DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING

231ME11A – ENGINEERING PRACTICES LABORATORY

ELECTRONICS LAB MANUAL

PREPARED BY HOD

1
 SYLLABUS
231ME11A -ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE

1. Study of Electronic components and equipments-Resistor, colour coding

measurement of AC signal parameter (peak-peak,rms period, and frequency)
using CRO.

2. Study of logic gates.

3. Generation of Clock Signal.

4. Soldering practice- Components Devices and Circuits- Using general

purpose PCB.

5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR.

REFERENCES:

1. K. Jeyachandran, S. Natarajan & S. Balasubramanian, “A Primer on

Engineering Practices Laboratory”, Anuradha Publications, (2007).
2. T. Jeyapoovan, M. Saravanapandian & S. Pranitha, “Engineering Practices
Lab Manual”, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.Ltd,(2006).
3. B. S. Bawa, “Workshop Practice”, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited,(2007).
4. A. RAjandra Prasad & P.M.M.S. Sarma, “ Workshop Practice”, Sree Sai
Publication,(2002).
5. P. Kanniah & K.L.Narayana, “Manual on Workshop Practice ”, Scitech
Publications, (1999).

2
 231ME11A - ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Study of Electronic components and equipments-Resistor, colour coding

measurement of AC signal parameter (peak-peak, rms period, and
frequency) using CRO.

2. Study of logic gates.

3. Generation of Clock Signal.

4. Soldering practice- Components Devices and Circuits- Using general

purpose PCB.

5. Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR.

BEYOND THE SYLLABUS

1. Study of Half Adder.

2. Study of Half Subtractor.

231ME11A - ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRACTICE

REQUIRMENTS

1. SOLDERING GUNS 10 Nos.

2. ASSORTED ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
FOR MAKING CIRCUITS 50 Nos.
3. SMALL PCBs 10 Nos.
4. MULTIMETERS 10 Nos.
5. STUDY PURPOSE ITEMS

3
Ex. Title of the Experiment Page
No.
No.

1 Study of basic Electronic components and equipment

1(A) Measurement of AC signal parameter

2 Study of Logic gates

3 Generation of Clock Signal

4 Soldering practice – Components Devices and

Circuits - Using general purpose PCB.

5 Measurement of ripple factor of HWR and FWR

4
EX. NO.1

STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS

AIM:
To study about the following electronic components and equipment.

(i). Resistor color coding

(ii). Usage of CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) and Multimeter

THEORY:
ELECTRONICS:

It is the branch of science, which relates to the conduction of electricity

through a) vacuum, b) gases and c) semiconductors. The electronic devices are
fairly complex, they are made of simple components such as: Resistors,
Capacitors, inductors, tube devices and semi-conductor devices. Resistors,
capacitors and inductors come under passive components and tube devices and
semi-conductor devices fall under active components.

PASSIVE COMPONENTS
RESISTORS:
It is a passive electronic component, which exhibits the property of the
‘resistance’. Resistance is a physical property of the material, which opposes the
flow of current. Resistors are used in circuits to limit the flow of current or to
provide a voltage drop.

UNIT: Ohms ( ) R

SYMBOL:

5
TYPES

Resistors are broadly classified in to two categories as

1. Fixed Resistor
2. Variable Resistor.
Fixed Resistors:

Fixed resistors are those whose values cannot be changed after

manufacturing.

Variable Resistors:

Variable resistors are those whose values can be changed after

manufacturing.

(i) RESISTOR COLOUR CODING

Resistance is coded to indicate the value and the Tolerance. For axial type
resistors, four color bands are used as shown in figure.

The first three color bands indicate the resistance value and the fourth one
indicates the tolerance. The first colour band gives the first significant digit and
second colour band gives the second significant digit. Third colour band is the
multiplier and
gives the number of zeros that is to be added to the numerical value obtained from
the first two bands. The following table gives the colour and its numerical value.

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Colours Reprecent

COLOU NUMBE MULTIPLIE

R R R

10
0
BLACK 0
10
1
BROWN 1
10
2
RED 2

ORANG 10
3
E 3

YELLO 10
4
W 4
10
5
GREEN 5
10
6
BLUE 6
10
7
VIOLET 7
10
8
GREY 8
10
9
WHITE 9

TOLERANCE
CODE:

7
 BROWN
COLOUR +1%
RED COLOUR + 2%
GOLD COLOUR +5%
SILVER + 10
COLOUR %
+ 20
NO COLOUR %

For example:

Red, Violet, gold bands represent 27 x 0.1=2.7Ω

Green, blue, Silver bands represent 56 x 0.01=0.56Ω
Special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
Silver ± 10%, Red ± 5%, Brown ± 1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is ±20%

TABULATION TO FIND THE VALUE OF RESISTOR

SL.NO. COLOUR BAND OF RESISTOR VALUE OF RESISTOR

8
CAPACITORS:

A capacitor is a component that stores electric energy. It consists of two

conducting plates, separated by an insulator. The conducting surfaces are called
electrodes and the insulating medium is called dielectric.

UNIT:
Farads

SYMBOL:

TYPES:
In general capacitors are classified as
1) Polarized
2) Non polarized
These two are further classified

 Fixed Capacitors
 Variable Capacitors.
Fixed Capacitors:

Fixed Capacitors are classified into several types depending upon the
dielectric material used. Some of them are
 Paper Capacitors
 Film Capacitors
 Mica Capacitors
 Glass Capacitors
 Ceramic Capacitors
 Tantalum Capacitors

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Variable Capacitors:

Variable capacitors consist of a set of fixed plates and a set of movable

plates with air as dielectric. The change of capacitance is obtained by changing the
position of the moving plates with respect to fixed plates.

 Trimmer Capacitors
 Ceramic trimmer Capacitors
 Mica trimming Capacitors

INDUCTORS:

Inductor is a component whose construction is simply a coil of wire. The

property of a coil by which it opposes change in the value of current or flux
through it due to the production of self-induced E.M.F. is called inductance. An
inductor consists of a number of turns of wire used to introduce inductance into an
electric circuit and produces magnetic flux.

UNIT:
Henrys
SYMBOL:

TYPES:
1. Fixed Inductors
a) Air-core inductor
b) Iron-core inductor
c) Ferrite core inductor

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 2. Variable Inductors

ACTIVE COMPONENTS

PN JUNCTION DIODE:

A single piece of semiconductor, one half of which is P-type and the other
half is N-type is known as PN junction diode. The plane dividing the two halves is
known as PN junction diode. Diode is an electronic component, which allows
current to flow through it in one direction but not in opposite direction.
The current is flowing through a diode, when the voltage on the positive is
higher than the negative. The main function of a diode is rectification
SYMBOL:

ZENER DIODE:

It is reversed biased PN junction diode, which is operated in break down

region. It is used for meter protection and as voltage regulators.

SYMBOL:

A K

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LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE):

Light Emitting diodes have same properties as diode when forward biased.
Their threshold voltage is 1.6V to 2.4V.LED’s use a special material, which emits
light when current flows through it. LED has a positive terminal (anode) and a
negative terminal (cathode) just like regular diodes. Often, positive terminal is
longer than negative terminal.

SYMBOL:

LED

TRANSISTORS:

It is a three terminal semiconductor device, consisting of two p-n junctions,

formed by sand witching a thin layer of n-type semi-conductors between two
layers of p-type semi-conductors.
This type of transistor is known as p-n-p transistor. On the other hand,
when a layer of p-type semi-conductor is sand witched between two layers of n-
type semi-conductor material, it is known as n-p-n transistor.

E C
P N P
E C

B B

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 SYMBOL P-N-P

N P N

E C E C

B B
SYMBOL N-P-N

(ii) USAGE OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE AND MULTIMETER

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The CRO is a versatile electronic testing and measuring instrument that

allows the amplitude of the signal which may be voltage, current, power etc., to be
displayed primarily as a function of time. It is used for voltage, frequency and
phase angle measurement and also for examining the waveforms, from d.c or very
low frequency to very high frequencies.

CRO comprises the main sections of (i) Horizontal and vertical voltage
amplifiers, (ii) Power supply circuits and (iii) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT).

APPLICATIONS:
 Measurement of voltage
 Measurement of current
 Measurement of frequency
 Measurement of phase difference

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MULTIMETER

An instrument used to measure voltages, currents and resistances known as

MULTIMETER. It is an indispensable instrument and can be used for measuring
D.C. as well as A.C. Voltages and Currents. Multimeter is the most inexpensive
equipment and can make various electrical measurements with reasonable
accuracy. There are two types of multimeters - analog and digital. The digital
multimeter is commonly used in laboratory and workshop because of its high input
resistance.

APPLICATIONS:
 For checking the circuit continuity.
 For measuring D.C. Current flowing through the circuits.
 For measuring D.C. Voltages across various resistors in electronic circuits.
 For measuring A.C. Voltage across power supply transformers.
 For ascertaining whether or not open or short circuit exists in the circuits.

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RESULT:

Thus the study of basic electronic components have been studied. The usage of
CRO, Multimeter, Breadboard and colour coding of resistor were studied.

EX.NO: 1(a)
MEASUREMENT OF AC SIGNAL PARAMETER
AIM:
To measure peak, RMS, peak to peak, period and frequency of an alternating
quantity (sinusoidal voltage) by using CRO

APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.N
O APPARATUS TYPE RANGE QUANTITY
1 CRO Dual 30MHz 1

2 Function Generator - 30MHZ 1

3 connecting wires - - Few

THEORY
AC FUNDAMENTALS
Alternating quantity:

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 A quantity in which the magnitude and direction change with respect to time
is called an alternating quantity.
Example: sinusoidal
quantity Cycle
One complete set of changes in magnitude and direction of any alternating
quantity is called a cycle
Period
Time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called period.
Its unit is seconds.

AC WAVEFORM:

00

Fig.1.Wave form with amplitude and peak-peak voltage & time period.

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 Fig.2.Wave form with peak voltage & RMS voltage.

FREQUENCY:
The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second is
called frequency. Its unit is Hertz.

PEAK VALUE OR AMPLITUDE:

The maximum value that an alternating quantity attains during a cycle
is called peak value or Amplitude. There are positive and negative peak
values. The magnitude between these two peaks is called peak-peak value.

ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE (RMS):

It is that value of direct current which when flows through the

given circuit for a given amount of time produces same heat as that of an
alternating current flowing through the same circuit for the same amount of
time .It is also called as effective or virtual value .
RMS value of an alternating current can be determined as
Irms =√ (I21 +I22 +I23……. I2n) / n

TABULATION:

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SL. WAVEFORM MAX PEAK – Vrms= TIME FEQUENCY
NO TYPE VOLTAGE PEAK Vpp / PERIOD in Hz
root2 ‘T’ in ms
Vm in volts Vpp F= 1/T

1 SINE

2 TRIANGULAR

3 SQUARE

4 PULSE

WAVE FORMS

MODEL GRAPHS

SINE WAVE:

18
TRIANGULAR WAVE:

SQUARE WAVE:

PULSE WAVEFORM:

19
 Fig(a) Fig(b)

CALCULATION:
Frequency =1/ time
period Vrms = 0.7
× Vpeak
Irms = Imax x 0.707
Where I1, I2 , I3 . In are the instantaneous value of an alternating current and
is the peak value of the alternating current.

PROCEDURE:
1. Output of the function generator is connected to one of the channels of CRO
through a probe.

2. AC supply to CRO is switched on and the switch in CRO is closed.

3. CRO is kept in dual mode and ground knobs in the two channels are enabled.

4. Focus and intensity knobs in CRO are suitably adjusted to observe both the
ground signals. If there is any problem in tracing the signal position X and Y
position knobs are suitably adjusted.

5. Function generator is switched on. Sinusoidal quantity is chosen as the

output

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signal.
6. Amplitude of the sinusoidal quantity is varied and maintained at a
particular
value
7. Frequency of the sinusoidal quantity is varied and maintained at a
particular
value.
8. The sinusoidal output of function generator is observed using CRO by
enabling AC knob and disabling ground knob in the channel to which function
generator is connected.
9.peak value ,peak-peak value of the sinusoidal waveform are observed by
noting the number of divisions in Y axis CRO monitor and the value of the voltage
in the voltage base knob.
10. Peak value and peak-peak values of the sinusoidal wave can be
calculated as the product of number of divisions in Y-axis of CRO monitor and
value of the voltage in the voltage base knob.

11. CAL knob in the most anti-clockwise position. Number of divisions in X

axis of CRO monitor and value of the time in the time base knob are noted.
12. Time period of the sinusoidal wave is obtained by multiplying the
number of divisions in X axis of CRO monitor and value of the time in the time
base knob.
13. Reciprocal of the time period is the frequency of the sinusoidal
waveform. Frequency can also be checked by noting the digital value in the
function generator.
14. RMS voltage of the sinusoidal wave is obtained by multiplying the peak
voltage with 0.707.

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RESULT:
Thus, Peak, RMS, peak to peak values, period and frequency of a

sinusoidal voltage waveform are observed and measured by using CRO.

EX.NO.2
STUDY OF LOGIC GATES
AIM:
To study the operation of logic gates and verify their truth table.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.N
O COMPONENTS QUANTITY

1 Digital trainer 1
2 IC 7404(NOT gate) 1

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 3 IC7408(AND gate) 1

4 IC7432(OR gate) 1

5 IC7486(Ex-OR gate) 1
6 IC 7402(NOR gate) 1

7 IC 7400(NAND gate) 1

THEORY:

Logic gates are digital circuits with one or more input signals and only one
output Signal. Gates are digital circuits because the input and output signals are
either low or High voltages. Gates are often called logic circuits because they can
be analyzed using Boolean algebra.

NOT GATE: IC7404

A NOT gate has a single input and a single output. It is also called as an
inverter. The output will be at logic 1 if its input is at low state, otherwise its output
will be at Logic 0. Thus its output is the complement of its input. The Boolean
expression for NOT GATE Y = Ā

SYMBOL PIN CONFIGURATION

23
 TRUTH TABLE

OUTPU
INPUT T

A Y

0 1

1 0

AND GATE: IC7408

An AND gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output
can go to Logic 1 if all its inputs are at the high state. The Boolean expression for a
two input AND gate is: Y=A.B

SYMBOL PIN CONFIGURATION

24
 TRUTH
TABLE
Boolean expression for AND GATE Y =
A.B
INPUT OUTPUT

A B Y

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

OR GATE: IC7432

An OR gate can have two or more inputs but only one output. Its output will
be at Logic 1 if any or both of its inputs are at the high state. The Boolean
expression for a two input OR gate is: Y= A+B

SYMBOL PIN CONFIGURATION

25
 Boolean expression for OR GATE Y = A+B

TRUTH TABLE

INPU OUTPU
T T
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

EX-OR GATE: IC7486

It has two or more inputs and a single output. The output of the EX-OR gate
is high if the inputs are different and low if the inputs are same.
The Boolean expression for a two input EX-OR gate is: Y = A+ B

SYMBOL PIN CONFIGURATION

26
 BOOLEAN EXPRESSION Y = A+ B TRUTH TABLE

INPU OUTPU
T T
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NAND GATE: IC7400

It is the combination of AND gate and NOT gate. It is also called as an

universal gate. The output of this gate will go to logic 0 if all its inputs are at the high
state.
The Boolean expression for a two input NAND gate is: Y=̅̅̅̅̅ .

SYMBOL

27
 PIN CONFIGURATION

NOR GATE: IC 7402

It is the combination of an OR gate and a NOT gate. It is also called as an

universal gate. The output of this gate will go to logic 1 if all its inputs are at the
low state.

28
SYMBOL

PIN CONFIGURATION

29
PROCEDURE:

1) Connections for all the gates namely NOT, AND, OR and EX-OR are given
as per the circuit diagram.
2) Pin No.7 is connected to ground and pin No.14 is connected to +Vcc of
+5V.
3) Outputs are noted for various combinations of inputs and the truth table is
verified.

RESULT:
Thus the logic gates are studied and their truth tables are verified.

Ex.NO:3
GENERATION OF CLOCK SIGNAL

AIM:
To generate a clock signal using the IC 555 timer in Astable mode.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
30
 SPECIFICATIO
S.NO NAME OF N QUANTITY
THE
COMPONEN
T

1. IC 555 Timer 1

2. Resistors 2.2 kΩ 1
3.3 kΩ 1

3. Capacitors 0.1 μF 1
0.01 μF
1

4. Power supply 30 V 1

5. Bread board & _ _

connecting
wires

THEORY:

Multivibrator is basically a two stage amplifier with output of one feedback

to the input of the other. This integrated chip generates the clock signal of its
own. It does not require external pulse for its operation but a source of DC
power. The width of the square wave and its frequency depend upon the
circuit constants.

The 555 timer has three operating modes:

 Monostable mode: In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot".

Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches,
touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width
31
 modulation (PWM) etc.
 Astable - free running mode: The 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone
generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation, etc.
 Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: The 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the
DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free
latched switches, etc.

PIN DIAGRAM:

CIRCUIT DIAGRM:

VCC= + 5 VOLTS

32
 R1
2.2K
8 4

7
IC 555 OUTP
UT
R2 3
3.3K

6
2 1 5
C1
0.1UF

C2
0.01UF

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULATION:

33
 S.No. OUTPUT VOLTAGE TIME PERIOD

IN VOLTS TON TOFF

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram after designing suitable
values of R1, R2 and C for the desired clock frequency, ON and OFF times.
2. Pin.8 is connected to the supply.
3. Pin.3 is connected to the CRO for observing the output clock signal.
4. ON and OFF times are measured from CRO. Time period and frequency are
then calculated.

RESULT:

Thus a clock signal using the IC 555 timer is generated in Astable mode.

EX.NO:4
SOLDERING PRACTICE – COMPONENTS

34
 DEVICE AND CIRCUITS

AIM:

 To assemble and solder the electronic components on a printed circuit

board for the given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Components Quantity

1. Soldering rod, Soldering lead, 1
2. Flux. 1
3. Resistor. As per Circuit.
4. Capacitor. As per Circuit.
5. Signal generator 1

THEORY:

Printed circuit board is the base plate over which all components are mounted
and soldered. The inter connection between the components made by in metallic
tracks. Etching process in PCB removes all the excess copper from the base
lamination. After this only the printed pattern is left behind. A solution of 75 degree
Celsius heated tap water and ferric chloride is used to remove the excess copper. The
above said solution thoroughly surrounded and speeded up the process few drops of
HCL be added.

COMPONENT PLACEMENT:

 The placement of components affects circuit operation manufacturing case

35
 and the probability of design errors. Improper layout can be grade operation
or even prevent a circuit from working. Future more, poor layout can make
manufacture of the circuit boards costly and difficult. Thoughtless placement
of components and complicates the design of the PCB and will increase the
chance of wrong connections.

 You should group circuits according to their characteristics to maintain the

correct operation of each circuit. In general follow these rules.

 Group high- current circuits near the connector to isolate stray currents and
near the edge of the PCB to remove heat.
 Group low power and low frequency circuits away from high current and
high frequency circuits.

 Group of high frequency circuits near the connector to reduce path length
cross talk and noise.
 Group analog circuit separately from digital logic.
 Grouping components & circuits appropriately will reduce cross talk
efficiently.
 Careful placement of the board will make production of circuit easier and less
error prone. Determine the location and direction of the components so that a
pick & place machine can easily assemble a circuit board without manual
intervention.

 Allow plenty of clearance around mechanical supports. It is embarrassing

and costly to find a trace shorted to an enclose post or a component jammed
against the card cage. If possible leave room around large and complex
components for sockets on the prototype boards to speed testing and
development.

PROCEDURE:

36
 (i) For assembling electronic components in PCB board
 Study the given electronic circuit.

 The master pattern of PCB is made on a thick sheet with a reverse carbon
placed under to take the mirror image on reverse side of the sheet.

 Clean the copper side of the PCB with alcoholic spirit or petrol in order to
make it free from dust and contaminations.
 The mirrors image of pattern is copied to the base laminate on the board
with the help of ball point pen. Holes position should be marked carefully.
 The copied track is marked with the help of enamel point or use silver pen.
 The board is dipped in a solution of FeCl 3 for some time to remove the
excess copper then it should be cleaned under running water and it should be
dried.
 The marker ink/Point is removed with the help of alcohol or petrol.

 Using a driller, holes of suitable diameter are drilled on the board and then
clean the hole.
 Varnish coating is given on the PCB in order to prevent the oxidation.
 Using Continuity tester, the board is tested for continuity.

ii) For soldering a low pass filter circuit consisting of a resistor and capacitor
and checking the continuity.

 The terminal of the resistor and capacitor are thoroughly cleaned.

 The joint to be made is tinned says the joint.

 A soldering gun is heated using powder supply till it attains the required
temperature.

37
  Using the heated soldering gun, the tinned joint is soldered.

 A small AC signal nearby or equal to 5V is applied between the terminals B

& C.
 Using the multimeter the continuity of the circuit is checking.

Note:

If the circuit is continuous while checking beep sound will come when the
multimeter is put in beep node. If the circuit is not continuous no beep sound will
come.

Precaution:

The terminal of the components should be thoroughly cleaned also soldering

care should be taken while selecting the proper size of soldering HD.

SOLDERING SIMPLE ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS:

A printed circuit board (PCB) consists of copper strips and pads bonded to a plastic
board. The copper strip is the network of interconnecting conductive path. Leads of
components mounted on the board are inserted through holes on the board and the
conductive copper. These leads are soldered to the copper at the end of the hole. If
excessive heat is applied to copper, it may get lifted from the board or the components
on the board get damaged. Soldering pencil gun of about 30 Watts is used to heat the
junction. The surface of copper bonded to the board should be properly prepared and
cleaned before soldering. Flux is applied on circuits and component leads.

Check the conductive strips and pads on the board before soldering. Avoid
excess solder to prevent two copper paths from bridging. When solder globules
form on the junction area, remove them by cleaning the soldering tip using a cloth.

38
CHECKING CONTINUITY:

The continuity of a wire conductor without a break has practically zero ohms
of resistance. Therefore, an ohmmeter may be used to test continuity. To test
continuity, select the lowest ohm range. A wire may have an internal break, which
is not visible due to insulation, or the wire may have a bad connection at the
terminals. Checking for zero ohms between any two points tests the continuity. A
break in the conducting path is evident from the reading of infinite resistance. In a
cable of wires, individual wires are identified with colors. Consider the figure,
where the individual wires are not seen, but you wish to find the wire that connects
to terminal A. This is done by, checking continuity of each wire to terminal A. The
wire that has zero ohms is the one connected to this terminal. Continuity of a long
cable may be tested by temporarily short-circuiting the other ends of the wires. The
continuity of both wires may be checked for zero ohms. In a digital multimeter, a
beep mode is available to check continuity. The connectivity between the terminals
is identified by the beep sound.

SOLDERING IRON

Tool with an internal heating element used to heat surfaces being soldered to the
point where the solder becomes molten. Usually rod-shaped metal implement with
a pointed or wedge-shaped tip, used in soldering metallic parts. A tool for joining
metals with solder, has a wedge-shaped metal bit, usually of copper, which is
heated. Tool with an internal heating element used to heat surfaces being soldered
to the point where the solder becomes molten.

SOLDERING LED

Any of various fusible alloys, usually tin and lead, used to join metallic parts.

39
SOLDERING FLUX

Flux applied to surfaces that are to be joined by soldering; flux cleans the surfaces
and results in a better bond in PCB board.

RESISTOR

Resistor restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in
series with a light emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through the
LED. The unit to measure resistor is OHM.

CAPACITOR

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistor in timing circuits.
The unit to measure capacitor is CAPACITANCE.

LOW PASS FILTER

A filter designed to transmit electromagnetic frequencies below a certain value,

while excluding those of a higher frequency.

LOW PASS FILTER

PCB BOARD

40
SOLDERING IRON

SOLDERING LED

RESULT

Thus, the electronic components via resistor and capacitor were joined through
soldering and continuity of a circuit is checked successfully.

EX.NO:5(a)

41
 MEASUREMENT OF RIPPLE FACTOR OF
HALF WAVE & FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
AIM:
To design half wave and full wave rectifiers filter and to measure the ripple
factor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL.N Quantit
o Instruments/Components Required Type/range y
1. Transformer (9-0-9)v 1
2. Resistor 1KΩ 1
3. CRO 30 MHz 1
4. Bread board - 1
Single
5. Connecting Wires Strand few

THEORY:
Half Wave Rectifier

In a half wave rectifier only one diode is used in the secondary of the transformer,
during the positive half cycle the diode conducts and only the positive portion of the
input signal is delivered to the load. During the negative half cycle the diode will not
conduct, since it is reverse biased and there is no output delivered to the load.

42
Full Wave Rectifier Using Centre Tapped Transformer

The full wave Centre tapped rectifier uses two diodes connected to the
secondary of Centre tapped transformer. The input voltage is coupled through the
transformer to the Centre tapped secondary, half of the total secondary voltage
appears between the Centre tapped and each end of the secondary winding. For a
positive half cycle of the input voltage, the upper diode D1 is forward biased and
the lower diode D2 is reverse biased. The current path is through D1 and load (RL),
for negative half cycle of the input voltage the diode D1 is reverse biased and diode
D2 is forward biased. Now the current path is through diode (D2) and resistor (RL),
because of output current during both cycle is in same direction, the output voltage
developed across the load resistor is a full wave rectified voltage.

Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

ve
The full wave bridge rectifier uses four diodes, when the input cycle is + , the
diode D2 & D3 are forward biased and conducts current , the voltage is developed
ve
across RL which is the + half of the input cycle during this time D1 & D4 are
reverse biased. When input cycle is –ve the diodes D1 & D4 are forward biased and
conducts current in same direction through RL as during +ve cycle. During –ve half
diode D2 & D3 are reverse biased, so a full wave rectifier output appears occurs the
RL as a result of this action.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Half Wave Rectifier

MODEL GRAPH:

TABULATION

INPUT OUTPUT

AMPLITUDE(V) TIME(S) AMPLITUDE(V) TIME(S)

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Full Wave Rectifier

MODEL GRAPH

TABULATION:
INPUT OUTPUT

AMPLITUDE(V) TIME(S) AMPLITUDE(V) TIME(S)

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HALFWAVE RECTIFIER:

Vd
S.NO Vm(v) Vac c r = (Vac/Vdc)*100

FULLWAVE RECTIFIER:

Vd
S.NO Vm(v) Vac c r = (Vac/Vdc)*100

% of Ripple factor
Rectifier type
Theoretical
value Practical value
Half wave 121

Full wave 48

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram, with correct polarity
provision given to the circuit from the transformer.
2. The Peak voltage (Vm) is noted and the corresponding % of ripple
factor(r) is calculated and compared with theoretical calculation.

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RESULT:

Thus half wave and full wave rectifier is designed and output is verified.

47