out (particularly proteins),
of capillary. Many so water diffuses back
proteins too large to into capillary.
leave capillary.
Capillary bed: water balance
 Plasma proteins and blood pressure
About 8% of blood plasma consists of plasma proteins, of
which about half may be albumins.

These are a group of small

proteins involved in the
transport of other substances
(e.g. fatty acids, hormones)
and which help regulate the
osmotic pressure of blood.

The balance between the hydrostatic pressure of blood

(‘blood pressure’) and the osmotic pressure of blood is
important in the formation of tissue fluid.
Relative permeability of capillaries
 Composition of blood plasma and tissue fluid
• Tissue fluid is almost identical in composition to blood plasma
• However, tissue fluid contains far fewer protein molecules than
blood plasma, as these are too large to escape through the
tiny holes in the capillary endothelium.
• Tissue fluid does not contain red blood cells as they are much
too large to pass through.
• Some white blood cells can squeeze through and move freely
around in the tissue fluid
 The formation of tissue fluid
• The volume of fluid leaves the capillary to form tissue fluid is
the result of two opposing pressures
• At the arterial end, the blood pressure inside is enough to push
fluid out into the tissue.
• High concentrations of proteins exist in plasma, the imbalance
leads to osmosis of water back into capillaries from tissue fluid.
• The net result of these competing processes is that fluid tends
to flow out at the arterial end and into capillaries near the
venous end.
• However, rather more fluid flows out than into them, so that,
there is a net loss of fluid from the blood.
 Capillary bed: water balance
Of all the water that is pushed out at the arteriole end, only 90%
diffuses back into the capillary at the venule end. The remaining
10% is absorbed by the lymphatic system. If water is not
reabsorbed rapidly enough, fluid builds up and is called an
“oedema.”
Exchange of materials between blood and tissue fluid
 Protein deficiency
• Lack of proteins in blood means lower solute concentration
• so higher water potential in blood
• So water will flow into the tissue fluid

Kwashiorkor
 The lymphatic vessels

• Lymphatics are tiny, blind-

ending vessels, found in
almost all tissues of the body.
• Lymphatics contains tiny
valves to allow the tissue fluid
to flow in but stop it from
leaking out
• Valves are wide enough to
allow large protein molecules
to pass though.
• The fluid inside lymphatics is
called lymph.
 Composition of tissue fluid and lymph

• Lymph is virtually identical to tissue fluid

• In some tissue, lymph is different from other tissues. High
concentrations of lipids are found in lymph in small intestine
•Lymph nodes are scattered throughout the lymphatic system
and remove pathogens (by white blood cells which also
secrete antibodies).
•As in veins, movement of lymph is largely caused by the
contraction of muscles around the vessels, and keep going in
the right direction by valves. lymph vessels also have smooth
muscle which contracts to move the lymph along.
 The lymphatic system
Lymph vessels converge into larger and larger tubes until they
all terminate in the left subclavian vein just above the heart.
What is the difference between describe and explain?
Exchange of substances: diffusion
 Comparison of body fluids
• Composition of blood
RBCs, white blood cells, urea, glucose, Lymph vessel
amino acids, plasma proteins,
Tissue fluid
antibodies and hormones.
• Composition of tissue fluid
white blood cells, urea, glucose, amino
acids, antibodies, carbon dioxide and
hormones.
• Composition of lymph fluid
Proteins (absorbed from tissue fluid –
they come from broken down cells),
have one-way valves, and generally
similar composition as tissue fluid.
Composition of body fluids
Glossary
What’s the keyword?
Multiple-choice quiz