MAPPING MATTER

ATOMS:
- Protons= p +1
- Neutrons= n 0
- Electrons= e- -1
- p + n= nucleus
- e = revolves around the nucleus in fixed orbits
- To calculate number of electrons in a shell= 2n2 where n is number of shells
- For the first 20 elements, 2 electrons in the first shell, 8 in the second and third and remaining
move to fourth shell
- Atomic mass is the total number protons and neutrons in the nucleus and is always more than the
proton number
- Proton number or atomic number is the number of protons and are the ones keep the elements in
order in the periodic table
- Number of electrons and proton is always same
- To find neutrons we subtract proton number from atomic mass
- The vertical columns in the periodic table are groups
- The horizontal rows are known as periods
- Group number tells us the total number of electrons in the last shell
- The horizontal rows are periods and the period number tells the number of shells an element has
IONS:
- When elements lose electrons to form a stable electronic configuration, they form
positive ions
- When they gain electrons, they form negative ions
- Silicon Si= 2.8.4 Si+-4= 2.8.8
- Phosphorus P=2.8.5 P-3=2.8.8
- How do we know whether a particle is an atom, a negative ion or a positive ion.
 we can check when a it is a neutral atom if its protons and electrons are the same. If its a negative
ion, it means that its number or electrons will be more than its number of protons and if its a
positive ion, its number of electrons will be less than its proton number because a negative ion
gains electrons and a positive ion loses electrons in order to get a stable electronic configuration

ISOTOPES:
- Atoms of the same elements with the same number of protons and electrons but different number
of neutrons are isotopes
- Ar (average masses of the isotopes)= (Atomic mass of isotope 1x atomics abundance) + (Atomic
mass of isotope 2 x atomics abundance) \100
- S 32 Abundance= 95% S 33 Abundance= 1% S34 Abundance= 4%
S= 32 x 95 S= 33 x 1 S= 34 x 4
Ar= (32 x 95) + (33 x 1) + (34 x 4) \100 = 32.09
- Isotopes of an atom have similar chemical properties but different physical properties
- Arsenic reacts with oxygen in the air to form arsenic oxide. Suggest whether or not all
isotopes of arsenic will react in the same way
Because how an atom acts is decided by its electronic structure, isotopes react in the same way
chemically but are physically different. This is why all arsenic isotopes would react with oxygen
in the same way.

ALKALINE METALS
- As we go down the group the softness of the metal and the reactivity increases
 - Lithium, sodium and potassium are silverish grey and can be easily cut
- When freshly cut, their shiny surface tarnishes bc of reaction with air
- All stored in kerosene oil bc they are highly reactive
- Rubidium burns immediately when exposed to air with a flame
- It causes an explosion to occur in water
- When sodium is kept in water it darts on the surface and becomes a ball. A lot of fizz is produced.
We may see a spark or a flame. Metal dissolved forming an alkaline solution.
- Lithium fizzes and floats
- Reaction with oxygen Metal + oxygen = metal oxide M+O2= M2O
 Na(s) + O2(g) = Na2O(s) Sodium+ oxygen=sodium oxide
 Li(s) + O2(g) = Li2O(s) Lithium + oxygen = lithium oxide
 K(s) + O2(g) = K2O(s) Potassium+ oxygen = Potassium oxide
 Rb(s) + O2(g) = Rb2O(s) Rubidium+ oxygen = Rubidium oxide
- Reaction with water M(s)+ H2O (l) = MOH(aq) + H2(g) Metal+ water= metal hydroxide
+ hydrogen gas
 Li(s) + H2O(l) = LiOH (s)+ H2 Lithium+ water= lithium hydroxide + hydrogen gas

ALKALINE EARTH METALS:

- The all have 2 electrons in last shell and form 2+ ions
- Stored in oil are metals below calcium
- Moving down the group, their reactivity and density increases, elements become softer and their
melting and boiling points decrease
- Reactions of metals with oxygen M+O2= MO
 Mg(s)+ O2(g)= MgO (bright white glow) Magnesium+ oxygen=magnesium oxide
 Ca(s) + O2(g) = CaO (red flame) calcium + oxygen = calcium oxide
- Reaction with water M+H2O=MO+H2(for Mg and Be) and M+H2O=M(OH)2 + H2
(for Ca and below)
 Mg (s) + H2O = MgO + H2
 Ca (s) + H2O(l)= Ca(OH)2 + H2(g)
CaO(s) + H2O (l) = Ca (OH)2 (aq) forms lime water
 Sr (s) + 2H2O(l)= Sr(OH)2 + H2(g)
 Ba (s) + 2H2O(l)= Ba(OH)2 + H2(g)

TRANSITIONS METALS:
- They have high densities and are not very reactive with oxygen and water
- High melting and boiling points
- They Form coloured compounds and when dissolved in water, they form coloured solutions
- Have variable oxidation states
- Difference in oxidation states causes the compounds to have different colours
- Comparison with group 1 metals
 Group 1 elements are highly reactive
 They form colourless compounds and solutions
 Have fixed oxidation states
 Have low densities and melting and boiling points
- Tungsten is a transition metal. Which property of Tungsten makes used in bulb.
It has a high melting point and has high resistivity so it doesn’t burn easily at room temperature

HALOGENS:
- Fluorine, pale green gas
- Chlorine, greenish yellow gas
 - Bromine, reddish brown liquid
- I odine, gray solid that sublimes to a purple vapor
- Astatine, black solid
- Halogens in their elemental form are toxic though their compounds have many real life
applications.
- All halogens have 7 electrons in their last shell and form an ion with a -1 charge.
- Moving down the group, the atomic radius increases by one electron and their melting points,
boiling points and densities increase.
- Moving down the group, their reactivity decreases.
- Displacement reaction
 Displacement reactions is when a more reactive halogen displacing a less reactive halogen in a
compound.
 Fluorine + potassium chloride= potassium fluoride +chlorine
 Chlorine + potassium iodide= Potassium chloride + iodine
 Chlorine + potassium fluoride= no reaction
- Reaction with hydrogen gas halogen + hydrogen gas= hydrogen halide Halogen + H2 =
Hhalogen
 F2(g) + H2 (g)= 2HF fluorine + hydrogen gas= hydrogen flouride
 Cl2(g) + H2 (g)= 2HCl chlorine + hydrogen gas= hydrogen chloride
- Reaction with metals
 Halogens react with metals to form salts
 Sodium + chlorine= sodium chloride
 Potassium + chlorine= potassium chloride

NOBLE GASES:
- Noble gases have 8 electrons in the last shell except helium has two electrons.
- They exist as single atoms known as mono atomic
- They are colourless gases
- Going down the group the melting and boiling points increase because the size of the atoms and
the number of electrons increase as well as we go down the group and therefore there are higher
intermolecular forces of attraction between the atoms.
- Going down the group, their densities increase, larger atoms take more space
- Real life applications
 Helium is used in space ships because its light and not flammable
 iKrypton and Xenon are used in some types of lasers
 Xenon is used for car headlights
 Light bulbs are filled with argon
 Xenon helps doctors maintain patient’s blood pressure and during operations.
 Radon is highly reactive, used in radio therapy in attempts to cure cancer.
EXTRA :
- why extracting lead from its oar is damaging to the environment.
Smelting and refining lead release large quantities of CO2 and SO2 into the environment which
cause great effects by problems like pollution, global warming and contributing to the greenhouse
gas effect
- Identify the noble gas in the light bulbs. Explain why bulb can’t be filled with air.
Argon. It is because the oxygen in the air will cause the filament to burn

USING MATTER
Filtration and evaporation:
A mixture of salt, iron fillings, and sand has been given which needs to be separated
- Apparatus: conical flask, funnel, spatula, evaporating dish, beaker, 3 petri dishes, filter paper,
bunsen burner, magnet
- Procedure:
 Take a magnet and separate the iron fillings into a separate petri dish
 Put the sand and salt mixture in a beaker filled with water and mix it in
 Take a conical flask, place the filter paper and funnel on top of it and then pour the solution in the
flask through the funnel
 The sand left on the funnel is the residue and the aqueous solution in the flask is the filtrate, place
the separated sand on a petri dish
 Pour the filtrate into an evaporating dish, heat to the point of saturation.
 Cool, crystalize, filter and dry the crystals between 2 sheets of filter paper

Simple distillation:
- This method is used to separate a liquid from a solid
- Apparatus: beaker, liebig condenser, Bunsen burner, tripod stand, thermometer, round bottom
flask, aqueous solution
- Procedure:
 Salted water is poured into a round bottom flask fitted with a thermometer and a liebig condenser
 The mixture is heated using a bunsen burner
 The liebig condenser is connected to tap water at the lower end allowing cold water to enter
 Hot water is being discarded from the top of the liebig condenser to the sink
 Water gets converted into vapours, these vapours move into the central tube of the liebig
condenser and are cooled into liquid by the outer water jacket connected to the tap
 Then this condensed water is collected in the beaker
- Why was the cold water is connected to the lower end of the liebig condenser?
So that all the vapours are converted into liquid and there are no losses

Paper Chromatography:
- Used to separate substances based on their solubility in a specific solvent and their masses and
check if a substance is pure or mixture
- All forms of chromatography combine the movement of a fluid, called the solvent, with a
stationary phase or medium that is the paper.
- The components within mixtures separate because each has a different solubility in the solvent
- We can calculate Rf values from the chromatogram which is distance travelled by the solute or
sample substance over distance travelled by the solvent and by calculating this, we can identify
the substances present in a mixture. Rf value is always less than 1
- If a substance has different bands its impure and if it has one band separation then its pure
- The solution of amino acids is colourless, suggest how the chromatogram needs to
be treated to make the spots visible.
By reacting them with something that can produce a coloured product or if they are colourless but
have the property of fluorescence then they can be visualized under UV light or the place can be
kept in iodine crystals
Fractional distillation:
- The process to separate 2 or more miscible liquids or gases based upon the differences in their
boiling points
- It is based on the differences in boiling points and particles with lowest boiling points distill over
first
- Apparatus: fractionating column filled with glass beads, liebig condenser, reservoir, bunsen
burner, tripod stand, thermometer, round bottom flask, ethanol (78oC) and water (100oC)
- Procedure:
 A fractionating column is filled with glass beads.
 The particles collide with the beads transferring their energy to them
 This causes the temperature of the beads in a particular section to increase and reach 78 oC
 This process continues till the whole fractionating column reached 78 degrees on the thermometer
due to the movement of ethanol vapours reaching to the top of the column
 These vapours are then cooled down into liquid in the liebig condenser and collected in the
reservoir
 After the ethanol is distilled off, the temperature rises to 100 degrees which shows that the water
vapours are moving to the liebig condenser
 They are then cooled down into liquid and collected in a separate reservoir
- Purpose of glass beads: They increase the surface area for cooling and condensation of particles
with the higher boiling points
- Purpose of liebig condenser: It cools and condenses vapours into liquid so that they can be
collected in the reservoir

INTERCOVERSION OF MATTER
Identification of purity:
- 3 things that help us determine the purity of substances are the melting point, boiling point and
the chromatogram
- Pure substances have fixed melting and boiling points
- If an impurity is there, the mp decreases and the bp increases

Identification of state using mp and bp:

- Gas:
 If the mp and bp are below the room temperature, the substance is a gas
 If the mp and bp both are – values, the substance will be a gas
- Liquid:
 If the mp is – and the bp is +, it is a liquid
 If the mp is lower and bp is above room temperature it is liquid
- Solid:
 If mp and bp are both above room temperature it will be solid
 If the mp and bp have to be + values to be a solid
Kinetic theory of matter:
- Matter is made up of particles which are in continuous motion
- Particles of solid vibrate at fixed positions and are tightly packed together. They have a definite shape
and volume
- Particles of liquids are close to each other and slide over one another. They have an indefinite shape
but a definite volume
- Particles of gases are far apart making random collisions with themselves and the walls of the
container. They have an indefinite shape and volume
- All matter is made up of particles and they exist as atoms, molecules or ions
- The kinetic energy of a particle increases with temperature and pressure, the higher the temperature
and pressure, the faster the particles move

Phase changes:
- Conversion of solid to gas directly is sublimation
- Conversion of directly from gas to liquid is condensation
- Conversion of liquid to gas is boiling
- Conversion of solid to liquid is melting
- The stronger the molecular force, more energy would be required to weaken the forces, therefore
higher the melting point
- If melting the particles are gaining energy, if freezing particles are losing energy
- Heating curve:
 Heating curve is a graph which represents how a sample changes phase
 As heat is added over time, the sample changes temperature and phase accordingly. It allows us
to visualize changes in matter
 During phase change the temperature remains constant
 After all the sample has changed phase, the temperature will change
 During phase change, the potential energy is changing but the kinetic energy is constant because
the energy during this phase is used to break intermolecular forces of attraction between the
particles
- Evaporation:
 When liquid changes to gas but not necessarily at the boiling point
 Some high energy particles on the surface of liquid gain enough kinetic energy from the
surroundings to overcome the intermolecular forces and become a gas
- Thermal expansion:
 Matter expands as it gets hotter and contracts when it cools
 Water actually expands when it freezes due to the locking of hydrogen bonds with water
molecules
- In this diagram, water vapours from the surrounding are being condensed into liquid using the
process of distillation. As water vapours are being heated from the hot temperature, they will
enter the plastic sheet where they will be cooled and condensed into liquid and then collected in
the reservoir

Matters:
- Three groups of matter include elements, compounds and mixtures
- An element is a pure substance and a form of matter
- Compounds are two or more elements that have chemically combined to form a different
substance
- Mixtures are two or more elements that are combined physically

Types of mixtures:
 - Homogenous: Have same appearance and composition throughout and each region of a sample is
identical to all the other regions (salt, water, sugar)
- Heterogenous: Consists of visibly different substances

Solution:
- A solution is a mixture of 2 or more substances
- A solute is the substance in the smallest amount or the one that dissolves
- The solvent is the substance is the larger amount
- A concentrated solution has a large solute dissolved in a solvent
- A diluted solutions has a small amount of solute dissolved in a solvent

Alloys:
- They are a homogenous mixture of two or more than 2 metals
- Metal mixtures have greater strength than by themselves
- Brass (copper and zinc)
- Sterling silver (copper and silver)

Colloid:
- Colloid is a heterogenous solution with medium sized particles and may be seen in a beam of
light (milk, dust, fog, clouds)
- They are divided into emulsions and aerosols
- Emulsion: a type of colloid when two immiscible liquids are forcefully blended, we get emulsion
- Emulsifying agent: it’s a substance that inhibits the combination of the dispersed liquid for
example milk and mayo
- Tyndall effect: Particles in a colloid are large enough to scatter light
- Some colloids contain hundreds of particles while others are one large molecule
- They are composed of one, a dispersed phase made up of particles that are suspended within the
colloid and second, a dispersion in which the particles are dispersed
 Smoke = solid dispersed in gas
 Clouds, fog, mist = liquid dispersed in gas
 Milk, mayo, butter = liquid dispersed in liquid
 Jelly, gel = liquid dispersed in solid
 Foam, whipped cream = gas dispersed in liquid
- Colloidal dispersion: when the particle size is larger than the ions and smaller than the
suspension mixture
- Components of colloids:
 the solvent or the medium in which the particles are dispersed is called the dispersion medium
and the particles themselves are the dispersed phase
 dispersed phase: solid, dispersion medium: gas (smoke)
 dispersed phase: gas, dispersion medium: gas (clouds, fog, mist)
 dispersed phase: liquid , dispersion medium: liquid (milk, mayo, butter)
 dispersed phase: solid , dispersion medium: liquid (jelly, gel)
 dispersed phase: liquid , dispersion medium: gas (foam, whipped cream)

Brownian motion:
- The movement of dust particles is called Brownian motion
- the movement is the result of random collisions with molecules of the gas in which the dust
is suspended, N2, CO2, O2
- dust particles in air form a colloid. The continuous random movement of tiny dust particles
suspended in air results from their collision by the fast-moving particles n air
 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
Sustainability focuses on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs. It has three components environmental conservation, social
responsibility, and economic development.

Carbon Cycle:
- Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon dioxide + water = glucose + oxygen
- Composition of air:
Nitrogen =78%
Oxygen= 21%
Water= 0-1%
Noble gases= 0.9%
Carbon dioxide= 0.03%
- Pollutants of air:
 NOx emissions, nitrogen oxides, nitrogen monoxide
 CO2
 CO carbon monoxide
 CFCs
- Carbon cycle= photosynthesis = decomposition, respiration, combustion and then all of this goes
back photosynthesis
- Respiration= C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O
- Combustion= CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O
- The effect of deforestation on the carbon cycle:
Forests play a huge role in the carbon cycle on our planet. When forests are cut down, not only
does carbon absorption decrease, but also the carbon stored in the trees is released into the
atmosphere as CO2 if the wood is burned or even if it is left to rot after the deforestation process.
This affects the balance of the processes that take place in the carbon cycle hence increasing the
amount of carbon dioxide in the air
- How the carbon cycle could be balanced.
The carbon cycle includes a balance between photosynthesis and decomposition, respiration and
combustion however due to some human activities, this balance gets affected. There are still ways
through which it can be balanced. The first way is planting trees which can take in CO2 and
balance out the cycle. Secondly, we can start using bicycles or hydro cars instead of the normal
ones to reduce combustion. Another way is to capture the carbon in fuel either before or after
combustion and then sequester it underground. This is called carbon capture and sequestration
which can be used in power plants and other large stationary sources of CO2 emissions.
- Excess carbon dioxide causes the production of carbonic acid which decreases the pH of the
oceans. Effect of ocean acidification on marine life
Ocean acidification can negatively affect marine life, causing organisms' shells and skeletons
made from calcium carbonate to dissolve. The more acidic the ocean, the faster the shells
dissolve. Animals able to survive and reproduce in more acidic waters are likely to become
smaller, potentially affecting the food chain that relies on them. Oceans are a carbon sink
- The carbon cycle begins with CO2 in the atmosphere. Plants use CO2 to make glucose and
release oxygen. As animals eat the plants, the CO2 enters their bodies. When plants and animals
die, decomposition occurs which releases CO2 into the atmosphere. Then the fossils of these dead
plants and animals are burnt which also releases CO2 in the atmosphere. All of this CO2 from
combustion, respiration, decomposition enters the atmosphere and is used again by the plants for
photosynthesis.
 - Why the combustion of waste crop material doesn’t alter the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
When we grow crops, they perform photosynthesis by taking in carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and releasing oxygen into the environment however in the combustion of waste crop
material; the carbon dioxide that was stored in the crops is released back into the environment
which results in no change in the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Carbon footprint:
- Carbon footprint is a measure that calculates the equivalent emissions of carbon in the
atmosphere for each person, activity, event, company, organization, or government
- Uses and limitations of carbon footprint
They allow us to make an overall estimation of the amount of harmful gases we are releasing into
the atmosphere and allow us to keep a track so that we can do something that would reduce the
emissions. One limitation can be that it gives an estimate and not the exact accurate amount of
emissions

Greenhouse effect and global warming:

- Air has 2 natural greenhouse gases which are carbon dioxide and water vapour
- When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and
rest is absorbed and re-radiated by the greenhouse gases.
- The absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth.
- This process maintains the Earth’s temperature however because of multiple human activities,
many other harmful greenhouse gases like N2O and CH4 are being released in the atmosphere are
increasing trapping more heat and causing temperatures to rise, resulting in an enhanced
greenhouse effect.
- Global warming: is the unusually rapid increase in Earth’s average surface temperature over the
past century primarily due to the greenhouse gases released by human activities resulting in the
greenhouse gas effect
- Sources of the gases:
 Water vapours: Agricultural production of food causes water to evaporate into vapour. Large-
scale irrigation of fields. From the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation
of ice
 Carbon dioxide: respiration and volcano eruptions and through human activities such as
deforestation, land use changes, and burning fossil fuels.
 Methane: decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and especially rice cultivation, as
well as ruminant digestion and manure management associated with domestic livestock.
 Nitrous Oxide: soil cultivation practices, use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel
combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning.
- Effects:
 Global warming stresses ecosystems through temperature rises, water shortages, increased fire
threats, drought
 Increased ocean temperatures are melting glaciers and ice caps all over the world which can cause
flooding
 The oceans have absorbed most of extra heat and carbon dioxide making the seas both warmer
and more acidic.
 Increasingly severe and frequent heat waves may lead to death and illness, especially among the
elderly.

Ozone depletion:
 - Allotropes are different structural forms of the same elements and can exhibit different physical
and chemical properties, ozone is an allotrope of oxygen
- Ozone gas is found mainly in the lower portion of the stratosphere
- It is a dangerous substance if inhaled at ground level because it can cause respiratory problems
but it performs a vital role in the stratosphere
- It absorbs UV radiations preventing it from reaching the surface of the Earth
- However the ozone layer is being depleted because of human activities that are releasing harmful
gases such as chlorine, bromine, and CFCs
- CFCs drift slowly upward into the stratosphere where they are broken up by UV radiation
releasing chorine atoms which are able to destroy ozone molecules
- Ozone is formed when oxygen molecules in the stratosphere absorb ultraviolet radiation and split
into two reactive oxygen atoms.
O2 + uv= Oo + Oo
O2 + Oo = O3
- In the stratosphere, the dichlorodifluoromethane molecules absorb ultraviolet radiation and
undergo dissociation and release reactive atoms. Equations for the reactions.
- CCl2F2 sunlight Cl + CClF2
Dichlorodifluoromethane  chlorine atom + chlorodifluoromethyl radical
- Cl + O3  ClO + O2
Chlorine atom + ozone  chlorine monoxide + oxygen
- Effects of CFCs:
 Inhalation of CFCs affects the central nervous system. The result is intoxication similar to that
produced by alcohol, including lightheadedness and headaches,
 Inhalation of CFCs can disturb the heart rhythm, which can lead to death.
 If the ozone layer is depleted, it means humans will be overly exposed to strong UV light.
Overexposure to strong UV light causes skin cancer, cataracts, sunburns, weakening of the
immune system and quick aging.
 Many crop species are vulnerable to strong UV light and overexposure may well lead to minimal
growth, photosynthesis and flowering.
 Certain marine life, especially planktons, are greatly impacted by exposure to strong ultraviolet
rays. In the aquatic food chain, planktons appear high up. If planktons decrease in number, the
marine food chain would be disrupted
 In domesticated animals, too much UV could lead to skin and eye cancer

Acid rain:
- The normal rain is slightly acidic because of the CO2 present in it which gets dissolved forming
acidic rain
H2O(l) + CO2(g) = H2CO3 (aq)
- This pH of rain water may decrease because of atmospheric pollutants like SO2 and NOx gases,
this is called acidic rain
- Acid rain is a combination of SO2 and NOx emission which react with water vapours in the
atmosphere to create Sulphuric acid and nitric acid
- SO2: volcanic eruptions, burning of fossil fuels
- NOx: road transportation, power stations and industries
- Sulphuric acid: S + O2 = SO2 2SO2 + O2 + 2H2O = 2H2SO4
- Nitric acid: N2 + O2= 2NO2 2NO2 + O2= 2NO2 4NO2 + 2O2 + H2O = 4HNO3
- Effects:
 On plants: Acid deposition can affect the growth of pants due to the toxification of the soil and by
taking away nutrients from it. It blocks the stomatal pores of the leaves and releases Al3+ions in
the soil which damage the root cells of the plants.
  On soil: due to the decrease in the pH of soil, the microbes are not able to tolerate the low pH and
die. The upper fertile layer of the soil is affected as essential nutrients are released away from the
soil
 On water bodies: Al3+ ions from the surrounding soil enter the water bodies and settle into the
gills of the fish therefore damaging them. This greatly affects the biodiversity of the water bodies.
 On buildings: Sulfur dioxide causes damage to marble and limestone buildings.
 On human health: mist of sulfuric acid has respiratory effects and acidification also affects the
human nervous and digestive system.
- Solutions:
 Adding huge amount of calcium oxide into lakes to try to neutralize the pH level.
 Plastic coatings can be applied on to the stone structures to avoid contact with the acid rain.
 Coal can be replaced by natural gas or other renewable resources
 Installation of catalytic converters in cars
 Liming of lakes and soils
 Using pollution control equipment such as cars or solar panels

Types of pollutants:
- Carbon monoxide (CO): volcanoes, bushfires, incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, and forest
fires. Toxic posionous
- Particulates: volcanos, forest fires, pollen, soot from incomplete combustion
- Nitrogen dioxide (NO2): biological decay, volcanoes, combustion of fossil fuels
- Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): refrigerators, air conditioners, sprays, paints
- Carbon dioxide (CO2): combustion, respiration, decomposition---photosynthesis
- Nitrogen oxide (NOx): cars, lighting, forest fires--- nitric acid into rain
- Sulfur dioxide (SO2): forest fires, burning coal----acid rain, soil seas, flu gas desulfurization that
converts SO2 emissions into plaster of Paris
- Methane (CH4): cow ranching, rice fields, plotting vegetation--- can’t be removed from
atmosphere, catalytic converters in cars
- Nitrogen monoxide, NO, is released by motor vehicle exhausts. Explain how nitrogen
monoxide is formed in motor vehicle engines.
nitrogen and oxygen react or combine at high temperatures or in presence of spark;

Methane:
- Methane, which is created when four hydrogen atoms bond to one atom of carbon, is a molecule
that’s lighter than air. It’s amazingly useful, it’s the primary component of natural gas,
which generates roughly 22 percent of the world’s electricity (after coal). But methane also has a
heavy and damaging impact
- Sources:
 Cow manure
 Flooded soils produce methane, and rice cultivation represents about 10% of human-caused
emissions
 Rotting vegetation produces methane, and in normal situations that methane would escape into
the atmosphere in incremental doses. But the rotting plants behind a dam store up
their methane in the mud. When the supply of water lowers behind a dam, all of that stored-
up methane can suddenly be released. Food that gets thrown out ends up in landfills, where it
gradually rots and releases methane, a strong greenhouse gas.
- Solutions:
 Feeding cows seaweed, onions or probiotics could cut their methane emissions.
  All over the world, farmers are investing in methane digester systems to capture the methane that
builds up in their manure tanks (the manure is later used for fertilizer). This methane can be used
to fuel their operations

CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS
Salts:
- All the soluble salts of the solubility chart can be prepared using the methods:
 Acid + water= salt + hydrogen
 Acid + metal oxide = salt + water
 Acid + metal hydroxide = salt + water
 Acid+ metal carbonate= salt+water+CO2
- The salts on the insoluble side of chart are prepared by the precipitation method
- If the starting material that is metal, metal oxide or metal carbonate is used is as one of the
reactants along with acids than it would be excess method
- If the metal reactant is an alkali or a SPA carbonate then reaction 3 and 4 would be used and the
method is titration method

Making a salt:
- To make a soluble salt from an acid and an insoluble reactant
- CaCO3 +HCl = CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
- Measure out 50cm 3 of dilute hydrochloric acid / acid with the help of a measuring/ graduated
cylinder into beaker.
- Add powdered insoluble reactant to some acid in a beaker, one spatula at a time, stirring to mix
till no more fizz is observed, and the metal carbonate is left in excess.
- Filter the mixture in the beaker to remove the excess powder.
- Allow the water in the solution to evaporate by heating it on a water bath to the point of
saturation
- Cool , crystalise, filter and dry crystals within two sheets of filter paper.

To prepare insoluble salts:

- Acid + insoluble metal
- Starting materials for making zinc sulfate can be: zinc and sulfuric acid.
- zinc + sulfuric acid = zinc sulfate + hydrogen
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) = ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
- Add excess zinc to sulfuric acid until there is no more fizz.
Reason: To ensure a complete reaction and all sulfuric acid has been used up, so that it will not
contaminate the desired solution.
- Filter off the excess zinc (insoluble metal).
Reason: To ensure that the unreacted zinc will not contaminate the salt formed.
- Heat the filtrate to saturate the zinc sulfate salt solution. Do not heat to dryness. Reason: By
heating to dryness, the salt loses its water of crystallization and crystals will not form.
- When filtrate is saturated, let it cool and crystallize.
- Wash the zinc sulfate crystals with distilled water dry between filter paper.

To prepare soluble salts:

- Acid + insoluble base
- Copper (II) oxide + Sulfuric acid = Copper (II) Sulfate + Water
- CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) = CuSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)
- Add excess copper (II) oxide to sulfuric acid until there is no more CuO dissolves in the H2SO4.
 Reason: To ensure a complete reaction and all sulfuric acid has been used up, so that it will not
contaminate the desired solution.
- Filter off the excess copper (II) oxide (insoluble).
Reason: To ensure that the unreacted copper (II) oxide will not contaminate the salt formed.
- Heat the filtrate to saturate the copper sulfate salt solution. Do not heat to dryness.
Reason: By heating to dryness, the salt loses its water of crystallization and crystals will not form.
- When filtrate is saturated, let it cool and crystallize.
- Wash the copper sulfate crystals with distilled water dry between filter paper.

Precipitation method:
- Lead (II) nitrate + sulfuric acid à lead (II) = sulfate + nitric acid
- Pb (NO3)2 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) = PbSO4 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq)
- Salt to prepare is an insoluble salt in solution, both reagents are aqueous solutions.
- Add the reagents together and keep stirring until no more precipitation forms.
- Filter the mixture to get the residue.
- Wash the residue with distilled water to remove impurities.
- Dry on a piece of filter paper to obtain the pure sample.

Titration method:
- Apparatus:
 Burette
 Pipette
 Suction bulb
 Graduate cylinder
 Conical flask
 Sodium hydroxide
 Nitric acid
 Indicator – phenolphthalein
- Procedure:
 Word equation: sodium hydroxide + nitric acid = sodium nitrate + water
 NaOH (aq) + HNO3 (aq) = NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
 Pipette out 25 cm3 of NaOH in a conical flask and add 2-3 drops of Phenolphthalein indicator.
 Fill the burette up to the mark 0 with dilute HNO3.
 Titrate the HNO3 against the alkali till the end point is reached, the indicator will change colour,
from colorless to pink’
 record down the reading of the rough titrate. Carry out 3 more titrations, get a definite titration
volume of acid to be added to the alkali.
 Run the last titration without using an indicator.
 Heat the solution to saturate the sodium nitrate salt solution. Don’t heat to dryness.
 When filtrate is saturated, let it cool and crystallize, filter.
 Dry crystals between pieces of filter paper.

Reactions and particles:

- Reactions take place when particles collide with energy
- The amount of energy needed for the particles to collide is activation energy
- Rate of reaction depends on energy, frequency and orientation
- Some factors that effect the rate of reaction are concentration, temperature, pressure, surface area
and catalyst

Concentration (aqeous solution, reactants):

 - Higher the concentration of dissolved reactants, faster the rate of reaction
- At a higher concentration, there are more particles in the same amount of space therefore higher
the number of effective frequent collisions and faster the rate of reaction will be
- Apparatus:
 Stopwatch
 50 cm3 and 10 cm3 measuring cylinder
 250 cm3 conical flask
 Piece of paper with an X on it
 5 beakers 100 ml
 Distilled water
 1 mol HCl
 1 mol Na2SO3
- Procedure:
1) Trial 1:
 Wash the measuring cylinder with distilled water and pour 50 cm3 of sodium thiosulphate into the
beaker
 Place the beaker carefully on the piece of paper
 Add 10 cm3 of HCl into the solution and immediately start the stop watch
 Record the time taken for the cross to disappear
2) Trial 2:
 Then take the graduated cylinder and pour 40 cm3 of sodium thiosulphate into the beaker
followed by 10 cm3 of distilled water and place the beaker on the piece of paper with an X
 Add 10 cm3 of HCl into the solution, immediately start the stop watch
 Record the time taken for the cross to disappear
3) Trial 3:
 Repeat experiment 2 but now use 30 cm3 of sodium thiosulphate and add 20 cm3 distilled water
 Then add 10 cm3 HCl and record the time taken for the cross to disappear
4) Trial 4:
 Repeat experiment 2 but now use 20 cm3 of sodium thiosulphate and add 30 cm3 distilled water
 Then add 10 cm3 HCl and record the time taken for the cross to disappear
5) Trial 5:
 Repeat experiment 2 but now use 10 cm3 of sodium thiosulphate and add 40 cm3 distilled water
 Then add 10 cm3 HCl and record the time taken for the cross to disappear
Beaker 1 2 3 4 5

Na2SO3 (cm3) 50 40 30 20 10

Distilled water (cm3) 0 10 20 30 40

HCl (cm3) 10 10 10 10 10

Time taken for cross to disappear (seconds)

Temperature (all):
- Increasing the temperature increases the rate of reaction.
- At higher temperatures, particles can collide more often and with more energy, which makes
the reaction take place more quickly.
 - Apparatus
 50 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid (10cm3 used for each trial)
 250 cm3 conical flask
 aqueous sodium thiosulfate
 sheet of paper with words printed on it
- Procedure:
Experiment 1
 Using a measuring cylinder, 50 cm of aqueous sodium thiosulfate were poured into a conical
3

flask. The initial temperature of the solution was measured. The conical flask was placed on a
sheet of paper with words printed on it.
 Using a measuring cylinder, 10 cm of dilute hydrochloric acid were added to the solution in the
3

conical flask and a stop clock was started.

 The time taken for the printed words to disappear from view was measured.
 The final temperature of the mixture was measured.
Experiment 2
 Using a measuring cylinder, 50 cm of aqueous sodium thiosulfate were poured into a separate
3

conical flask. The solution was heated to 30 °C and the temperature was measured. The conical
flask was placed on a sheet of paper with words printed on it.
 Using a measuring cylinder, 10 cm of dilute hydrochloric acid were added to the solution in the
3

conical flask and a stop clock was started.

 The time taken for the printed words to disappear from view was measured.
 The final temperature of the mixture was measured. The time taken for the words to disappear
was less than the time taken in the first trial
Experiment 3
 Experiment 2 was repeated but the 50 cm of aqueous sodium thiosulfate were heated to about 40
3

°C before adding the dilute hydrochloric acid.

 The time taken for the printed words to disappear from view was measured. The time taken for
the words to disappear was less than the time taken in the second trial
Experiment 4
 Experiment 2 was repeated but the 50 cm of aqueous sodium thiosulfate were heated to about 50
3

°C before adding the dilute hydrochloric acid.

 The time taken for the printed words to disappear from view was measured. The time taken for
the words to disappear was less than the time taken in the third trial
Experiment 5
 Experiment 2 was repeated but the 50 cm of aqueous sodium thiosulfate were heated to about 60
3

°C before adding the dilute hydrochloric acid.

 The time taken for the printed words to disappear from view was measured. The time taken for
the words to disappear was less than the time taken in the fourth trial

Pressure (gaseous reactants):

- Pressure is directly proportional to temperature
- Pressure is inversely proportional to volume
- As the pressure increases the space in which the particles move becomes smaller, the particles
come close together increasing the frequency of collisions causing to increase the rate of reaction

Catalyst (to all):

- It speeds up a chemical reaction, without being consumed by the reaction.
- It increases the reaction rate by lowering the activation energy for a reaction
- With a catalyst, the average kinetic energy of the molecules remains the same but the
required energy decreases
 - The aim of catalysis is to direct reactions along precisely defined pathways so that chemists can
skip reaction steps, reduce waste and minimize energy use
- It is an industry wide effort to prevent pollution before it happens
- They are seen as a key to unlocking energy sources that are much more inert and difficult to use
than coal, oil or gas and much cleaner and can open up new ways to use raw material such as
biomass or CO2
- They are helping different groups find better catalysts with modern computational modelling
tools. Chemists can now often edit parts of a molecule precisely and people are coming up with
new small molecule complexes or are chemically tailoring biological enzymes in search of
radically new catalytic activity
- What is the advantage of using a catalyst for industrial processes?
Catalysts speed up the rate of reaction, which saves the cost because the plant doesn’t have to
operate for as long to produce the same amount of product. Catalysts allow the reaction to work
at a much lower temperature. This reduces the energy used up in a reaction which is good for
sustainable development. They never get used up in a reaction so once you’ve got them you can
use them over and over again.

Surface area:
- As we increase the surface area, the rate of reaction also increases
- Breaking a solid into tinier pieces increases the number of surfaces providing more area for the
reactant to react on
- Apparatus:
 Magnesium powder 2 g
 Magnesium ribbon 2g
 50 c m3 of HCl
 2 test tubes
- In the first test tube put 2 g of magnesium powder and add HCl
- In the second test tube, put the magnesium ribbon and add HCl
- For both the tubes calculate the volume of gas produced in the amount of time and record the
time taken for the ribbon and powder to dissolve
- Observation: it takes lesser time for the magnesium powder to dissolve compared to magnesium
ribbon because mg powder has more surface area causing the rate of reaction to increase.

REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
Reversible reactions
- Reactions going in both forward and backward directions are known as reversible reactions
- A static reversible reaction can be: The conversion of hydrated CuSO4 + 5H20
CuSO4 + 5H20 ---CuSO4+ 5H2O
- Hydrated copper sulphate goes a reversible reaction when heated
- When the hydrate copper sulphate crystals are heated, they get converted into white powder
which is anhydrous CuSO4
- A reversible reaction is represented by --- for example:
- When CaCO3 is heated at a high temperature, it thermally decomposes into CaO and CO 2
- CaCO3---CaO +CO2
- In the crucible CaCO3 breaks down to CaO and CO2 and the reaction moves. When the
temperature is lowered the system remains in backward direction forming CaCO 3

Dynamic Equilibrium:
 - A system is said to be in dynamic equilibrium when the rate of forward reaction equals to the rate
of backward reaction and the concentration of the reactants and products remains constant

Le Chatliers Principle:
- When a system is in dynamic equilibrium and some stress is applied to it, it will move in a
direction to counter the change or stress

Factors effecting reversible reactions:

1) Temperature (all)
2) Concentration (aqueous solutions)
3) Pressure (gas)
4) Catalyst

Concentration:
- Case 1: N2 +3H2 --- 2NH3
Decreasing the concentration of reactants will shift the equilibrium towards the forward direction
- Case 2: Increasing the concentration of the products will shift the equilibrium towards the
backward direction
- Case 3: If the product NH3 is constantly being removed from the system, the system the system
will move in forward direction to make more of the product

Pressure:
- Only applicable to gaseous reactants and products
- N2 +3H2 --- 2NH3
- I mole of nitrogen is reacting with 3 moles of hydrogen to form 2 moles of ammonia
- Case 1: Increasing the pressure wills shift the equilibrium towards lesser number of moles
- Case 2: Decreasing the pressure will shift the equilibrium towards the greater number of moles
- Case 3: If the number of moles are same on both sides of the equation, pressure will have no
effect on the position of the equilibrium

Temperature:
- Exothermic reactions release energy from the system in the form of heat. The energy is released
from the system to the environment. Like rusting iron, chemical bonds and explosions
- In endothermic reactions, the system absorbs energy from its surroundings in the form of heat.
The energy is absorbed from the environment into the reaction. Like melting ice, evaporation or
photosynthesis
- Reactions are either exothermic or endothermic
- They can be recognized by looking at the ∆H value or the working temperature
- Rule 1: If the ∆H value is a negative value, the reaction is an exothermic reaction
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) --- Mg Cl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
∆H = -175 kJ per mol
- Rule 2: If the ∆H value for a reaction is a positive value, the overall reaction is endothermic
6CO2 + 6H2O --- C6H12O6 + 6O2
∆H = +kJ per mol
- We can also check the working temperatures if the ∆H values are not given. Reactions taking
place at high temperatures are endothermic and reactions taking place at lower temperatures are
exothermic. If the overall reaction has a -∆H value, the forward reaction is exothermic and the
backward reaction is endothermic
Endothermic--
CaCO3 --- CaO +CO2
--exothermic
 - Case 1: Increasing the temperature will shift the equilibrium in the endothermic direction to
remove the extra heat provided to nullify the change
- Case 2: Decreasing the temperature shift the equilibrium in the exothermic direction so that the
system can come back to the original temperature
- When the equilibrium mixture is heated, it becomes a darker brown colour.
Suggest if the reverse reaction is endothermic or exothermic.
Endothermic, because the system turns dark brown, system moves in a direction where heat is
absorbed.

Catalyst
- It speeds up a chemical reaction by decreasing the activation energy of the reaction
- In reversible reactions, the catalyst speeds up both forward and backward reactions at the same
rate therefore helping in reaching the equilibrium in minimum possible time
- The catalyst does not have any effect on the position of the equilibrium

Manufacture of ammonia: Haber process:

- Conditions for reaction are:
 Temperature: 450oC
 Reactants: N2 + H2
 Pressure: 200 atm
 Catalyst: finely divided iron
 Equation: N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) --- 2NH3 (g) delta H value= -kJ per mole
- Source for N2 and H2:
 Nitrogen: fractional distillation of air
 Hydrogen:
Steam reforming methane
CH4 (g) + H2O (g) --- CO + H2 (g)
Cracking of long chain compounds
C18H38 --- 5C2H4 + 4C4H8 + H2
- Procedure:
 Nitrogen and hydrogen are added to the plant in the ratio 1:3. The gases are compressed at
pressure 200 atm and passed into the reactor where they are maintained at 450 0C in the presence
of iron as a catalyst
 Not all gases convert to ammonia which is why the unreacted N2 and H2 gases are recycled and
NH3 is condensed to liquid and collected
- Factors:
 Increasing the pressure shifts the equilibrium towards lesser number of moles
 450 is a compromise temperature because any temperature above this shifts the equilibrium
towards the left-hand side, backward direction, and temperature below this slows down the
reaction
 1 mole of N2 reacts with 3 moles of H2, removing NH3 also shifts the equilibrium in forward
direction making more NH3
 Finely divided iron helps the system reach equilibrium in minimum possible time

Synthesis of H2SO4 – sulphuric acid:

- Conditions:
 Temperature: 450
 Pressure: 2 atm
 Catalyst: vanadium
- Stage 1:
  First sulfur is taken as a solid, melted, and then combusted in oxygen which forms sulfur dioxide
S (l) + O2 (g) --- SO2 (g)
- Stage 2:
 The SO2 is converted to sulfur trioxide SO3
 The reaction is in equilibrium which means it is a reversible reaction
 The reaction is speeded up by the use of vanadium oxide which is a catalyst
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) --- 2SO3 (g)
 This is an exothermic reaction
 The reaction takes place at 4500C which establishes a forward reaction quickly
- Stage 3:
 The SO3 is converted into a concentrated sulphuric acid
SO3 (g) + H2SO4 --- H2S2O7 (l) (oleum)
H2S2O7 + H2O (l) --- 2H2SO4 (l) (final product)
 Then oleum is formed, water is added as a mist to SO3 because the reaction is very exothermic at
this stage
 Then 99% pure sulphuric acid is collected
 The chimney is fitted with acid scrubbers that neutralize the fumes released to decrease pollution
- Uses of sulphuric acid
 Manufacture of detergents, fertilizers, paints, fabrics, plastics, dyes
- Temperature consideration:
 The overall reaction has a – delta H value which means the forward reaction is exothermic and
backward reaction is endothermic
 Increase in temperature would shift the equilibrium towards the backward direction and
decreasing it will shift the equilibrium towards the forward direction
 At lower temperature, the rate of reaction will be slow
- Pressure consideration:
 Increase the pressure will shift the equilibrium towards the forward direction producing more
SO3,
 However, the pressure is maintained at 2 atm because increasing the pressure will increase the
cost
- Catalyst consideration:
 It only speeds up the rate of reaction because without it, the reaction would be really slow
 Catalyst ensures that the reaction is fast enough to reach equilibrium in less time

BONDING IN MATTER
Ionic bonding:
- Ionic bonding occurs between metal and nonmetal elements
- it’s only the outer shell electrons that are gained or lost during the bonding
- Atoms share donate or gain electrons to attain noble gas configuration
- Hydrogen loses electrons to produce H+1 ion
- The ionic bonding molecules transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal
- It is a strong electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged metal ions and negatively
charged nonmetal ions
- Properties of ionic compounds
 In ionic compounds there exist strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely
charged metal and non-metal ions
 Each metal ion is surrounded by six negatively charged ions and each negatively charged ion is
surrounded by six positively charged ions forming a giant ionic structure known as ionic crystal
lattice.
 The structure of an ionic lattice effects the properties of ionic compounds
 They have high melting and boiling points
- How can ionic compounds conduct electricity?
 In order to conduct electricity, we require either free moving electrons or free moving ions
 Electricity is the flow of electrons and current is the movement of electrons
 The negatively charged ions are called anions which move towards the anode is a positively
charged plate
 Positively charged ions are called cations attracted towards the cathode that is a negatively
charged plate
 Cathode is always the negative electrode as it is connected to the negative terminal of the battery
 Anode is always the positive electrode as it is connected to the positive terminal of the battery
 Ionic compounds can’t conduct electricity in solid state because the ions are held together in fixed
positions in the ionic crystal lattice
 When ionic compounds are heated to their melting points, they conduct electricity because the
ions are able to move freely towards oppositely charged electrodes.
 Ionic compounds are soluble in water because the water molecules have partially positive
hydrogen ends and partially negative oxygen ends. These attract ions away in a crystal lattice.
Therefore, when an ionic compound is dissolved in water the ions are free to move and carry
electrical current.
- Effect of force on ionic lattice
 When a force is applied on an ionic lattice the layers of ions slide past one another lining up
similar charges together. The similar charges repel one another and split up the ionic lattice and
shatter it.
- Lithium nitride has a high melting point, 813 °C. Nitrogen trifluoride has a low melting
point, –207 °C. Explain why the melting points are different.
 Lithium nitrate has high melting point because it is an ionic compound and ionic compounds have
high melting and boiling points because they have strong electrostatic forces of attraction.
Nitrogen triflouride has low melting points because it is a covalent compound and covalent
compounds have low melting points because they have weak forces of attractions
Metallic Bonding
- In all metals, the valance shell electrons have the ability to jump out of their shells and revolve
around the positively charged ions.
- These delocalized electrons form a sea of negatively charged electrons around positively charged
ions
- Metallic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged ions and
negatively charged free delocalized electrons.
- Properties of Metals
 Solid at room temperature except mercury
 Shiny and lustrous, sonorous
 Group one metals can be cut easily
 Metals are malleable and ductile, can be beaten into sheets and can be drawn into wires
 Arsenic antimony and bismuth are three exceptions, they get shattered and powdered.
 They are good conductors of electricity however lead and mercury have low electrical
conductivity
 The electrical conductivity decreases with increase in temperature
 Good conductors of heat
 Metals have high melting and boiling points because of the strong electrostatic force of attraction
between positively charged metal ions
- Why do metals have high melting and boiling points?
 The greater the number of valance electrons contribute to the sea of delocalized electrons greater
would be the forces of attraction between positive charged ions and the electrons. Therefore,
higher the melting and boiling points
- Why do metals conduct electricity?
 In order to conduct electricity, either free moving electrons or ions are required. All metals have
this ability that their electrons from the valence shell can jump out of the shell, become
delocalized negatively charged electrons and revolve around positively charged ions. Because
metals have free moving delocalized electrons, they can conduct electricity
- Metals are malleable and ductile?
  The atoms in metals are arranged in layers. When some force is applied, the layers slide past one
another disturbing the metallic bonding between them.
- Why are metals have high density is?
 Because metal lattices are closely packed together.

Covalent bonding
- When a non-metal reacts with a nonmetal a covalent bond is formed
- Nonmetal atoms react together they share the electrons in the outer most shell to attain the noble
gas configuration
- Single covalent bond in H2 and all group 7 elements
- Double covalent bond in O2
- Triple covalent bond in N2
- The atoms share electrons so there is a strong force that joins the atoms together. This is called
covalent bonding.
- Single covalent bonds:
 They are bonds formed by one pair of electrons between two atoms.
 Only last shell electrons are represented or participated
- Molecular solids:
 Ionic compounds have simple structures because they only contain a few atoms.
 Most molecular substances or gases or liquids at room temperature. A few are solids and these are
called molecular solids.
 Iodine is a molecular solid at room temperature
 2 iodine atoms form a single covalent bond to become an iodine molecule
 Millions of iodine molecules are held together by weak forces of attraction is to create a 3-D
molecular lattice also known as Vander Walls forces of attraction.
 The weak forces of attraction between molecules in molecular solids only require a small amount
of energy to be broken this means that molecular bonds have:
 Low melting and boiling points
 Are usually soft and shatter when hit
 Insoluble in water but soluble in other solvents because they don’t have polar ends
 Can’t conduct electricity because there are no free moving electrons or ions
 The covalent bond between two iodine atoms is very strong but the forces of attraction between
two iodine molecules are weak known as weak molecular forces of attraction

Giant covalent structures

- Diamond:
 In Diamond each carbon is bonded to 4 other carbons forming a tetrahedral structure. The
structure repeats itself 1 million times forming a giant covalent structure.
 It has high melting and boiling points that is around 3,800°C because there are a large number of
strong covalent bonds extending throughout the structure.
 They are hard and brittle because a large number of strong covalent bonds extend in all directions
throughout structure.
 They can’t conduct electricity because they don’t have any free moving electrons or ions.
 Diamond and graphite or allotropes of one another
 They have chemical properties because each carbon has same Number of electrons in the outer
most shell.
 However, the physical properties differ because the electrons are shared in different ways with
the other carbon atoms.
 Uses of diamond are cutters and drill tips because if it’s strong covalent bonding
 - Graphite:
 Each carbon is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms
 They form rings of hexagonal structures which arrange themselves in the form of sheets
 Between the layers there all weak Vander walls forces of attraction
 Fourth electron of each carbon jumps out of the shell and becomes delocalized
 Graphite is soft and slippery when some force is applied, the weak intermolecular forces of
attraction break and the layers slide past one another causing it to become soft
 It is used as a lubricant where very high temperatures are used in machinery
 it can conduct electricity because it has free delocalized electrons
 They have high melting and boiling points not as high as diamond because of one less covalent
bond per carbon atom
 Used as pencils (soft and slippery)
 Used as dry lubricant for machine parts operating at a high temperature (soft and slippery)
 Used for making electrodes (good conductor of electricity)

SYSTEMS IN EQUILLIBRIUM
Closed systems:
- Equilibrium can only be obtained in a closed system where the reaction is
carried out in a sealed container and none of the reactants or products are lost. In the closed
system, equilibrium has been established because neither the products or the reactants can escape. In
an open system, products or reactants are lost, therefore equilibrium cannot be established. Reversible
reactions that happen in a closed system eventually reach equilibrium. At equilibrium, the
concentrations of reactants and products do not change. But the forward and reverse reactions have
not stopped - they are still going on, and at the same rate as each other allowing a reversible

Collision theory:
- Collision theory states that when suitable particles of the reactant hit each other, only a certain
amount of collisions result in a perceptible or notable change; these successful changes are called
successful collisions

Activation energy:
- Activation energy is the maximum amount of energy to initiate a chemical reaction.
- Activation energy always has a + value no matter the reaction is exo or endo
- All reactions have an activation energy that reacting particles must overcome in order for the
reaction to occur; at a given temperature a certain proportion of the reacting particles will have
sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier.
- Why only certain proportion of reacting particles in a chemical system transformed from
reactants into products, at a given temperature.
All chemical reactions have an activation energy that reacting particles must overcome in order
for the reaction to occur; at a given temperature a certain proportion of the reacting particles will
uhave sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier.
- Why science needs to find ways to increase the rate of a chemical reaction.
The rate of reaction is an important factor while doing an experiment. Finding out how fast
products are made and what causes the reactions is important. Which is why it is important
to discover ways to improve the reactions because faster reactions are need for large scale
manufactures of chemicals and products
Energy change:
- This is the overall energy change during complete conversion of reactants into products
- ∆E = energy change measured at all conditions
- ∆H= energy change measured at standard conditions

Bonding and bond energy:

- Energy required to break a chemical bond or energy released during a chemical bond formation is
bond energy
- For example O double bond with O = 496 kj/m which means 496 kj energy is required to break a
double bond between 2 oxygen atoms or 496 kj energy will be released when a double bond is
formed between 2 oxygen atoms
- During a chemical reaction, the bonds of reactants break and new bonds are formed
- Reactant side is always bond breaking as the new products can be made only when old bonds
break
- Product side is always bond formation
- Bond breaking is always endothermic and bond formation is always exothermic
- Energy is always released when new bonds are formed

Finding the type of reaction using bond energy calculations:

- Find the type of reaction combustion is and the overall energy change
CH4 + 2O2 -- CO2 + 2H2O
H
I
H – C – H + O=O -- O=C=O + H – O H – O
I O=O I I
H H H
Then write the number of bonds and multiply by the bond energy
CH4 = 4 x 413 = 1652 CO2 = 2 x 1672 = 2144
2O2 = 2 x 495 = 990 ---- 2H2O = 4 x 463 = 1852
1652 + 990 -- 2144 + 1852
2642  3996
∆H value = product side – reactant side
= 2642 – 3996
= -1534 so the reaction is exothermic

Heat of energy:
- The amount of energy given off or absorbed during a reaction is called the heat of reaction
- A balanced chemical equation which includes the amount of heat energy involved in a chemical
reaction is known as a thermochemical equation
- All the reactions are carried under standard temperature of 25C which is 98K and pressure is 1
atmosphere
- The heat of reaction under standard condition is called enthalpy change ∆H

Differ between heat and temperature:

- Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles, whereas the amount of
heat in an object is the total kinetic energy of all its particles.
- Heat energy depends on the temperature, the mass of the material and the type of material.

Effect of heat and water on hydrated and anhydrous copper (II) sulfate:
- A reversible reaction involving white anhydrous copper(II) sulfate and blue hydrated copper(II)
sulfate takes place
 - anhydrous copper (II) sulfate + water  hydrated copper (II) sulfate
CuSO4 + 5H2O CuSO4.5H2O
- The reaction between anhydrous copper(II) sulfate and water is used as a test for water. The white
solid turns blue in the presence of water.
1. Bunsen burner heats a bowl of blue hydrated copper (II) sulfate
2. Water is driven off, leaving white anhydrous copper(II) sulfate
3. The burner is turned off and water is added using a pipette
4. The bowl now contains hydrated copper(II) sulfate again and turns back to blue
5. The forward reaction is endothermic and backward is exothermic

Effect of heat and water on hydrated and anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride:
- CoCl2 + 6 H2OCoCl2.6H2O
- Hydrated cobalt chloride + water  cobalt (II) chloride hexahydrate
- The property of cobalt chloride to change its color in presence of humidity helps to make cobalt
chloride a humidity indicator which is applied in weather instruments.
- When heat and water is added, the anhydrous cobalt chloride changes into hydrated cobalt
chloride
- The forward reaction is endothermic because heat is taken into the reaction
- The colour changes from blue to pink

Marble chips and HCl ( different types of solutions of HCl)

A student investigated the speed of reaction between aqueous hydrochloric acid and marble chips
(calcium carbonate). 5 test-tubes were put in a rack. To each test-tube was added 10 cm 3 of different
solutions of aqueous hydrochloric acid and a marble chip. The marble chips were the same size.
Apparatus: rubber bung, 5 test tubes, HCl, syringe
Experiment 1
By using a measuring cylinder 10 cm3 of the solution P of aqueous hydrochloric acid was placed in the
first test-tube. A marble chip was added and the volume of gas collected after two minutes was measured.
Experiment 2
Experiment 1 was repeated using the solution Q of aqueous hydrochloric acid. Use the diagram to
record the volume of gas collected in the table.
Experiments 3, 4 and 5
Experiment 1 was repeated using the solutions R, S and T of aqueous hydrochloric acid in the third,
fourth and fifth test-tubes.
Table will include type of solution of HCl and volume of gas collected

Specific heat capacity:

- It is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1C
- The larger the heat capacity of a material, the more energy it requires to raise the temperature by
a certain amount.
- Q = mc∆T
- Q is the amount of energy added or subtracted measured in Joules J
- m is the mass in grams g
- c is the specific heat capacity measured in J/gºC
- ∆T is the change in temperature which can be final temperature – initial temp

REDOX REACTIONS
Redox reactions:
 Red – reduction , ox – oxidation
 Reduction: loss of oxygen, hydrogen gain, gain of electrons, decrease in oxidation states
 Oxidation: gain of oxygen, loss of hydrogen, loss of electrons, increase in oxidation state
 Redox reactions: reactions in which both, oxidation and reduction are taking place simultaneously
are called redox reactions
 Reduction reaction: the reaction in which there is a loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen or gain of
electrons and decrease in the oxidation state
 Oxidation reaction: a reaction in which there is a gain of oxygen or loss of hydrogen or loss of
electrons and increase in oxidation state.

Oxidation number and state:

 The groups in the periodic table tell us the number of electrons in the valence shell
 The periods tell us how many shells are in the atom outside the nucleus
 The roman numbers on top of the groups in the periodic table are known as oxidation numbers
 The oxidation state tells us the number of electrons lost or gained during a chemical reaction to attain
a stable electronic configuration of a noble gas.

Rules for oxidation states:

1) Assign ‘’0’’ to elemental form
2) Assign +1 charge to all group 1 elements and Copper I Cu+1 and Silver Ag+1
3) Assign +2 charge to all group 2 elements and Copper II Cu+2 and Iron II Fe2+
4) Assign +3 to elements Al3+ and Fe3+
5) Assign -1 to all group 7 elements, chlorine and bromine
6) Assign +1 to hydrogen. Exception: when present with any group one metal, hydrogen will have a part
hydrogen will have a -1 charge
7) Oxygen is always -2. Exception: in hydrogen peroxide -1 charge and if with fluorine +2 charge

Finding the charge of elements in a compound:

 Sum of oxidation states in a charged compound sum up to the charges on that compound
- S2O3 2-
2x + (-2 x 3 ) = -2
2x = -2 + 6
x = 4/2
x= +2
- SO4 2-
x + (-2 x 4) = -2
x = -2 – 8
x = +6
- Cr2O7 2-
2x + (-2 x 7) = -2
x = +6
 Sum of oxidation states in a neutral compound sums up to ‘’0’’
- CaCO3
+2 + x + (-2 x 3)= 0
+2 + x = 6
x = +4
- K2Cr2O7
(1 x 2) + 2x + (-2 x 7) = 0
 2x – 12 = 0
x = +6

Redox in terms of gain and loss of oxygen

 Redox in terms of gain and loss of electrons and increase or decrease in oxidation states
 Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3CO2
- To solve this question, we first find the oxidation states to tell whether which compound is being
oxidized and which one is being reduced. For this we do not specifically find them for the transition
metals but for all elements in the compound using the method above through the oxygen’s charge.
- Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3CO2
Charge for Fe in Fe2O3: 2x + (-2 x 3) = 0
2x – 6 = 0
x = +3
Charge for O3 in Fe2O3: -2 x 3
-6
Charge for C in 3CO: x -2 = 0
x = +2
Charge for O in 3CO: -2

Charge for 2Fe: 0 (first rule of oxidation)

Charge for C in 3CO2: x + (-2 x 2) = 0
x–4=0
x = +4
Charge for O in 3CO2: -2 x 2
-4
Then you check what is being oxidized and reduced using a number line for electrons and how they
are losing or gaining oxygen
In this case, iron’s charge goes from +3 to 0 and because 0 is closer to the negative values and
negative means increase of electrons, iron has been reduced because its oxidation state has been
decreased from Fe2O3 to 2Fe and it has gained electrons
- The charge of carbon goes from +2 to +4 so carbon has been oxidized because its oxidation state has
increased from CO to CO2 and it has lost 2 electrons
- Zn + CuSO4  ZnSO4 + Cu
Charge on Zn: 0 (pure element)
Charge on S in CuSO4: +6 (from periodic table)
Charge on O4 in CuSO4: -2 x 4
-8
Charge on Cu in CuSO4: x + 6 – 8 = 0
x = +2
Charge on Zn in ZnSO4: +2
Charge on S in ZnSO4: +6
Charge on O4 in ZnSO4: -8
Charge on Cu: 0
Zn loses two electrons to form Zn2+ which is why it has been oxidized
Cu has gain electrons from +2 to 0 which is why it has been reduced
Electrolysis
 Electro – use of electrons , lysis – breakdown
 Breaking up of ionic compounds into simpler substances through the use of electricity is electrolysis.
 Ionic compounds
- NaCl is a solid in which ions are held together in fixed positions
- NaCl can either me molten which is to melt without water and it can either be dissolved in water.
When dissolved in water it can either be diluted which is less salt and more water or it can be
concentrated which is more salt and less water.

Electrolytic cell
 An electrolytic cell consists of a beaker which can either contain a molten ionic compound, an
aqueous solution of ionic compound or an acid or an alkali. The solution in the beaker is called the
electrolyte.
 The beaker gets heated from below and it contains two plates
 The first one is the cathode which is attached to the negative terminal of the cell and it is negatively
charged.
 The second plate is the anode which is attached to the positive terminal of the battery and is positively
charged.
 The battery is connected to both the plates of anode and cathode through a copper wire.
 NaCl in the electrolytic cell
- For example, if the electrolyte is NaCl, as the mixture will get heated Na ions will move towards the
cathode because Na is positively charged so it will get attracted to the negative plate
The CL ions will move towards the anode. Because chlorine ions are negatively charged, they will be
attracted to the positively charged plate
The Na ions will move towards the cathode because they are positively charged, they will be attracted
to the negatively charged plate.
Na will gain an electron from Cl through the battery
Na will be a metal and Cl will be a pale colour green gas
- Writing the equations
- Next we write the anode, cathode and overall equations using PANIC, positive, anode, and, negative,
is cathode.
- Reduction – cathode reaction – always on the reactant side
- Oxidation – anode reaction – always on the product side
- Cathode reaction: Na+ + e-  Na
In a molten solution, add the cathode. The metal ions gain electrons and become metal atoms.
Therefore, reduction takes place
- Anode reaction: 2Cl-  2e- + Cl 2
At the anode, the non-metal ion loses electrons to become non-metal atoms. Therefore, oxidation
takes place. In this case because Cl is a halogen and halogens are diatomic, Cl loses 2 electrons and
becomes Cl2
- Overall reaction: =Na+ + e-  Na
2Cl-  2e- + Cl 2
=(Na+ + e-  Na) 2
2Cl-  2e- + Cl 2
=2Na+ + 2e-  Na
2Cl-  2e- + Cl 2
=2NaCl (l)  2Na(l) + Cl2(g)
 PbBr2 in electrolytic cell
- Pb is a transition metal so we don’t know what the oxidation number is so we cress cross values so Pb
will be a 2+ charge
Pb2+ will get attracted to the cathode
Br-1 will get attracted to the anode
- Cathode equation: Pb2+ + 2e-  Pb
- Anode equation: 2Br-1  2e- + Br2
- Overall equation: 2Br-1 + Pb2+  Br2 + Pb

Simple cell
 In simple cells, we use chemical energy to create electrical energy.
 In a simple cell, there are two electrodes or plates: the first is a more reactive metal and the second is
a less reactive metal
 The two metals are connected through a copper wire to one another with a bulb in the middle with a
voltmeter
 This apparatus is immersed into an aqueous solution of an acid or a salt. This causes the light bulb to
light up.
 Lets say the more reactive metal is Mg and less is copper
 The more reactive metal, Mg, will loose two electrons forming ions moving into the solution
Anode: Mg  Mg2+ + 2e-
Cathode: 2H+ + 2e-  H2
 This is a negative terminal of the cell as it generates electrons which move through the wire and settle
on the copper electrode
 The less reactive metal, copper. Behaves as the positive terminal
 The hydrogen ions from the positive terminal gain electrons from the copper electrode and form
hydrogen gas
 The more reactive metal decreases in size
 Bubbles of H2 gas are observed on the less reactive metal
 The bulb lights up
 The larger the difference between the reactivity of the metals, the higher the voltage would be
produced and the bulb will glow brighter
 Writing the equation:
- Write down a balanced equation
- Insert the state symbols
- Split aq on both sites
- Cross out similar ions on both sides
- Write down the remaining equation
- Mg + CuSO4  MgSO4 + Cu
Mg(s) + CuSO4 (aq) MgSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Mg + Cu2+  Mg2+ + SO4 - + Cu
Mg + SO4 2+ + Cu2+  Mg2+ + SO4 2- + Cu
SO4 2+ gets cancelled with SO4 2-
Mg + Cu2+  Mg2+ + Cu
Mg got oxidized and Cu got reduced
Half cell equations: Mg  Mg2+ + 2e-
Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu
- Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Zn + Cu2+  Zn2+ + Cu
 Half cell equations: Zn  2e- + 2n2+
Cu2+ + 2e-  Cu
Electrolyte: H2SO4

GALVANIC/VOLTAIC CELL
 A voltaic cell is a device in which the relative difference in the chemical reactivity of two elements is
used to generate an electric current through a redox reaction.
 In this cell, there are two beakers, each electrode has its own solution in a separate beaker and the
electrodes are connected through a wire that connects the two electrodes with the volt meter
 There consists a salt bridge containing NaCl, one end of it is in one beaker and the other end is in the
other beaker.
 Zinc is a more reactive metal than copper. This means that compared to copper atoms, zinc atoms will
oxidize (give up electrons) more readily. When the two electrodes are connected in a circuit with a
conductor (wire), and a salt bridge, the electrode with the more active metal is where oxidation
occurs. This makes the zinc electrode the negative electrode, or anode:
Zn(s)  Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
 The electrode with the less reactive metal is where reduction occurs. This is the
positive electrode, or cathode. In the example, the electrons are accepted by copper(II) ions:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e-  Cu(s)
 The overall reaction is a redox reaction and the electrons flow through a circuit
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
 Movement arrows on the wire will be from more reactive to less reactive metal

SMELTING – EXTRACTION OF IRON

 Sintered charge = iron ore, limestone CaCO3 + coke ore - hematite
 Step 1:
- C + O2  CO2 (exothermic)
- CaCO3  CaO + CO2 (endothermic)
- When sintered charge is dropped on top of the furnace, the carbon in the coke reacts with oxygen at
the base of the furnace to produce carbon dioxide.
- The reaction is highly exothermic
- At this high temperature, the limestone see CaCO3 thermally decomposes to form or carbon dioxide.
This reaction is endothermic
 Step 2:
- CO2 + C  CO
- The CO2 produced to both the reactions in step one rises up the furnace and reacts with Coke to
produce carbon monoxide which is a strong reducing agent
 Step 3:
- 3CO + Fe2O3  Fe +3CO2
- The iron III oxide reacts with CO2 and carbon in the coke to produce molten iron with sinks to the
bottom of the furnace
 Step 4:
- CaO + SiO2  CaSiO3, calcium silicate  slag
- The calcium oxide produces by thermal decomposition of limestone reacts with impurities SiO 2 to
produce calcium silicate which floats on the surface of molten iron and is known as slag
- Both, molten iron and slag are tapped off separately for their own uses

EXTRACTION OF ALUMINUM THROUGH ELECTROLYSIS

 Bauxite, an ore rich in aluminium hydroxide minerals, is the most common source of the metal,
aluminium.
 Bauxite is crushed and reacted with NaOH  Al(OH)3 + Fe(OH)3 is filtered
 Filtered Al(OH)3 is heated to Al 2O3
 The first purification stage, involving sodium hydroxide, results in alumina, aluminium oxide
(Al2O3).
 Electrolyzing molten alumina produces molten aluminium at the negative electrode (cathode) and
oxygen at the positive electrode (anode).
 Both electrodes are made of graphite. These electrodes become heated by the large amounts of
electric current involved, and eventually are oxidized by oxygen in the surrounding air.
 Cathode equation: Al3+(l) + 3e-  Al(l)
 Anode equation: 2O2-(l)  O2(g) + 4e-
 Overall equation: 2Al2O3(s)  4Al(s) + 3O2 (g)

ACTIVITY SERIES
 K - potassium
 Na - Sodium
 Li - lithium
 Ca – calcium
 Mg – magnesium
 Al – aluminum
 C – carbon
 Zn – zinc
 Fe – iron
 Pb – lead
 H – hydrogen
 Cu – copper
 Hg – mercury
 Ag – Silver
 Au – gold
 Pt – platinum
 K, Na, Li, Ca, Mg and Al can be extracted through electrolysis
 Pb, H, Cu, Hg, Ag can be extracted by reduction with H2
 C, Zu, Fe, Pb, H, Cu, Hg, Ag can be extracted by reduction with C or CO

FLAME TEST
 Potassium K+1  lilac flame
 Barium Ba2+  Apple green flame
 Calcium Ca2+  yellow red flame
 Strontium Sr2+  orange red flame
 Lithium Li+1  red flame
 Sodium Na2+  yellow flame
 Copper Cu2+  blue greenish flame
 Boron B3+  green
 In a flame test, a coloured flame occurs because the electrons jump from the ground stage to a higher
energy level, as they become excited, they absorb a specific amount of energy called the quantum.
 When it jumps back it releases the same amount of energy so because of this jumping up and back it
produces a coloured flame

REACTION OF GROUP 1 METALS WITH WATER

 Metal + H2O  MOH + H2
Metal + water  metal hydroxide + hydrogen
 Potassium and sodium react violently with the surface of water, producing enough heat to melt the
metals, and ignite the hydrogen gas formed. Due to the presence of excited metal atoms, it burns with
a coloured flame. An alkaline solution is formed. Reaction is exothermic
 Lithium reacts less vigorously, but the reaction is similar. The metal melts and hydrogen gas is
formed. Due to the presence of excited metal atoms, it burns with a coloured flame. An alkaline
solution is formed. The reaction is exothermic
 Calcium sinks, steadily produces hydrogen gas and forms a dilute alkaline solution and a white
suspension of calcium hydroxide, which has low solubility. The reaction is exothermic.
 Magnesium turnings sink and a very, very slow reaction takes place, producing hydrogen gas. After
some time, changes colour to lilac. Only in hot water
 Aluminum, zinc, iron, lead and copper do not react with water.

REACTION OF METALS WITH AIR

 M + O2  MO
 Nearly all metals react with oxygen in the air to form an oxide.
 The rate of the reactions increases by heating the metal.
 With some metals, the reaction is vigorous.
 Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium all ignite on heating and an
exothermic reaction occurs. Potassium, sodium and calcium burn with
characteristic flame colours.
 Other metals, including zinc in powdered form, may glow but not catch fire, indicating they are far
less reactive.
 With other metals, including aluminum, copper and lead, there is little reaction.
 These metals may already have an unreactive compound covering their surface,
which prevents reaction with oxygen in the air. Sometimes this oxide is coloured.

REACTION OF METALS WITH DILUTE HCl

 M + acid  salt + hydrogen
 Potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium should never be added to dilute acids as
they react explosively as they are at the top of the activity series
 Magnesium, zinc, iron and lead, from the middle of the activity series, react with dilute hydrochloric
acid to form the metal chloride (a salt) and hydrogen gas.
 The reaction of dilute hydrochloric acid with magnesium is fairly fast, but the lower the reactivity of
the metal the slower the reaction becomes.
 Aluminum has no reaction with HCl
 Lead reacts very slowly with dilute hydrochloric acid.
 Copper, the less reactive metal in the activity series, does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid.
 In each of these reactions, the metal becomes oxidized, losing electrons to form
 the positively charged ion in an ionic compound
REACTION OF METALS WITH STEAM
 Metal + steam  metal oxide + hydrogen
Metal + H2Og  MO + H2
 Potassium, sodium, lithium and calcium have a very vigourous reaction with steam so we don’t
react them with steam as it can be very dangerous
 Magnesium, aluminum, carbon, zinc, iron, lead all react with steam to form metal oxide and
hydrogen gas
 Magnesium reacts with steam to form magnesium oxide, a bright flame occurs and hydrogen gas is
produced

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS
 Displacement reaction is when a more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its salt
solution but a less reactive metal cannot displace a more reactive metal from its salt solution
 For example, magnesium can be expected to displace iron(II) ions from iron(II) sulfate solutions, and
iron would displace copper(II) ions from copper(II) sulfate solutions, because magnesium forms ions
more readily than iron, and iron forms ions more readily than copper.
 Conversely, lead will not react with zinc ions from zinc sulfate solution, or with magnesium ions
from magnesium sulfate.
 Displacement reactions of metals are redox (reduction–oxidation) reactions. The more reactive
metal changes from atoms into metal ions.
 3Mg + 2FeCl3  3MgCl2 + 2Fe
 Zn + CuSO4  ZnSO4 + Cu
 Ag + MgSO4  no reaction because Ag is less reactive than Mg
 The salts solutions test for displacement reaction are aluminum nitrate Al(NO 3)3 or silver
nitrate AgNO3
- 3Mg + 2 Al(NO3)3  3Mg(NO3)2 + 2Al
- Zn + 2AgNO3  Zn(NO3)2 + 2Ag
- Mg + 2AgNO3  Mg(NO3)2 + 2Ag
- Fe + AgNO3  Fe(NO3)2 + Ag
- Mg + AgNO3  Mg(NO3)2 + Ag
 Displacement of metals with HCl
- Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq)  MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
- 2Al + 6HCl  2AlCl3 + 3H2
- Zn + 2HCl  ZnCl2 + H2
- Cu + HCl  cannot displace
- Fe + 2HCl  FeCl2 + H2

METALS
 Metallic bonding diagram consists of same sized positively charged atoms that are of a larger size
compared to the negatively charged electrons they are surrounded by.
 When force is applied, layers slide past each other which is why they are malleable and ductile

ALLOYS
 Alloys are a mixture of a metal with other metals and sometimes a non-metal like carbon
 Alloy’s structure diagram consists atoms of different sizes surrounded by negative tiny electrons
- Bronze:
Composition: copper and tin
Percentage composition: 88% copper and 12% tin
Uses: propellors for ships, medals, sculptures, musical instruments
- Duralumin:
Composition: aluminum and copper
Percentage composition: 90% to 94% aluminum,4% copper, 1% magnesium and 0.5% to 1%
manganese.
Uses: wire, bar, and rods for screw machine products. Used for making aircraft structures
- Magnalium:
Composition: aluminum and magnesium
Percentage composition: 95% aluminum, 5% magnesium
Uses: air craft parts
- Brass:
Composition: copper and zinc
Percentage composition: 66% copper and 34% zinc
Uses: coins and musical instruments
- Jewelry gold:
Composition: pure gold and titanium
Percentage composition: 99% pure gold and 1% zinc
Uses: jewelry
- Solder:
Composition: tin and copper
Percentage composition: 60% tin/40 percent lead or 63% tin/37% lead or 50 percent tin/50 percent
lead.
Uses: joining copper pipes and electrical components

ATOMIC RADIUS
 Atomic radius is the distance from the center of the nucleus to the last shell which carries the valence
electrons

IONIZATION ENERGY
 The ionization energy is the energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of atoms
in the gaseous state
 Less energy is required to remove an electron from atoms of elements on the left-hand side of the
periodic table, which have larger radii and small numbers of valence electrons, compared to removing
electrons from elements on the right-hand side.
 Radii increase down each group of the periodic table and less energy is required to remove electrons
from atoms of elements with increasing numbers of electron shells.
 Mg(g)  Mg+1(g) + e- 1st ionization (744 Kj/mol)
 Mg+(g)  Mg+2(g) + e- 2st ionization (1460 Kj/mol)
 Mg+2(g)  Mg+3(g) + e- 3st ionization (7750 Kj/mol)
 Mg+3(g)  Mg+4(g) + e- 4st ionization

ELECTRONEGATIVITY
 Electronegativity chart from highest electronegative elements to the lowest
- Fluorine F
- Oxygen O
- Chlorine Cl
- Nitrogen N
- Bromine Br
- Iodine I
- Sulfur S
- Carbon C
- Phosphorus P
 Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons. The
power to attract a shared pair of electrons towards itself is known as being electronegative
 If 2 atoms A---:---B are equally electronegative, they both have the same tendency to attract the
bonding pair of electrons. Therefore, they would on average halfway between the 2 atoms
 If B is slightly more electronegative than A, the electrons are more attracted towards B increasing the
electron density towards B making it partially negative so it would show A---:--B so A would be
partially positive and B partially negative
 If two electronegative elements are in the same compound, the more electronegative element gets a -
charge and the less electronegative elements gets a positive charge
 For example in H2SO4, there is sulfur and oxygen and oxygen is more electronegative that sulfur so O
would be partially negative, write – sign on top and S would be partially positive, write partially +
sign on top on state symbol

RUSTING AND CORROSION

 Corrosion is the chemical reaction of a metal with air, usually forming an oxide.
 Rusting is a form of corrosion. The iron(III) oxide then reacts with water to form hydrated iron(III)
oxide which is rust.
 4Fe + 302 + nH2O  2Fe2O3 n H2O
 Conditions for rusting: presence of O2, presence of water
 This rust is brittle and it swells up and flakes off as it formed. A fresh iron surface is then exposed to
contact with more air and water, and so the rusting continues.
 The rusting occurs even faster if the water contains impurities with ions, like salt (NaCl), or acidic
pollutants such as sulfur dioxide. Rusting can also cause environmental problems if the iron(III) ions
from the rust enter soil or streams, rivers and lakes. Iron(III) ions are acidic and can be poisonous at
high concentrations.
 Iron and its many alloys (steel is an alloy of iron with carbon, manganese,
phosphorus, nickel and/or chromium) are widely used in infrastructure such as bridges, railroads and
buildings (Figure 8.20), transport, machinery and tools. Iron
is therefore a useful model for developing any strategy that will limit the corrosion
of metals generally.
 Oil paints can also help

Thermite reaction
 Thermite reaction is a displacement reaction where a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive
metal from its oxide
 Step 1: A cylindrical container is filled with powdered mixture of Al(s) + Fe 2O3(s)  Al2O3(s) +
Fe(l). And a magnesium ribbon is placed in it which acts as a fuse
 Product: Al2O3 and MgO is formed in the molten ion
 Use: used to fix rail roads

PHARCEUTICAL CALCULATIONS
Relative atomic mass (Mr):
 To calculate the Mr, we multiple the atomic mass or the larger number by the number of atoms
 For example, the Mr of the compound C9H8NO2 = (12x9) + (1x8) + (14x1) + (16x2)=151
Calculating moles:
 Mole = mass/mr or n=m/mr
 How many moles are in 100 g of Mg(OH)2
Mr = (24x1) + (16x2) + (1x2)
= 58
Moles = mass / mr
Moles = 100/58
Moles = 1.725

Calculating reacting masses:

 Calculate the mass of silver carbonate required to produce 180 g of silver solid
2Ag2CO3  4Ag + 2CO2 + O2
First we balance the equation, find the mr and mass of both the compounds mentioned in the question
and then we use ratio and proportion.
Mr of Ag2CO3 = (108x2) + 12 + (16x3) = 276
Mr of Ag = 108
Mass of 2Ag2CO3 = 276 x 2 = 552g
Mass of 4Ag = 4 x 108 = 432 g
Ag Ag2CO3
432 552
180 x
432x = 552 x 180
x= 230 g

Calculating reacting moles:

 Calculate the moles of copper oxide to produce 15 g of copper metal
3CuO + 2NH3  3Cu + N2 + 3H2O
Mr of CuO = 64 + 16 = 80
Mass of 3CuO = 3 x 80 = 240 g
Mr of Cu = 64
Mass of 3Cu= 3 x 64 = 192 g
Cu CuO
192 240
15 x
192x = 240 x 15
x= 18.75 g
moles = mass/mr
= 18.75/80
= 0.234 moles of CuO

Calculating reacting volumes:

 To find the volume, we convert the mass into moles and then moles into dm 3 since 1 mole = 24 dm3
or 24000 cm3
 What is the mass of CO2 and volume of H2O produced when 36g of methane reacts with excess
of O2?
CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
Mr of CH4 = 12 + (1x4) = 16
Mass = 16 g
Mr of O2 = (16x2) = 32
 Mass = 32 x 2 =64
Mr CO2 = 12 + (16x2) = 44
Mass = 44 g
Mr of H2O = (1x2) + 16 = 18
Mass= 2 x 18 = 36

Methane CO2
16 44
36 x
16x = 44 x 36
x= 99g of CO2

Methane H2O
16 36
36 x
16x = 36 x 36
x= 81 g of H2O
81 g to moles
Moles = mass/mr = 81/18= 4.5
4.5 x 24 = 108 dm3

Excess of one reactant

 Sometimes we add an excess of one of the reactants. This means that the other reactant has no
shortage of substance to react with. There are situations, such as reactions of metals with gases or
with acids, where this is the most convenient way of carrying out the reaction.

Green chemistry
 A comprehensive set of guidelines defining green chemistry, The 12 principles of
green chemistry, was written by the US Environmental Protection Agency. There are now green
chemistry initiatives all around the world with many industries actively supporting them. Green chemistry
includes reducing waste, devising safer products and processes, and reducing the use of energy and
resources. A major reason for developing the principles was the chemical industry’s desire to improve
their environmental policies, in response to public perception that chemical companies were not
concerned about the environment. The chemical industry also recognized that the costs of disposal of
waste and pollution were becoming higher every year. A high percentage yield in reactions and an
efficient atom economy are important aspects of green chemistry.
 Prevention of waste: To prioritize the prevention of waste rather than cleaning up and treating waste
after it has been created. Planning ahead to minimize waste at every step and designing chemical
synthesis to prevent waste
 Maximize atom economy: To reduce waste at the molecular level by maximising the number of
atoms from all reagents that are incorporated into the final product. Using atom economy to evaluate
the reaction efficiency so that the final product contains the maximum proportion of the starting
materials.
 Safer solvents and auxiliaries: Choose the safest solvent available for any given step. Minimize the
total amount of solvents and auxiliary substances used as these make up a large percentage of the
total waste created.
 Design for energy efficiency: Choose the least energy intensive chemical route. Avoid heating and
cooling as well as pressurized and vacuum conditions. Run chemical reactions at room temperature
and pressure whenever possible.
 Use of renewable feedstocks: Use chemicals that are made from renewable sources rather than other
equivalent chemicals originating from petrochemical sources.
 Catalysis: Minimize waste by using catalytic reactions. Catalysts are effective in small amounts and
can carry out a single reaction many times. They are preferable to stoichiometric reagents, which are
used in excess and carry out a reaction only once.
 Design for degrade after use: Design chemicals that degrade and can be discarded easily. Ensure
that both chemicals and their degradation products are not toxic, bio accumulative or environmentally
persistent.

Percentage yield:
 ‘Yield’ refers to how much product we obtain from a situation. If we were running a factory making
medicines, fertilizers or paints we would like as high a yield as possible. This will keep down costs,
and mean less waste.
 The percentage yield tells us how much of a product we obtain compared with the maximum
theoretical yield possible.
 Equilibrium reactions never lead to 100% of the desired products. Also, in any reaction some product
is lost during final clean-up stages.
 % yield = actual or experimental yield / theoretical yield x 100
 To make aspirin, salicylic acid is reacted with a substance called ethanoic anhydride to produce
acetylsalicylate (the chemical name for aspirin). What would be the percentage yield if 100 g of
salicylic acid produced 120 g of aspirin?
The mass of the thing that is produced is always the actual yield, we need to find the theoretical yield.
C7H6O3 + C4H6O3  C9H8O4 + CH3COOH
Mass of C7H6O3 = (12x7) + (1x6) + (16x3) = 138g
Mass of C9H8O4 = (12x9) + (1x8) + (16x4) = 180g
Salicylic aspirin
138 180
100 x
138x = 180 x 100
X = 130.43
% yield = 120/130.43 x 100 = 92%
 Calculate the percentage yield of ammonia (NH3) if 20 g of ammonia is obtained from 28 g of
nitrogen (N2) reacting with 6 g of hydrogen (H2) in the Haber process.
Mass of NH3=20 g (actual yield)
Theoretical yield = 28 + 6 = 34
If the values for both the reactions are given, find the limiting reactant and remember L.R forms the
product
% yield = actual yield/ theoretical yield x 100
= 20/34 x 100

Atom economy:
 Atom economy considers the proportion of the reactants that is converted into useful products.
Processes with a high atom economy produce the least waste and are considered more efficient.
Encouraging a high atom economy is one of the 12 principles of green chemistry.
 Atom economy= mass of useful product/total mass of all products made x 100
 The compound mentioned in the question, its mass is the useful product
Total mass of products would be the mass of the other compound which is on the same side of the
compound mentioned in the question + mass of useful product
 Compare the atom economies of the two reactions which make H2
C + H2O  CO + H2
 CH4 + H2O  CO + 3H2
C + H2O  CO + H2
Mr of CO = 12 + 16 = 28
Mr of H2 = 1 x 2 = 2
1 mole of CO and 1 mole of H2
Mass of CO = 28g
Mass of H2 = 2g
Mass of useful product = 2g
Mass of total products = 2+28 = 30g
Atom economy = 2/30 x 100 = 6.67%
CH4 + H2O  CO + 3H2
Mr of CO= 28
Mr of H2= 2
I mole of CO and 3 moles of H2
Mass of CO = 28g
Mass of H2 = 2x3 = 6g
Mass of useful products= 6 g
Mass of total products = 6+28 = 34g
Atom economy = 6/34 x 100 = 17.6%
So, the second reaction has a higher atom economy compared to the first reaction which means it
would be more efficient to use it hence the second reaction would be a better choice.

Percentage purity:
 When new medicines are made, there are other substances mixed with them in the form of unreactive
reagents or another substance that has formed during the reaction.
 Purity is a important factor, higher the % purity, the safer the medicine is to use.
 % purity = mass of pure product/ mass of impure product obtained x 100

Empirical formula:
 The simplest formula of a substance is called the empirical formula. It shows the simplest ratio in
which the atoms combine to make the substance. For example, the empirical formula of carbon
dioxide is CO2. This tells us that: 1 carbon atom combines with 2 oxygen atoms, 1 mole of carbon
atoms combines with 2 moles of oxygen atoms, 12 g carbon reacts with 32 g of oxygen, 24 g carbon
reacts with 64 g of oxygen.
1) Symbols for elements
2) Mass formula
3) Mr of elements
4) Moles = mass/mr
5) Find the simplest ratio by dividing all the molar values with the smallest value
 Empirical results tell us that 0.46 g of sodium reacts completely with 0.16 g of oxygen to
produce 0.62 g of sodium oxide. What is the empirical formula of sodium oxide?
Symbols: Na O
Mass: 0.46 0.16
Mr: 23 16
Moles: 0.46/23 0.16/16
=0.02 =0.01
S.R: 0.02/0.01 0.01/0.01
=2 =1
Formula: Na2O
 2.84 g of an oxide of phosphorus are formed when 1.24 g phosphorus reacts with excess oxygen.
Find its simplest formula
Mass of phosphorus= 1.24 g
Mass of oxide of phosphorus= 2.84 g
Mass of oxygen= 2.84 – 1.24 = 1.60 g
Symbols: O P
Mass: 1.60 1.24
Mr: 16 31
Moles: 1.60/16 1.24/31
=0.1 =0.04
S.R: 0.1/0.04 0.04/0.04
=(2.5)2 =(1)2
=5 =2
Formula: P2O5

Molecular formula:
 Molecular formula = (EF)n
Where n = given molar mass/mr of Empirical formula

Limiting reactant:
 Write down the equation for the given reaction
From the equation find the limiting reactant
Use the limiting reactant to calculate the required values of the problem.

Economics of the chemical and pharmaceutical industry:

 Salt preparation methods:
1) Acid + metal  salt + H2
- Don’t react metals from K till Ca as the reaction is violent
- Al does not react with dilute acids as it has a non-porous unreactive layer of Al2O3 on its surface.
- Pb doesn’t seem to react with H2SO4 and HCl due to formation of insoluble salt layer on the surface
of the metal.
- Metals below hydrogen don’t react with acids
- However copper reacts only with concentrated HNO3
2) Acid + metal oxide  salt + H2O
- Ca(NO3)2 = HNO3 + CaO  Ca(NO3)2 + H2O
- ZnCl2 = HCl + ZnO  ZnCl2 + H2O
3) Acid + metal hydroxide/ alkalis  salt + H2O
- All group 1 metal hydroxides and group 2 Ca and below + aqueous ammonia are alkalis
- LiCl2 = HCl + LiOH  LiCl + H2
4) Acid + metal carbonate  salt + H2O + CO2
- CaCl2 = HCl + CaCO3  CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

Rule for balancing combustion equation:

 The number with carbon goes as a whole number with C in CO2
 Half of hydrogen gas goes the hydrocarbon goes with H2O
 Some of oxygen in the product will go as a whole number with O2 in the reactant
 If the =value is a decimal value multiply the whole equation with two
 2C4H10(g)+13O2 8CO22(g)+10H2O(g)
 2C8H18 + 25O2  16CO2 + 18H2O
 C17H36 + 26O2 → 17CO2 + 18H2O

Criterion B and C
- research question:
To what extent does altitude effect the boiling temperature of water
- hypothesis:
 As the altitude increases, the temperature of boiling decreases,
 Altitude is inversely proportional to temperature
 As we will double the altitude, the temperature will get halfened
- Independent: altitude
- Dependant: temperature of boiling
- control: the temperature of water before the experiment
- equipment:
 a barometer
 thermometer
 beaker
 water
 tripod stand
 bunsen burner
- procedure and data:
 Consider 10 different altitudes
 on the first altitude, pour water in the beaker that is at room temperature
 Place the beaker on the tripod stand and place a bunsen burner underneath it
 Wait until the water boils and record the temperature
 Repeat this method at different altitudes
 the data that will be collected will be altitude and temperature and each temperature will be for a
different altitude
 to ensure the safety of the method, wear gloves, hair should be tied, keeping away from the heat

 Independent variable: type of medication

 Dependent variable: time taken for the volume of gas to be collected
 Control variables: amount of HCl, size of beakers, amount of medication
 Apparatus:
- 4, 50 cm3 beakers
- Medications: Gaviscon tablets, tums powder, hai piao xiao, wa leng zi
- Balance
- 250 cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 of HCl
- Stop watch
- Gas syringe
- Four petri dishes
 Method:
- Take each of the type of medication and measure out the same mass of each using a balance
- After measuring out the equal masses of each type of medication, place them in separate petri dishes
- Take a 50 cm3 beaker and wash it with distilled water
- Pour 25cm3 of HCl in the beaker
- Take the first medication of Gaviscon tablets from the petri dish and put it inside the beaker
- As soon as you put the tablets inside, start the stop watch and wait for the gas to be collected in the
syringe
- As the reaction ends, stop the watch
- Measure the volume of gas collected in the syringe
- Record the time taken for the gas to be collected and its volume
- Repeat the steps for each of the medication including the tums powder, hai piao xiao and wa leng zi.
 Safety precautions:
- Wear gloves while pouring HCl
- Tie your hair
- Wear goggles to protect the eyes
- Wear a lab coat
 After performing the experiment, record the data in a table showing the type of medication, the
volume of gas produced and the time taken for it to be produced. Through the table with the
organized data, we will be able to see which medication took what time to product the gas. The
medication that took the least amount of time would be the most efficient remedy of heart burn and
will neutralize the acid the most quickly.

 Develop a hypothesis based on your knowledge of the electrochemical series

The more reactive metals from the reactivity series will react faster with the solutions compared to the
less reactive metals. The more reactive metals will be
 Design a scientific experiment to test your hypothesis. The method should include:
Independent variable: type of solution
dependant: reactivity of metal
control variables: concentration of solutions, amount of metal, the volume of solution, size of test tube
Apparatus:
- 4 test tubes
- Solutions copper(II) nitrate, zinc (II) nitrate, lead (II) nitrate and magnesium sulfate each of 0.5 mol
dm-3
- Metal strips of copper, lead, zinc and magnesium
- Distilled water
Process:
- Take four testubes and rinse them with distilled water
- Take the following metal strips of copper, lead, zinc and magnesium
- Take four solutions of copper(II) nitrate, zinc (II) nitrate, lead (II) nitrate and magnesium sulfate each
of 0.5 mol dm-3
- Fill each of the test tubes first with the first solution of copper (II) nitrate and drop in each of the
metal strips inside.
- After a while, observe the reactions and record them
- Wash the tubes with distilled water and add the next solution.
- Repeat the experiment by adding the metal strips and recording the reactions for each of the solutions
- To increase the reliability, repeat each trial twice
- Make a table by writing the type of solution in the first column and the reaction of each metal with
that solution in the second column.
- Make a final conclusion on the reactivity of different metals are during redox reactions
Precautions:
Wear gloves while pouring solutions
Tie your hair
Wear goggles for the protection of eyes from the solutions
independent: reactivity of metal
dependant: initial rate of production of hydrogen gas
control variables: surface area of metals, concentration of HCl, volume of HCl, size of gas syringe,
measure of flask
Method:
- First take a flask and wash it with distilled water
- Take a clamp stand with a gas syringe
- Add 1 mol dm-3 of Hcl in the 250 cm3 flask
- Add the first piece of metal which is copper
- Close the flask with rubber bung attached to the syringe through a glass tube and start the stop watch
- After H2 gas will be collected in the syringe, stop the stop watch
- Record your results of time and volume of gas produced
- Repeat the experiment for each metal piece and record the time and the volume of gas produced for
each
- Make a table, with the first column showing the time and the second showing the volume of H2 gas
produced
Precautions:
Wear gloves while pouring acid
Tie your hair while doing the experiment
Wear goggles and. a lab coat

Satellites are a new a very innovative way to send signals and can be effectively for communication
however they also have many advantages and disadvantages linked with them

Advantages of satellites:
Firstly, Satellite links give coverage at any location on earth. A single satellite in the can cover distances
as large as whole oceans or continents. This wide area coverage makes internet access quick and easy
despite all kinds of geographical obstacles. Secondly, compared to other network services, there is
much less opportunity for network outages. A complete satellite network can work independently of
terrestrial infrastructure and maintain connectivity as long as the equipment is powered. Thirdly, we are
able to access internet services from everywhere, including the most remote places where the service
will not otherwise be available. This can be useful in case of any emergencies or disasters that would
occur. Lastly, they are ec-friendly, since they do not require the construction of any towers or
underground cables so this would barely have any impact on the landscape and environment.

Disadvantages:
Even though satellites are a fast way to communicate, they also have many disadvantages. Firstly,
weather affects the signal path of the satellite internet. In the case of rain, storms, and strong wind, the
signal could be worse and there are chances of the internet not being there. Secondly, satellite internet can
be very expensive and costly than a normal cable internet. Its installation, maintenance and construction
costs are high which is why not everyone can easily get access to it. Also, minor obstacles can block
satellite internet signals. So, systems in tropical areas need to be checked for trees growing into the path.
Some signals may get temporarily blocked by wind blowing trees into the path.

While satellites seem to be a reasonable way to achieve internet access where there isn’t any, they have
greater speed and accessibility however, they cannot be used by everyone since they are quite expensive.
However, this may change with efforts eventually providing internet access to every person spread in
every corner of the earth.