fluids

Article
Experimental and Numerical Study of Cavitation Number
Limitations for Hydrodynamic Cavitation Inception Prediction
Maxim Omelyanyuk 1 , Alexey Ukolov 2 , Irina Pakhlyan 1 , Nikolay Bukharin 3, * and Mouhammad El Hassan 4

1 Armavir Institute of Mechanics and Technology, Kuban State Technological University,

Armavir 352905, Russia; m.omelyanyuk@mail.ru (M.O.); pachlyan@mail.ru (I.P.)
2 Mathematics, Physics and Computer Science Department, Kerch State Maritime Technological University,
Kerch 298176, Russia; ukolov_aleksei@mail.ru
3 Thermofluids Solutions, Calgary, AB T3G 4E8, Canada
4 Mechanical Engineering Department, Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University,
Al Khobar 34754, Saudi Arabia; MELHASSAN@pmu.edu.sa
* Correspondence: nikolay@nbukharin.com

Abstract: Hydrodynamic cavitation is the formation, growth and subsequent collapse of vapor
bubbles in a moving liquid. It is extremely important to determine conditions of cavitation inception
and when it starts damaging industrial equipment. In some cases, such as hydrodynamic cleaning it
is important to understand how to improve the cavitation phenomenon in order to enhance cleaning
properties. The cavitation number is a parameter used to predict cavitation and its potential effects.
In this paper we discuss limitations of this parameter and demonstrate that it cannot be considered
sufficient to predict cavitation inception and development in the fluid flow. The experimental setup
was designed and built to study cavitation inception in various nozzles. RANS SST k–ω turbulence
model was used in this study to model turbulent flow in ANSYS Fluent. CFD calculations were
Citation: Omelyanyuk, M.; Ukolov,
A.; Pakhlyan, I.; Bukharin, N.; El
compared to experimental results. It was shown that cavitation inception was sensitive to change in
Hassan, M. Experimental and nozzle geometry and, since geometrical parameters are not included in cavitation number formula,
Numerical Study of Cavitation scenarios of cavitation inception can be different at the same cavitation number.
Number Limitations for
Hydrodynamic Cavitation Inception Keywords: hydrodynamic cavitation; cavitation number; fluid mechanics; CFD
Prediction. Fluids 2022, 7, 198.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
fluids7060198

Academic Editor:
1. Introduction
Mehrdad Massoudi Cavitation is a formation of vapor bubbles within a liquid at low-pressure regions.
Cavitation can be generated by an ultrasonic acoustic field [1,2] or it can appear in moving
Received: 12 April 2022
fluid, which is the focus of this study. Hydrodynamic cavitation is the formation, growth
Accepted: 23 May 2022
and subsequent collapse of cavities (bubbles) filled with the mixture of gas and vapor in
Published: 9 June 2022
a moving liquid. This process of bubble formation occurs when the flow rate increases
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral and the pressure in the system approaches the saturated vapor pressure at a given liquid
with regard to jurisdictional claims in temperature. Collapse of these vapor bubbles leads to the appearance of local microjets and
published maps and institutional affil- shock waves and, as a result, erosion of surfaces which are in contact with cavitation, noise
iations. and vibrations [3]. For many industrial applications it is extremely important to determine
conditions at which cavitation will start to form and to damage equipment. In some cases,
such as in case of high-pressure hydrodynamic jet, which is used for cleaning pipes from
salt deposits with radionuclides [4], cleaning heat exchangers, for the deep hole drilling [5]
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
and many other industrial applications [6], it is important to understand how to improve
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
cavitation phenomenon in order to enhance jet’s erosion properties.
distributed under the terms and
The parameter used to predict cavitation and the potential effects of cavitation (such
conditions of the Creative Commons
as erosion) is the cavitation number [7]:
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
Pa − Pv
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ σ= 1
(1)
2
4.0/). 2 ρve

Fluids 2022, 7, 198. https://doi.org/10.3390/fluids7060198 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fluids

Fluids 2022, 7, 198 2 of 18

where Pa is an ambient pressure; Pv is a vapor pressure of the liquid; ve is the mean jet exit
velocity; ρ is a liquid density.
Cavitation number can be calculated for any flow, and the cavitation number at
which the flow starts to produce cavitation is called critical cavitation number or incipient
cavitation number. It can be seen from (1) that if σ is large (large ambient pressure or
small flow velocity) there will be no cavitation produced. By increasing flow velocity and
decreasing ambient pressure, the cavitation number can be reduced and when it drops
to a critical (incipient) value cavitation bubbles will start to appear in the flow. Further
reduction of the cavitation number will affect cavitation intensity and cavitation erosion.
For different fluid mechanics processes and different geometries of cavitation cham-
bers, the inception number can be different. In [8], hydrodynamic cavitation technique was
tested for the degradation of orange-G dye in the context of degradation of various organic
pollutants such as pesticides, pharmaceutical drugs, and textiles dyes. A total of three
cavitating devices were used: circular and slit Venturi and an orifice plate. Experiments
were performed at different inlet pressures ranging from 3 to 7 bar. There was an observ-
able optimum inlet pressure and cavitation number at which dye decolorization rate was
maximum for all three cavitating devices. The optimized inlet pressure was 3 bar with a
cavitation number of 0.29 for the slit Venturi, 5 bar with a cavitation number of 0.15 for the
circular Venturi and 5 bar with a cavitation number of 0.24 for orifice. Similar experiments
with reactive red dye were conducted in [9]. The first clear cavity cloud was observed at
6 bar pressure (cavitation number 0.13) and with further increases in inlet pressure almost
the entire downstream area was filled with cavity cloud. In [10], hybrid methods based on
cavitation coupled with the Fenton process for the treatment of wastewater were discussed
and different types of reactors used for the combined processes were analyzed. In addition,
some recommendations for large-scale operation were given. A cavitation number in
the range of 0.1 to 1 was reported to be optimal for the reactor’s operations since very
low operating cavitation numbers could lead to super-cavitation resulting in vapor cloud
formation and no collapse of cavitation bubbles. In [11], a theoretical and experimental
study of cavitation as an advanced oxidation process was conducted. The degradation rate
of p-nitrophenol (PNP) was experimentally investigated and used as an estimator of the
sonochemical effect in hydrodynamic cavitation. A flow was passed through a Venturi
tube; an optimal Venturi tube inlet pressure value was found to be 0.4 MPa and optimal
cavitation number was 0.25. In [12], degradation of imidacloprid (neonicotinoid class of
insecticide) in aqueous solution was studied using hydrodynamic cavitation. A circular
Venturi tube was used as hydrodynamic cavitation test chamber. Rate of degradation of
imidacloprid using hydrodynamic cavitation was found to be dependent on the follow-
ing parameters: inlet pressure, cavitation number and pH of the feed solution. An inlet
pressure of 15 bar, cavitation number of 0.067 and acidic conditions were recommended for
enhancing the extent of degradation of imidacloprid. A low cavitation number (σ = 0.08)
was also observed in [4] in Ba(Ra)SO4 cleaning application. In [13], hydrodynamic cav-
itation was studied in different geometries of Venturi tubes and it was shown that the
cavitation number could not be used as a single parameter to define cavitation inception
and intensity. The self-resonating jet (self-excited pulsed jet) was first proposed and studied
in [14,15] (part I and II of the same study). These jets were used for deep hole drilling to
accommodate increasing cavitation numbers with increasing depth of drilling. Using fluid
dynamics principles for a structured jet, the cavitation number can be defined as follows:

Γ2
σ= (2)
2π 2 V 2 rc2

where Γ is the circulation around vortex

I
Γ= v × ds = V × λ

λ is the acoustic wavelength, V—jet velocity, rc —vortex core radius

Fluids 2022, 7, 198 3 of 18

In [16], self-resonating cavitating jets were used for bitumen separation from the oil
sand and for cavitation erosion study in the multiphase slurry media. The cavitation
number was calculated based on (1) as 0.19. In [17], a series of nozzles were designed for
low-intensity cavitation at high cavitation numbers (σ = 0.37−0.46), calculated based on
(1), to test different types of cavitation generators for bitumen separation from the oil sand.
In [18], a fundamental study of the large cavitation bubble dynamics in a tube, filled
with degassed water, was studied. Large scale cavitation bubbles were formed on the
bottom of the tube when it was driven upwards and hitting the stopper, generating water
separation due to inertial water movement. A new cavitation number was proposed to
describe the maximum length of cavitation bubble:

Ca2 = l ∗−1 Ca0 (3)

where l* is a non-dimensional length of the water column indicating its slenderness and
Ca0 is the classical cavitation number described in (1). Such cavitation number defines
appearance of large vapor caverns when Ca2 < 1. In [19], it was shown that cavitation could
occur at low velocities (on the order of 1 m/s), when a flat-bottomed cylinder impacts onto
a liquid pool. Cavitation number (1) was also modified in this case and was introduced as

Ca = αMa−1 (4)

where Ma is the impact Mach number and α is impacting angle and when Ca is sufficiently
small (i.e., Ca < k1 , where k1 is a constant of order unity), cavitation is expected. Another
modification of cavitation number was suggested in [20]. The experiment similar to pre-
sented in [18] was conducted and proposed dimensionless number was more suitable to
predict the cavitation onset caused by a sudden acceleration rather than a large velocity
as prescribed by the traditional cavitation number (1). In [21], correlation of bisphenol A
(BPA) degradation by hydrodynamic cavitation with the fluid mechanical properties of the
cavitating jet in a reactor was studied. The effects of inlet pressure and two orifices were
investigated and the fluid mechanics conditions during the reaction were evaluated by
optical measurements to determine the jet length, bubble volume, number of bubbles, and
bubble size distribution. Cavitation number was calculated based on (1) and was changed
from 0.2 to 0.03. In [22], the cavity behavior and its corresponding wall static pressure
characteristics in Venturi channels with various divergence angles to research the role of
the divergence angle in cavity shape and the wall static pressure oscillation was studied.
Five rectangular Venturi channels with different divergence angles (4◦ , 6◦ , 8◦ , 10◦ , and 12◦ )
were tested at the cavitation number from 0.3 to 1.0.
The first reason of such a wide spread of optimal and operation cavitation numbers
are the various applications which require different regimes of cavitation and cavitation
efficiency. In addition, the second reason is that all cavitation devices are different and
there is no standard set of parameters, used for cavitation number calculations.
In this paper we studied different parameters which affect cavitation inception and
development. Different geometries of cavitation chambers were tested and different param-
eters in the hydraulic system were used to calculate cavitation number. The geometry of
cavitation chambers was studied in combination with temperature and pressure variations
in the system. It was shown that cavitation number cannot be used as the main hydro-
dynamic cavitation characteristic since it does not share a connection with the cavitation
chamber’s or nozzle’s geometry and it can be calculated in several different ways in the
same system, producing different values.
The experimental setup was designed and built to study cavitation inception and
development. Turbulent flow was also modeled in ANSYS Fluent and CFD calculations
were compared to experimental results.
 drodynamic cavitation characteristic since it does not share a connection with the cavita-
tion chamber’s or nozzle’s geometry and it can be calculated in several different ways in
the same system, producing different values.
The experimental setup was designed and built to study cavitation inception and
Fluids 2022, 7, 198
development. Turbulent flow was also modeled in ANSYS Fluent and CFD calculations 4 of 18
were compared to experimental results.

2. Experimental Procedures
2. Experimental Procedures
The experimental setup used to study the cavitation is shown in Figure 1. A 7.5 kW
centrifugalThepump
experimental
was usedsetup usedthe
to pump to study the cavitation
tap water is shown in Figure
through hydrodynamic 1. A 7.5 kW
loop. Replace-
centrifugal pump was used to pump the tap water through hydrodynamic
able axisymmetric cavitation generators (cavitators) were made of transparent material loop. Replace-
able axisymmetric cavitation generators (cavitators) were made of transparent material
(organic glass), for visual detection of cavitation inception. A scale grid with a 1 cm × 1 cm
glass), for visual detection of cavitation inception. A scale grid with a 1 cm × 1 cm
cells(organic
was used as a reference to measure cavitation zone size. A microphone was used for
cells was used as a reference to measure cavitation zone size. A microphone was used for
acoustic measurements of cavitation noise. All components of the system were connected
acoustic measurements of cavitation noise. All components of the system were connected
with 55 mm flexible hoses.
with 55 mm flexible hoses.

Figure 1. Diagram of experimental installation of audiovisual determination of cavitation parameters.

Figure 1. Diagram of experimental installation of audiovisual determination of cavitation parame-
1—tank;
ters. 1—tank;2—filter; 3—flowmeter;
2—filter; 3—flowmeter;4—electric centrifugal
4—electric pump;
centrifugal 5,10—cavitator’s
pump; inlet/outlet
5,10—cavitator’s pressure
inlet/outlet
control valves; 6,9—pressure gauges at the cavitator’s inlet/outlet; 7—axisymmetric
pressure control valves; 6,9—pressure gauges at the cavitator’s inlet/outlet; 7—axisymmetric re- replaceable
cavitators;
placeable 8—scale
cavitators; grid. grid
8—scale

KROHNE electromagnetic flowmeter (accuracy: ±0.2% from 0.031545 m3 /s of FS).

KROHNE electromagnetic flowmeter (accuracy: ±0.2% from 0.031545 m3/s of FS).
Bourdon pressure gauges were used for pressure measurements (0–5 bar, ±2% FS).
Bourdon pressure gauges were used for pressure measurements (0–5 bar, ±2% FS).
Three different Venturi tubes configurations were used in this study (Figure 2).
Three different Venturi tubes configurations were used in this study (Figure 2).
Figure 2a: Venturi tube with 60◦ reducer, cylindrical part and 13◦ diffuser.
Figure 2a: Venturi tube with 60° reducer, cylindrical part and 13° diffuser.
Figure 2b: Same geometry as in the first case but inverted.
Figure 2b: Same geometry as in the first case but inverted.
Figure 2c: Cylindrical nozzle.
Figure 2c: Cylindrical nozzle.
Figure 2d: Conical 13◦ diverging nozzle.
Figure 2d: Conical 13° diverging nozzle.
The smallest inner flow section diameter for all test chambers was 12 mm, length
150 mm, and outer diameter 40 mm. More detailed geometry is shown in Figure 3.
For each of the test chambers, critical values of the pressure drop for cavitation
inception were experimentally determined, as well as the geometric characteristics of
cavitation cavities at various pressure parameters.
Fluids 2022, 7, 198 5 of 18
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21

Figure 2. Test chambers (cavitators). Scale on the top is in mm. (a) venturi tube, (b) inverted ven-
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW Figure 2. Test chambers (cavitators). Scale on the top is in mm. (a) venturi 6tube, of 21 (b) inverted venturi
turi tube, (c) cylindrical nozzle, (d) diverging nozzle
tube, (c) cylindrical nozzle, (d) diverging nozzle.
The smallest inner flow section diameter for all test chambers was 12 mm, length 150
mm, and outer diameter 40 mm. More detailed geometry is shown in Figure 3.
For each of the test chambers, critical values of the pressure drop for cavitation in-
ception were experimentally determined, as well as the geometric characteristics of cavi-
tation cavities at various pressure parameters.

Figure3. 3.
Figure Computation
Computation domains.
domains. (a)tube,
(a) venturi venturi tube, (b)
(b) cylindrical cylindrical
nozzle, nozzle,
(c) diverging (c)
nozzle diverging nozzle.

3. Numerical Method
RANS (Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes) SST k–ω turbulence model in the system
with Energy Equation was used for CFD analysis. This model was developed by Menter
[23] to effectively blend the robust and accurate formulation of the k–ω model in the near-
wall region with the free-stream independence of the k–ε model in the far field, which
Fluids 2022, 7, 198 6 of 18

3. Numerical Method
RANS (Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes) SST k–ω turbulence model in the system
with Energy Equation was used for CFD analysis. This model was developed by Menter [23]
to effectively blend the robust and accurate formulation of the k–ω model in the near-wall
region with the free-stream independence of the k–ε model in the far field, which makes
it more accurate and reliable for a wider class of flows. Transport Equations (5) and (6)
for SST k–ω model has a similar form to the standard k–ω model. The y+ value is a
non-dimensional distance (based on local cell fluid velocity) from the wall to the first mesh
node. For this model Ansys CFX is using an automatic value for y+ parameter, y+ > 11 for
high Reynolds numbers, and y+ < 2 for low Reynolds numbers.
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂k
(ρk) + (ρkui ) = Γk fk − Yk + Sk
+G (5)
∂t ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j
!
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ω
(ρω ) + (ρωui ) = Γω + Gω − Yω + Dω + Sω (6)
∂t ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j

where G fk represents the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to mean velocity
gradients. Gω represents the generation of ω, Γk and Γω represent the effective diffusivity
of k and ω. Yk and Yω represent the dissipation of k and ω due to turbulence. Dω represents
the cross-diffusion term; Sk and Sω are user-defined source terms. The cavitation model
was represented by the Rayleigh–Plesset equation:
2
d2 R B pv − p

3 dR B 2σ
RB + + = (7)
dt2 2 dt ρ f RB ρf

where RB —is the radius of the bubble, pv —is the pressure in the bubble (vapor pressure
at the given temperature of the liquid), p—is the pressure in the liquid surrounding the
bubble, ρf —is the density of the liquid, and σ—is the coefficient of surface tension between
the liquid and vapor. Equation (7) is based on mechanical balance assuming no thermal
barriers of bubble growth. Neglecting second-order terms (which is suitable for low
vibration frequencies) and surface tension, this equation can be reduced to:
s
dR B 2 pv − p
= (8)
dt 3 ρf

The rate of change in bubble volume is calculated as follows:

s
2 pv − p
 
dVB d 4
= πR3B = πR2B (9)
dt dt 3 3 ρf

and the rate of change in the mass of the bubble is:

s
dm B dV 2 pv − p
= ρ g B = πR2B ρ g (10)
dt dt 3 ρf

If NB is the number of bubbles per unit volume, the volume fraction rg can be expressed
as:
4
r g = VB NB = πR3B NB (11)
3
and the total rate of interfacial mass transfer per unit volume is:
s
. dm 3ρ g r g 2 pv − p
mfg = NB B = (12)
dt RB 3 ρf
Fluids 2022, 7, 198 7 of 18

This expression was obtained under the assumption of bubble growth (evaporation).
It can be generalized for condensation as follows:
s
. 3ρ g r g 2 | pv − p|
mfg =F sgn( pv − p) (13)
RB 3 ρf

where F—an empirical coefficient that can differ for condensation and evaporation, de-
signed to consider the fact that they can occur at different rates (condensation is usually
much slower than evaporation). Although Equation (13) has been generalized for evapora-
tion and condensation, it could be further optimized for evaporation process. Evaporation
starts at the spots of nucleation (most often non-condensable gases) and rg in (13) is replaced
by 1 − rg , to obtain:

s
. 3rnuc ρ g 1 − r g 2 | pv − p|
mfg =F sgn( pv − p) (14)
RB 3 ρf

where rnuc —volume fraction in nucleation centers. Equation (13) is also preserved in the
case of condensation and RB represents the radius of cavitation bubbles at nucleation.
ANSYS Workbench 21 software package was used for numerical solution of govern-
ing equations. Computation domains are shown in Figure 3. Geometrical parameters
correspond to geometry of the three types of cavitation test chambers which were used
in the experiments (Figure 2). Additional entrance length was not considered. We used
normal orientation of the flow with zero gradient as the entrance conditions. All cases were
axisymmetric. The solution of the problem in ◦ CFX–Solver, based on the finite-volume
method, was performed in two stages. In the first stage, a converged solution was obtained
with the cavitation model turned off, then the data were imported into the duplicated CFX
solver, and the cavitation flow analysis was performed. Water (incompressible fluid under
isothermal flow conditions) was used as a fluid with a reference pressure of 1 atm at 15 ◦ C.
Mesh was refined as shown in Figure 4a. The cell size δ in the refinement region was
four times smaller than in the other regions of the model. The magnified mesh region
is shown in Figure 4b. A mesh study was conducted for the cell size and for the mesh
structure. Structured mesh with the boundary layer region was also generated (Figure 4c).
A total of 10 mesh layers were set near the wall with the maximum width of 1 mm. For
this analysis, the mesh size was doubled every iteration (Figure 4d). The pressure at four
characteristic points, which we used for cavitation number calculations (Figure 3), were
used for comparison. Computational results demonstrated that the pressure in points “b”,
“c” and “e” did not depend on size and type of the mesh. Some spread of the results was
observed in the points “th” and “d” (Figure 4d). To stabilize results at these points the
mesh size was reduced to δ < 0.5 mm for unstructured mesh and δ < 1 mm for structured
mesh. On average, the computational grid consisted of 0.5 million elements.
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 21
Fluids 2022, 7, 198 8 of 18

Figure 4.
Figure Computational mesh
4. Computational mesh (a–c)
(a–c) and
and mesh
mesh study
study (d).
(d).

4. Results and Discussion

4. Results and Discussion
Validation of CFD results for the Venturi tube is shown in Figure 5. Cavitation occurs
at theValidation of CFD
leading edge results
of the for the
Venturi Venturi
neck, tube
at the is shownof
beginning inthe
Figure 5. Cavitation
cylindrical occurs
portion. At
at
thethe leadingpressure
absolute edge of onthethe
Venturi
inlet pneck, = at the
1.3 atm,beginning
cavitationofcavern
the cylindrical
propagates portion. At the
through the
in
absolute
throat of pressure on the
the Venturi tubeinlet pin = 1.3
(Figure 5a).atm,
Thecavitation
length of cavern propagates
the cavitation through
region in thisthe throat
case was
of the Venturi tube (Figure 5a). The length of the cavitation region
lcavi = 18 mm. The increase of the inlet pressure to 1.5 atm leads to the appearancein this case was lcaviof
=
18 mm. The increase of the inlet pressure to 1.5 atm leads to the appearance
cavitation bubbles along the entire surface of the neck and at the entrance to the Venturi of cavitation
bubbles
diffuser.along thecase,
In this entire
thesurface
lengthof ofthe
theneck and at region
cavitation the entrance to the
increased toVenturi
26 mm diffuser. In
(Figure 5c).
this
CFDcase, the length
predictions of the acavitation
showed good agreementregion increased
with the to 26 mm (Figure
experimental 5c). (Figure
results CFD predic-
5b,c).
tions showed
The back a good(outlet)
pressure agreement withabsolute.
is 1 atm the experimental results
Therefore, when(Figure 5b,c). The
cavitation occursback pres-
for tap
water with a temperature of 15 ◦ C, the critical pressure difference inside the Venturi tube,
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 21

Fluids 2022, 7, 198 9 of 18

sure (outlet) is 1 atm absolute. Therefore, when cavitation occurs for tap water with a tem-
perature of 15 °С, the critical pressure difference inside the Venturi tube, determined ex-
perimentally, is 0.3 atm. The
determined experimentally, is volume
0.3 atm. fraction of the
The volume vapor of
fraction phase reaches
the vapor 37%,
phase and with
reaches 37%,a
difference of 0.5 atm—48%
and with a difference of 0.5 atm—48%.

Figure 5.5. Numerical

Figure Numericaland
andexperimental
experimental results.
results. Venturi
Venturi tube.
tube. (a,b)—inlet
(a,b)—inlet pressure
pressure 1.3 atm,
1.3 atm, (c,d)—
(c,d)—inlet
inlet pressure 1.5
pressure 1.5 atm. atm.

Figure 66 shows
Figure shows absolute
absolute pressure
pressure (blue
(blue line)
line) and
and the
the flow
flow velocity
velocity υυ (red
(red line)
line) along
along
the Venturi
the Venturi tube. tube. Pressure (pabs abs)) decreases
decreasesto tothe
thevalue
valueof ofsaturated
saturatedvapor pressureppv vatatx
vaporpressure
x= =0,0,which
whichcorresponds
correspondstotothe thebeginning
beginningof ofthe
thecylindrical
cylindrical section
section (throat)
(throat) in the Venturi
Venturi
tube.
tube. At inlet pressure ppinin = 1.3 atm, the length of the region near
inlet pressure near the
the nozzle
nozzle wall,
wall, where
where
ppabs
abs == ppvv,, is
is equal
equal to
to 5–6 mm. The The size
size of the cavity is determined
determined by the the distance
distance that
that
cavitation
cavitationbubbles bubbleswill
willovercome
overcomeafter thethe
after nucleation,
nucleation,growth
growth andand
implosive
implosivecollapse in the
collapse in
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
high-pressure zone. Therefore, visually andand
numerically, we can observe thatthat 11 of 21
cavitation
the high-pressure zone. Therefore, visually numerically, we can observe cavita-
zone propagates
tion zone further
propagates than than
further the region wherewhere
the region pv .=(Figure
pabs =pabs 5a,b).
pv. (Figure 5a,b).

Figurepressure
Figure 6. Absolute 6. Absolute pressure
pabs pabs and
and flow flow velocity
velocity υ alongυ along the Venturi
the Venturi tubetube (fromour
(from ourCFD
CFD results).
results).

When inlet pressure is increased to pin = 1.5 atm cavitation zone is propagating further
to diffuser (Figure 5c,d). Based on Figures 3 and 6, four points were selected for calcula-
tions of pabs, υ and σ. Results for the calculated cavitation number σ are shown in Tables
1 and 2.

Table 1. Absolute pressure and velocity (in atm. and m/s) (from our CFD results).

Nozzle and Flow

Fluids 2022, 7, 198 10 of 18

When inlet pressure is increased to pin = 1.5 atm cavitation zone is propagating further
to diffuser (Figure 5c,d). Based on Figures 3 and 6, four points were selected for calculations
of pabs , υ and σ. Results for the calculated cavitation number σ are shown in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Absolute pressure and velocity (in atm. and m/s) (from our CFD results).

Nozzle and Flow

pa pb pc pd pe υth υb υc υd υe
Direction
Venturi, straight 1.50 1.50 1.43 0.68 0.96 15.20 2.85 4.49 9.49 6.85
Venturi, straight 1.30 1.30 1.24 0.80 0.98 14.10 2.64 4.17 9.03 6.07
Venturi, reverse 1.50 1.50 1.02 0.90 0.88 14.30 1.77 9.93 10.10 9.51
Venturi, reverse 1.30 1.30 0.96 0.95 0.94 12.04 1.59 8.40 8.20 7.77
Venturi, reverse 1.65 1.65 1.08 0.87 0.82 15.57 1.94 10.85 11.19 10.48
Cylindrical 2.50 2.50 2.42 0.77 0.74 9.8 3.34 5.03 4.51 8.18
Cylindrical 2.80 2.80 2.72 0.70 0.66 10.34 3.50 5.27 3.22 8.74
Conical divergent 1.80 1.80 1.76 0.84 0.89 7.33 2.50 3.63 4.56 5.36
Conical divergent 1.80 1.74 1.60 0.67 0.70 13.72 4.18 6.79 9.14 10.05
Conic convergent 2.80 2.66 2.34 0.26 0.53 20.70 6.27 10.18 13.80 15.13

Table 2. Cavitation number (from our CFD results).

Nozzle and Flow

σpa ,υth σpb,υth σpb,υb σpc ,υth σpc,υc σpd,υth σpd,υd σpe, υth σpe,υe
Direction
Venturi, straight 1.27 1.27 36.08 1.21 13.91 0.56 1.44 0.80 3.96
Venturi, straight 1.28 1.27 36.33 1.22 13.93 0.77 1.88 0.95 5.14
Venturi, reverse 1.44 1.44 93.73 0.97 2.00 0.85 1.71 0.82 1.86
Venturi, reverse 1.75 1.75 100.01 1.28 2.63 1.26 2.73 1.25 3.00
Venturi, reverse 1.33 1.33 85.88 0.87 1.79 0.69 1.34 0.65 1.44
Cylindrical 5.11 5.11 44.28 4.95 18.89 1.52 7.23 1.46 2.11
Cylindrical 5.18 5.18 45.10 5.02 19.34 1.25 12.89 1.18 1.65
Conical divergent 6.59 6.59 56.67 6.45 26.32 3.02 7.80 3.20 5.98
Conic convergent 1.88 1.81 19.58 1.66 6.78 0.68 1.54 0.71 1.33
Conic convergent 1.29 1.23 13.38 1.08 4.45 0.11 0.24 0.23 0.44

One of the disadvantages of the cavitation number is that it does not consider geometry
of cavitation chamber. It can be demonstrated by changing the direction of the flow inside
Venturi tube. Parameters for cavitation inception and cavitation zone size are shown in
Figure 7. Characteristic points which were defined in Figure 3 are positioned in the opposite
direction.
For the reversed flow in the Venturi tube, we did not observe cavitation at the inlet
pressure pin = 1.3 atm and 1.5 atm. We could observe cavitation inception at inlet pressure
of 1.65 atm with a maximum vapor concentration 24% (Figure 8).
It can be seen, that for a Venturi tube flow the critical pressure drop for cavitation
inception is 0.3 atm, and for the reversed flow with the same geometry it increases to
0.65 atm.
For the cylindrical nozzle (Figure 3b), cavitation inception could be observed at
pin = 2.5 atm. Figure 9 shows absolute pressure (blue line) and the flow velocity υ (red line)
along the cylindrical nozzle including the case with switched inlet. For this type of nozzle,
the critical pressure difference for cavitation inception was 1.5 atm.
 Conic convergent 1.29 1.23 13.38 1.08 4.45 0.11 0.24 0.23 0.44

One of the disadvantages of the cavitation number is that it does not consider geom-
etry of cavitation chamber. It can be demonstrated by changing the direction of the flow
Fluids 2022, 7, 198
inside Venturi tube. Parameters for cavitation inception and cavitation zone size are 11 of 18
shown in Figure 7. Characteristic points which were defined in Figure 3 are positioned in
the opposite direction.

Figure 7. Absolute pressure pabs and flow velocity υ along inverted Venturi tube (from our CFD
results).

For the reversed flow in the Venturi tube, we did not observe cavitation at the inlet
pressure
Figure7.7.pAbsolute
Figure in = 1.3 pressure
Absoluteatm andpabs1.5
pressure pandatm.
and We
abs flow
could
velocity
flow observe
υ along
velocity alongcavitation
υ inverted inception
Venturi Venturi
inverted tube (from at inlet
our(from
tube CFD ourpressure
CFD
ofresults).
1.65 atm with a maximum vapor concentration 24% (Figure 8).
results).

For the reversed flow in the Venturi tube, we did not observe cavitation at the inlet
pressure pin = 1.3 atm and 1.5 atm. We could observe cavitation inception at inlet pressure
of 1.65 atm with a maximum vapor concentration 24% (Figure 8).

Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21

For the cylindrical nozzle (Figure 3b), cavitation inception could be observed at pin =
2.5 atm. Figure 9 shows absolute pressure (blue line) and the flow velocity υ (red line)
along8.the
Figure
Figure cylindrical
8.Numerical
Numerical nozzle
results
results forincluding
for reversed the
flowcase
reversed flow with switched
inVenturi
in Venturi inlet.
tube.(a)(a)
tube. inlet
inlet For this 1.5
pressure
pressure type1.5
atmofatm
nozzle,
(b) (b) inlet
inlet
the critical
pressure
pressure1.65 pressure
1.65atm.
atm. difference for cavitation inception was 1.5 atm.
Figure 8. Numerical results for reversed flow in Venturi tube. (a) inlet pressure 1.5 atm (b) inlet
pressure 1.65 atm.
It can be seen, that for a Venturi tube flow the critical pressure drop for cavitation
inception
It canisbe
0.3seen,
atm, and
that forfor the reversed
a Venturi flow
tube flow the with
criticalthe same drop
pressure geometry it increases to 0.65
for cavitation
atm.
inception is 0.3 atm, and for the reversed flow with the same geometry it increases to 0.65
atm.

Figure 9. Absolute pressure

pressure ppabs
abs and
and flow
flow velocity
velocity υυ along
along cylindrical
cylindrical nozzle (from our CFD results).

Cavitation appears in the transition from wide to narrow section in the direction of
flow. The length of cavitation region in this case was lcavi = 10 mm The maximum vapor
concentration is 80% (Figure 10a,b). When inlet pressure was increased to 2.8 atm, the
entire throat was filled with vapor (lcavi = 32 mm). The cavitation zone significantly in-
creases but maximum volume fraction stays the same (Figure 10c,d).
Fluids 2022, 7, 198 12 of 18

Cavitation appears in the transition from wide to narrow section in the direction of
flow. The length of cavitation region in this case was lcavi = 10 mm The maximum vapor
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW
concentration is 80% (Figure 10a,b). When inlet pressure was increased to 2.8 atm, the14entire
of 21
throat was filled with vapor (lcavi = 32 mm). The cavitation zone significantly increases but
maximum volume fraction stays the same (Figure 10c,d).

Figure 10. Numerical

Figure10. Numerical and
and experimental
experimental results.
results. Cylindrical
Cylindrical nozzle.
nozzle. (a,b)—inlet
(a,b)—inlet pressure
pressure 2.5
2.5 atm,
atm,
(c,d)—inlet
(c,d)—inletpressure
pressure2.8
2.8atm.
atm.

Inception cavitation number for the case of cylindrical nozzle is significantly higher
than in the case of Venturi tube in all characteristic points.
The last type of nozzle tested in this study was the convergent/divergent nozzle
(Figure 3c). Figure 11 shows absolute pressure (blue line) and the flow velocity υ (red
line) along the conical nozzle including the case with switched inlet. The characteristic
points were determined when the cone acts as a diffuser or confuser for the fluid flow.
For the smooth expansion of the flow (diffuser case), cavitation inception is observed at
pin = 1.35 atm and the cavity zone (lcavi = 10 mm) gradually increases with increasing
pressure (Figure 12). The critical pressure drop for cavitation inception was 0.35 atm. For
the reversed case (converging nozzle) the phase transition starts only at pin = 2.8 atm, and
slowly increases with increasing pressure.
It can be seen that there is no pattern in changing of cavitation inception number
for different geometries of the nozzles. Cavitation bubbles can appear at σ ≈ 1 and their
quantity increases with a decrease in cavitation number. However, we can also observe the
appearance of cavitation at σ = 5–6. From analysis of the cavitation number Formula (1), it
can be noted that such a wide spread of cavitation numbers is related to velocity of the flow.
One of the most important parameters which affects cavitation inception and develop-
ment is pressure difference between vapor pressure and local pressure which is reflected in
cavitation number Formula (1).
Figure 11. Absolute pressure pabs and flow velocity υ along conic nozzle (from our CFD results).
Fluids 2022, 7, 198 13 of 18
Figure 10. Numerical and experimental results. Cylindrical nozzle. (a,b)—inlet pressure 2.5 atm,
(c,d)—inlet pressure 2.8 atm.

Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 21

Figure 11. Absolute

Figure 11. Absolute pressure
pressure ppabs
abs and flow velocity υ
υ along conic nozzle (from our CFD results).

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Numerical
Numerical andand
experimental results.
experimental Diverging
results. nozzle.nozzle.
Diverging Inlet pressure
Inlet 1.8 atm. (a)1.8
pressure exper-
atm.
imental result, (b) CFD result.
(a) experimental result, (b) CFD result.

The
It canother parameter
be seen that therewhich
is noaffects
patterncavitation
in changingdevelopment
of cavitation is fluid temperature.
inception numberThe for
temperature effect on cavitation was studied in [24–27]. It was shown
different geometries of the nozzles. Cavitation bubbles can appear at σ ≈ 1 and their quan- that less cavitation
bubbles were generated at low in temperature ◦ C for water) but the implosion of
tity increases with a decrease cavitation (close
number. to 0However, we can also observe the
bubbles
appearance is much more intense.
of cavitation at σ =The5–6.quantity of cavitation
From analysis of thebubbles
cavitationgrows with temperature
number Formula (1),
increase, but thethat
it can be noted implosion
such a wide energy decreases.
spread The decrease
of cavitation numbers inisthe implosion
related at elevated
to velocity of the
temperatures
flow. (close to 100 ◦ C for water) occurs due to the bubbles’ inability to trap vapor,
their One
volume grows
of the mostand they consequently
important parameters implode.
which affectsAn ideal balance
cavitation between
inception quantity
and devel-
of the cavitation bubbles and implosion power is achieved at 40–50 ◦ C [6]. At different
opment is pressure difference between vapor pressure and local pressure which is re-
temperatures it is important
flected in cavitation number to consider
Formula (1).viscosity effect. Viscosity is decreasing at higher
temperatures
The other parameter which affectsincreasing.
and Reynolds number is This effect is shown
cavitation development is fluidintemperature.
CFD modelling The
in [28] and ineffect
temperature experiments in [29].was
on cavitation Lower viscosity
studied leadsIttowas
in [24–27]. increase
shown of that
cavitation activity
less cavitation
because
bubbles of molecular
were generated connections weakening.(close to 0 °C for water) but the implosion of
at low temperature
bubbles is much more intense. The quantity of effect
It should be noted that the temperature is usually
cavitation bubbles considered
grows with fortemperature
developed
cavitation, when the cavitation zone reaches several centimeters
increase, but the implosion energy decreases. The decrease in the implosion at in size. In this study,
elevated
we considered the effect of temperature on the vapor fraction and
temperatures (close to 100 °C for water) occurs due to the bubbles’ inability to trap vapor,cavitation zone length
during the inception
their volume grows and process. Vapor fraction
they consequently n along An
implode. theideal
nozzle of Venturi
balance tubequantity
between type at
different temperatures is shown in Figure 13. Inlet pressure in
of the cavitation bubbles and implosion power is achieved at 40–50 °C [6]. At different this case is 1.3 atm and
corresponds
temperaturestoit cavitation
is important inception.
to consider Theviscosity
origin in Figure
effect. 13 corresponds
Viscosity is decreasingto beginning
at higher
of cylindrical throat. It can be seen that the length of cavitation zone is 27 mm and it is
temperatures and Reynolds number is ◦increasing. This effect is shown in CFD◦modelling
stable in the temperature range 25–75 C. In the temperature range of 55–65 C we can
in [28] and in experiments in [29]. Lower viscosity leads to increase of cavitation activity
observe the appearance of a second local maximum of vapor fraction which corresponds to
because of molecular connections weakening.
It should be noted that the temperature effect is usually considered for developed
cavitation, when the cavitation zone reaches several centimeters in size. In this study, we
considered the effect of temperature on the vapor fraction and cavitation zone length dur-
ing the inception process. Vapor fraction n along the nozzle of Venturi tube type at differ-
 Fluids 2022, 7, 198 14 of 18

the transition to diffuser. Temperature increase to 75 ◦ C leads to a significant increase of

Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW cavitation activity and increase of cavitation zone length (more than 30 mm16(lcavi > 30 mm)).
of 21
The similar behavior of cavitation was observed at an increase of inlet pressure to 1.5 atm
(Figure 5c,d).

Figure13.
Figure Vapor
13.Vapor fraction
fraction n along
n along the nozzle
the nozzle of Venturi
of Venturi tubeattype
tube type at different
different temperatures
temperatures (temper- (tempera-
ature is shown
ture is showninin°C)◦ C)
(from
(fromour CFD
our CFDresults).
results).

Thesimilar
The similar dependency
dependency of vapor
of the the vapor fraction
fraction from temperature
from temperature for the
for the conic conic nozzle
nozzle
(diverging)
(diverging)is is
shown
shown in Figure 14. Inlet
in Figure pressure
14. Inlet in thisin
pressure case is case
this 1.8 atm, which
is 1.8 atm,also corre-also corre-
which
sponds
spondstotocavitation
cavitation inception. The The
inception. origin corresponds
origin to transition
corresponds to cylindrical
to transition part of part of
to cylindrical
the
thenozzle
nozzlebefore
beforethethe
diffuser. TheThe
diffuser. length of theofcavitation
length zone does
the cavitation zonenotdoes
exceed
not10exceed
mm in10 mm in
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW the 17 of 21
thetemperature
temperature range
rangefrom 25 to
from 2575to°C,
75but
◦ C,the
butvapor fraction
the vapor increases.
fraction The length
increases. Theof length
the of the
cavitation zone and concentration of vapor are lower than in the case of the Venturi type
cavitation zone and concentration of vapor are lower than in the case of the Venturi type
of nozzle.
of nozzle.
For the cylindrical nozzle, this relation of vapor fraction with temperature is qualita-
tively different (Figure 15). Inlet pressure in this case is 2.5 atm which corresponds to cav-
itation inception. The origin in Figure 15 corresponds to the transition to the throat. Tem-
perature change in the range of 25–75 °C leads to an increase of cavitation region length
without the changing of vapor fraction n. At 75 °C, the cavitation zone length reaches its
maximum (40 mm).

Figure
Figure 14. Vapor
14. Vapor fraction
fraction n along
n along thethe conic
conic (diverging)
(diverging) nozzle
nozzle atat differenttemperatures
different temperatures(tempera-
(temperature
tureisisshown
shownin in◦°C) (fromour
C) (from ourCFD
CFDresults).
results).
Fluids 2022, 7, 198 15 of 18

For the cylindrical nozzle, this relation of vapor fraction with temperature is quali-
tatively different (Figure 15). Inlet pressure in this case is 2.5 atm which corresponds to
cavitation inception. The origin in Figure 15 corresponds to the transition to the throat.
Temperature change in the range of 25–75 ◦ C leads to an increase of cavitation region length
without the changing of vapor fraction n. At 75 ◦ C, the cavitation zone length reaches its
Figure 14. Vapor fraction n along the conic (diverging) nozzle at different temperatures (tempera-
maximum
ture (40
is shown in °C) mm).
(from our CFD results).

Figure 15. Vapor fraction n along the cylindrical nozzle at different temperatures (temperature is
Figure
shown Vapor
15.(from
in °C) fraction
our CFD results). n along the cylindrical nozzle at different temperatures (temperature is
shown in ◦ C) (from our CFD results).
In general, all physical values in Equation (1) have some relationship with tempera-
ture. The growth of vapor pressure pv and decrease of density ρ of the fluid will lead to a
In general, all physical values in Equation (1) have some relationship with temperature.
change of pressure pabs and velocity v in order for the cavitation number to reflect cavita-
Theinception.
tion growthThis ofprocess
vaporis pressure pv and
shown in Figures 16–18decrease of density
where we analyzed ρ of the fluid will lead to a change
how tempera-
ture increase affects
of pressure cavitation
pabs number. Wevcan
and velocity inobserve
orderthatforthethe
cavitation number de-
cavitation number to reflect cavitation
creases at the increase of temperature as well as the critical cavitation number which de-
scribes cavitation inception. For the Venturi tube type of nozzle (Figure 16) and conic noz-analyzed how temperature
inception. This process is shown in Figures 16–18 where we
increase
zle affects
(Figure 17), we havecavitation number.
points where the cavitationWe canisobserve
number constant forthat the cavitation number decreases
any tempera-
tures in the range of 25–75 °С. For the conic nozzle (Figure 17) σ(25)/σ(Т) has the maxi-
at the increase of temperature as well as the critical cavitation number which describes
mum for characteristic point d in the cavitation nozzle after the cavitation zone. A further
cavitation inception. For the Venturi tube type of nozzle (Figure 16) and conic nozzle
(Figure 17), we have points where the cavitation number is constant for any temperatures
in the range of 25–75 ◦ C. For the conic nozzle (Figure 17) σ(25)/σ(T) has the maximum for
characteristic point d in the cavitation nozzle after the cavitation zone. A further decrease
of cavitation number is observed for pressure pe in the system after cavitation nozzle.
Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW Table 1 shows the results of measurements of pabs and18 υ, and Table 2 shows calculated
of 21

cavitation number σ. As we can see, the cavitation number values are widespread depend-
ing on the method of their calculation. Cases with an absence of cavitation are marked and
decrease of cavitation number is observed for pressure pe in the system after cavitation
highlighted in bold.
nozzle.

Figure
Figure 16. Dependency
16. Dependency of cavitationof cavitation
number number
from temperature from temperature
in characteristic in tube
points. Venturi characteristic points. Venturi tube
nozzle (from our CFD results).
nozzle (from our CFD results).
Fluids 2022, 7, 198 16 of 18
Figure 16. Dependency of cavitation number from temperature in characteristic points. Venturi tube
nozzle (from our CFD results).

Fluids 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 21

Figure
Figure 17.17. Dependency
Dependency of of cavitation
cavitation number
number from
from temperature
temperature in in characteristic
characteristic points.
points. Conic
Conic nozzle
nozzle
(from our CFD results).
(from our CFD results).

Figure 18. Dependency

Dependency of cavitation number from temperature in characteristic points. Cylindric
nozzle
nozzle (from our
(from our CFD
CFD results).
results).

5. Conclusions
Table 1 shows the results of measurements of pabs and υ, and Table 2 shows calculated
cavitation numberofσ.
The analysis theAs wevelocity
flow can see,atthe
thecavitation number
characteristic pointsvalues
did notare widespread
reveal de-
any obvious
pending on theonmethod
patterns. Based of their
this study, we cancalculation. Cases
conclude that with antheabsence
the smaller of cavitation
σ, the closer are
we approach
marked and
cavitation highlighted
inception. It is in bold. to choose the maximum velocity in cavitation number
necessary
calculations. Using the velocity υth to calculate σ made it possible to reduce the spread of
5. Conclusions
cavitation number values and only preserved the difference between the regions before
and after the cavitation
The analysis location.
of the flow However,
velocity the use of υthpoints
at the characteristic for a cylindrical nozzle
did not reveal anyshows
obvi-
significantly overcalculated values of σ in comparison with other experiments
ous patterns. Based on this study, we can conclude that the smaller the σ, the closer and data
we
from the literature.
approach cavitation inception. It is necessary to choose the maximum velocity in cavita-
tion number calculations. Using the velocity υth to calculate σ made it possible to reduce
the spread of cavitation number values and only preserved the difference between the
regions before and after the cavitation location. However, the use of υth for a cylindrical
nozzle shows significantly overcalculated values of σ in comparison with other experi-
ments and data from the literature.
Fluids 2022, 7, 198 17 of 18

Temperature dependency of cavitation inception and development is different for

different types of nozzles. For Venturi tubes and conic nozzles, temperature increases
lead to growth of the vapor fraction and for cylindrical nozzles lead to an increase of the
cavitation zone.
In general, it can be concluded that the cavitation number calculation is clearly insuffi-
cient to predict cavitation inception and development in the fluid flow. In addition, this is
likely not the main criterion that should be employed in engineering applications using
hydrodynamic cavitation. The main disadvantage of σ is the absence in Equation (1) of
a connection with the geometry of the cavitation nozzle, therefore, even if the input and
output of the nozzle are reversed, this will not affect the calculations of σ in any way, but in
fact it will have a significant impact on cavitation activity. Moreover, it should be noted that
such parameters as temperature, scale factor, content of dissolved gases and quantity of
mechanical particles in the flow must be considered for estimation of cavitation inception
and development.

Author Contributions: M.O.—Experimental procedures, participated in paper writing; A.U.—

Numerical analysis, participated in paper writing; I.P.—Experimental procedures, participated in
paper writing; N.B.—Numerical analysis, participated in paper writing; M.E.H.—Numerical anal-
ysis, participated in paper writing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Kuban Science Foundation and the OOO «Aquaburstroy» in
the framework of the scientific project № MFI-P-20.1/8.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Amiri Delouei, A.; Sajjadi, H.; Mohebbi, R.; Izadi, M. Experimental study on inlet turbulent flow under ultrasonic vibration:
Pressure drop and heat transfer enhancement. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2019, 51, 15–1159. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
2. Amiri Delouei, A.; Sajjadi, H.; Izadi, M.; Mohebbi, R. The simultaneous effects of nanoparticles and ultrasonic vibration on inlet
turbulent flow: An experimental study. Appl. Therm. Eng. 2019, 146, 268–277. [CrossRef]
3. Knapp, R.; Daily, J.; Hammitt, F. Cavitation; McGraw-Hill Book Company: New York, NY, USA, 1970.
4. Bukharin, N.; El Hassan, M.; Omelyanyuk, M.; Nobes, D. Applications of cavitating jets to radioactive scale cleaning in pipes.
Energy Rep. 2020, 6, 1237–1243. [CrossRef]
5. Conn, A.F.; Radtke, R.P. CAVIJET Augmented Deep-Hole Drilling Bits. ASME J. Press. Vessel Technol. 1978, 100, 52–59. [CrossRef]
6. El Hassan, M.; Bukharin, N.; Al-Kouz, W.; Zhang, J.-W.; Li, W.-F. A Review on the Erosion Mechanism in Cavitating Jets and
Their Industrial Applications. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3166. [CrossRef]
7. Brennen, C.E. Cavitation and Bubble Dynamics; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 1995.
8. Saharan, V.K.; Rizwani, M.A.; Malani, A.A.; Pandit, A.B. Effect of geometry of hydrodynamically cavitating device on degradation
of Orange-G. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2013, 20, 345–353. [CrossRef]
9. Saharan, V.K.; Badve, M.P.; Pandit, A.B. Degradation of Reactive Red 120 dye using hydrodynamic cavitation. Chem. Eng. J. 2011,
178, 100–107. [CrossRef]
10. Bagal, M.V.; Gogate, P.R. Wastewater treatment using hybrid treatment schemes based on cavitation and Fenton chemistry: A
review. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2014, 21, 1–14. [CrossRef]
11. Capocelli, M.; Prisciandaro, M.; Lancia, A.; Musmarra, D. Hydrodynamic cavitation of pnitrophenol: A theoretical and experi-
mental insight. Chem. Eng. J. 2014, 254, 1–8. [CrossRef]
12. Raut-Jadhav, S.; Kumar, V.; Pinjari, S.D.; Sonawane, S.; Saini, D.; Pandit, A. Synergetic effect of combination of AOP’s (hydro-
dynamic cavitation and H2O2) on the degradation of neonicotinoid class of insecticide. J. Hazard. Mater. 2013, 261, 139–147.
[CrossRef]
13. Šarc, A.; Stepišnik-Perdih, T.; Petkovšek, M.; Dular, M. The issue of cavitation number value in studies of water treatment by
hydrodynamic cavitation. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2016, 34, 51–59. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. Johnson, V.E., Jr.; Chahine, O.L.; Lindenmuth, W.T.; Conn, A.F.; Frederick, G.S.; Giacchino, G.J., Jr. Cavitating and Structured Jets
for Mechanical Bits to Increase Drilling Rate—Part II: Experimental Results. J. Energy Resour. Technol. 1984, 106, 289. [CrossRef]
Fluids 2022, 7, 198 18 of 18

15. Johnson, V.E., Jr.; Chahine, O.L.; Lindenmuth, W.T.; Conn, A.F.; Frederick, G.S.; Giacchino, G.J., Jr. Cavitating and Structured Jets
for Mechanical Bits to Increase Drilling Rate—Part I: Theory and Concepts. J. Energy Resour. Technol. 1984, 106, 282. [CrossRef]
16. Bukharin, N.; Vinogradov, O. Investigation of the Effect of Slurry Density on a Bitumen Separation Process Based on Cavitating.
Jets. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2012, 51, 6175–6183. [CrossRef]
17. Bukharin, N.; El Hassan, M.; Nobes, D.; Omelyanyuk, M. Reducing Energy Consumption during Bitumen Separation from Oil
Sand. In Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems Engineering (CPESE2019), Okinawa,
Japan, 20–23 September 2019.
18. Xu, P.; Liu, S.; Zuo, Z.; Pan, Z. On the criteria of large cavitation bubbles in a tube during a transient process. J. Fluid Mech. 2021,
114, 913. [CrossRef]
19. Speirs, N.B.; Langley, K.R.; Pan, Z. Cavitation upon low-speed solid–liquid impact. Nat. Commun. 2021, 12, 7250. [CrossRef]
20. Pan, Z.; Kiyama, A.; Tagawa, Y.; Daily, D.J.; Thomson, S.L.; Hurd, R.; Truscott, T.T. Cavitation onset caused by acceleration. Proc.
Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2017, 114, 8470–8474. [CrossRef]
21. Manuel, D.; Julius-Alexander, N.; Frank, R.; Dirk, P.; Patrick, B. Hydrodynamic cavitation for micropollutant degradation in
water–Correlation of bisphenol A degradation with fluid mechanical properties. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2022, 83, 105950. [CrossRef]
22. Liu, Y.; Fan, H.; Wu, D. Experimental investigation of the dynamic cavitation behavior and wall static pressure characteristics
through convergence-divergence venturis with various divergence angles. Sci. Rep. 2020, 10, 14172. [CrossRef]
23. Menter, F.R. Two-Equation Eddy-Viscosity Turbulence Models for Engineering Applications. AIAA J. 1994, 32, 1598–1605.
[CrossRef]
24. Hobbs, J.M. Experience with a 20-kc Cavitation Erosion Test; ASTM Spec. Tech. Publ. 408; ASTM: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1967;
pp. 159–185.
25. Young, S.G.; Johnston, J.R. Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Cavitation Damage in Sodium. Charact. Determ. Eros. Resist.
2009, 67, 474.
26. Hammitt, F.G.; Rogers, D.O. Effects of Pressure and Temperature Variation in Vibratory Cavitation Damage Test. J. Mech. Eng. Sci.
1970, 12, 432–439. [CrossRef]
27. Hattori, S.; Goto, Y.; Fukuyama, T. Influence of temperature on erosion by a cavitating liquid jet. Wear 2006, 260, 1217–1223.
[CrossRef]
28. Coutier-Delgosha, O.; Fortes-Patella, R.; Reboud, J.-L. Evaluation of the turbulence model influence on the numerical simulations
of unsteady cavitation. J. Fluids Eng. 2003, 125, 38–44. [CrossRef]
29. Sou, A.; Hosokawa, S.; Tomiyama, A. Effects of cavitation in a nozzle on liquid jet atomization. Int. J. Heat Mass Trans. 2007, 50,
3575–3582. [CrossRef]