Research Methods

Dr. Tahira Jatt

Introduction to Research
Dr. Tahira Jatt
 Definitions of Research
 The main goal of research is the gathering and interpreting
of information to answer questions
 Research is a systematic attempt to provide answers to
questions
 Research may be defined as the systematic and objective
analysis and recording of controlled observations that may
lead to the development of generalizations, principles, or
theories, resulting in prediction and possible control of
events
 Research is a systematic way of asking questions, a
systematic method of inquiry

Hyllegard, Mood, and Morrow, (1996).

Tuckman, (1999).
Best and Kahn, (1998).
Drew, Hardman, and Hart, (1996).
 Research
(Re = again, search = to find, explore)

●“Gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement

of knowledge”- Martyn Shuttleworth

●"Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze

information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue”. –
Creswell

●The systematic method of identifying problem, formulating a

hypothesis, collecting the facts of data, analyzing the data and
reaching certain conclusions towards the concerned problem
(Modern definition)
 Why People do Research?

● The motivation behind research may

have following reasons-
● Interested to face the challenge
in solving the unsolved problems.
● To get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
● Desire to serve the society.
● Curiosity about new phenomenon or thing.
● Concerned about social thinking.
● Desire to get a research degree
along with its
consequential benefits etc.
 Scope of Research

● Background investigation on all past work.

● Make meaningful addition to world knowledge.

● Expect new innovation and findings.

6
Quantitative research involves collecting and analyzing numerical
data.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-

numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts,
opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights
into a problem or generate new ideas for research.
 Research Types..contd

● Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual Research is related

with some idea or theory based on philosophy or thinking to
develop new concepts or reinterpret the existing on .
In Empirical Research based on experience and observation alone
without due regard for system and theory.

● Some Other Types of Research:

● One Time Research vs. longitudinal research.
● Field Setting vs. Laboratory Research (Simulation
Research is Laboratory Research)
● Conclusion Oriented or Decision oriented.
 Issues...

 Why are we interested in research?

 What is research?
 Key concepts and issues
 Introduction to validity
Why must we understand research?

 help make informed decisions

 need to produce research in career
 evaluating research in the media
 assist in classes

 Research Methods (Methodology)…

 the ways one collects and analyzes data
 methods developed for acquiring trustworthy
knowledge via reliable and valid procedures
 Why is research a valued source of
knowledge?

 Common ways of knowing…

 personal experience/intuition
 experts/traditions/authority
 scientific method
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?

 Science…
 a body of established knowledge
 the observation, identification, investigation, and
theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon
usually the ultimate goal is theory
generation and verification
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?

 Theory…
 a set of inter-related constructs and propositions that
specify relations among variables to explain and predict
phenomena
 should be simple, consistent with observed
relationships, tentative and verifiable
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?

 Scientific Method…
 involves the principles and processes regarded as
characteristic of or necessary for scientific investigation
 process or approach to generating valid and
trustworthy knowledge
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?

 Research…
 the application of the scientific method
 a systematic process of collecting and logically analyzing
information (data)
 Research Methods (Methodology)…
 the ways one collects and analyzes data
 methods developed for acquiring trustworthy
knowledge via reliable and valid procedures
 Characteristics of Research

 objective
 precise
 verifiable
 Parsimonious (economical)
 Empirical (experiment and experience)
 logical
 Probabilistic (the likelihood of an event or outcome occurring based on
the occurrence of previous events or outcomes)
 Types of Research

 Trochim’s Classifications…
 descriptive
 e.g., percentage of regular exercisers
 relational
 e.g., link between age and exercise
 causal
 e.g., effect of behavior change intervention on exercise
participation
 Types of Research

 Other Common Classifications…

 basic vs. applied vs. evaluation
 experimental vs. non-experimental
 analytical vs. descriptive vs. experimental vs. qualitative
Development of Research Skills

 Learning how to conduct good research:

 New skills (that many people do not have)
 Better understanding and interpretation of the
literature
 Recognize new questions that need investigation
 Objectivity is the key element of research
 The Scientific Method

 Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.

 Identifying the problem
 Formulating a hypothesis
 Developing the research plan
 Collecting and analyzing the data
 Interpreting results and forming conclusions

 Example…
 Identifying the Problem

 First, and arguably the most important, step

 Several sources
 Theoretical basis
 Professional practice
 Personal experience
 Shear curiosity
 Starts as a broad question that must be narrowed
 Problem statement; experimental approach to the problem;
etc.
 Identifying the Problem

 Three categories when selecting a research

problem
 Those who know precisely what they want to do and
have a well conceived problem
 Those who have many interest areas and are having
difficulty deciding exactly what they want to study
 Those who do not have any idea about a worthwhile
research problem
Philosophy of Graduate Education

 MENTORSHIP!
 Work with a professor/researcher that has established a
research agenda
 Formulating a Hypothesis

 Hypothesis:
 A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of the
research
 A concrete, specific statement about the relationships
between phenomena
 Based on deductive reasoning
 2 types of hypotheses:
 Null hypothesis (HO)
 All is equal; no differences exist
 Alternative (research) hypothesis (HA)
 Usually specific and opposite to the null
Developing the Research Plan

 A strategy must be developed for gathering and

analyzing the information that is required to test the
hypotheses or answer the research question
 Four parts:
 Selection of a relevant research methodology
 Identification of subjects or participants
 Description of the data-gathering procedures
 Specification of the data analysis techniques
 Pilot studies, IRB,…all must be determined in advance!
 Interpreting Results and Forming
Conclusions

 DATA ANALYSIS IS NOT AN END IN ITSELF!

 Does the evidence support or refute the original
hypotheses?
 Accept or reject the hypotheses
 Conclusions should be drawn:
 Develop new hypotheses to explain the results
 Inferences are typically made beyond the specific study
 PMC Preliminary Study
Identification
Appraisal
Planning

Feed Back

Implementation
Evaluation

Monitoring
 How is a Project Managed?
 Planning
 Project design Matrix Summary Plan
Why
 Evaluation What
 Implementation How

Project design matrix:

is tool for managing
the entire cycle of a
project by means of a
framework termed “
project desigine )
Matrix (PMD
How to do the problem analysis

 IdentifyCore Problem
 Write Direct cause of the core problem
 Write the Secondary cause for each direct cause
 Repeat these procedure
 Write Direct effect of the Core Problems
 Confirm the Scope of the Core Problem is
appropriate, and draw lines to connect each other by
making a complete flow chart
 PMD
Narrative Objectively Means of Important
summary Verifiable Verification assumptions
indicators
Overall Goal How far from goal documentation Circumstances or
conditions
Project purpose Information,
source, survey
reports
Outputs Inputs
Activities Human resources Pre - Conditions
Facilities
Funds
Lab equipment
chemicals

Participation, Consistency, Workshops

 Problem Analysis
 Problem Analysis is to sort out existing problem with logic
of

[Cause & Effect]

Why? I arrive at office late Effect

Because I leave my home late cause

 Objective: To clarify the present situation logically

 Write your own idea

 Write specifically in sentence

 Abstraction/ Generalization
 Discussion
 Reach consensus
 Pick up any related organization/ group to
your own organization and your work

 Fill in the following information

Objectives Shah Abdul Latif University Khairpur

Basic Information
Major activities
How related to your
organization

Issues/ Problems

Strong points
 Pick up any related organization/ group to
your own organization and your work

 Fill in the following information

Basic Information
Major activities
How related to your
organization

Issues/ Problems

Strong points
 Detailed Analysis
 Identify a problem
 Target for the analysis: Village woman

Basic Information Weakness/ issues Strength

200/ Villages Lots of death of Cooperative work style
pregnant woman

There is health post in Lack of nutrition

the village

Literacy rate is 30% Lack of safe water

 What is Objective Analysis

 To identify the desirable situation that the problem is

solved, and
 To find out means to achieve the situation with logic
of [ means] and [end]
 How to Write your Project

 Write about the problem

 Project Detail
 Where to conduct
 Current status of that problem
 Institutes may be involved
 Significance of the proposed research study
 Methodology, equipment, chemicals required
 Quotations
 Comparative statements of Quotations
 Budget
The scientific method
Hypothesis

Observations Theory Predictions

Hypothesis
confirmation

Hypothesis
rejection
New Questions Arise

Question Identified

Results Interpreted Hypotheses Formed

Data Collected Research Plan

Closed-loop conceptualization of the research process (Drew, Hardman,

and Hart, 1996)
 Search for Truth

 Five sources of evidence in the pursuit of truth:

1. Custom and tradition
2. Authority
3. Personal experience
4. Deductive reasoning
5. Scientific inquiry
 Deductive Reasoning

 Logic.
 In deductive reasoning, thinking proceeds from general
assumption to specific application
 GENERAL → SPECIFIC
 Aristotle and other early philosophers
 Drawing conclusions through categorical syllogism.
 All philosophers are moral. Socrates is a philosopher. Therefore,
Socrates is moral.
 Resistance training makes one big and bulky by increasing body mass.
Sandi is resistance training. Therefore, Sandi will become big and
bulky.
 Not sufficient as a source of new truth
 Inductive Reasoning

 Conclusions about events (general) are based on

information generated through many individual and
direct observations (specific).
 SPECIFIC → GENERAL
 Researchers observe an individual or group of
individuals from a larger population → based on these
observations, generalizations are made back to the
larger population.
 Inductive Reasoning

 Two kinds of induction:

 Perfect
 Conclusions based on observations made from ALL
members of a group or population
 Imperfect
 Conclusions based on observations made from a random
sample of members of a population
Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

 Deductive:
 Every mammal has lungs. All rabbits are mammals.
Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
 Inductive:
 Every rabbit that has been observed has lungs.
Therefore, every rabbit has lungs.
Research Process
 Research Process
(1) Formulating the research problem

(2) literature survey

(3) Developing the hypothesis

(4) Preparing the research design

(5) Determining sample design

(6) Collecting the data

(7) Execution of the project

(8) Analysis of data

(9) Hypothesis testing

(10) Generalizations and interpretation

(11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results

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 Research problem/Research gap

• The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be

examined.

• Research Problem refers to some difficulty in the context of

either theoretical or practical situation and researcher wants to

obtain a solution for the same.

How do we know we have a research problem?

• Customer/patients complaints
• Conversation with company/employees
• Observation of inappropriate behavior
• Deviation from the aim
• Success of the competitor’s
• Relevant reading of published material
• records and reports.
• Outbreaks
• Increase in prevalence of disease

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Collecting and Analyzing the Data

 Following all the pre-determined protocols

 Time in the lab collecting data
 Analyzing the composite data
 Controlling the environment
 Easiest part of the process…
 However, sometime the most time-consuming part of
the process…
Sampling & Variables
Population: A collection, or
set, of individuals or objects or
events whose properties are
to be analyzed.
kinds : finite or infinite.
Sample: A subset of the
population. group that you
will collect data from
Variable: A characteristic
about each individual element
of a population or sample.
Example: MS is interested in learning about the
average age of Nurses Identify the basic terms in
this situation.
The population is the age of all nurses at the
hospital.
A sample is any subset of that population. For
example, we might select 10 nurses and determine
their age.
The variable is the “age” of each Nurse.
Variables and Types
Variable: A characteristic about each individual
element of a population or sample.
Qualitative, or Attribute, or Categorical, Variable:
A variable that categorizes or describes an element
of a population (Nominal, Ordinal).
Quantitative, or Numerical, Variable: A variable
that quantifies an element of a population.
Dependent Variables: That depend upon other
independent variable. E.g. Height, Glucose level
Independent Variables: Which are not affected by
change in factor Eg. Age, Time
Qualitative and quantitative variables may be further
subdivided:

Nominal
Qualitative
Ordinal
Variable
Discrete
Quantitative
Continuous
Nominal Variable: A qualitative variable that categorizes
(or describes, or names) an element of a population.

Ordinal Variable: A qualitative variable that incorporates

an ordered position, or ranking.

Discrete Variable: A quantitative variable that can assume

a countable number of values. Intuitively, a discrete
variable can assume values corresponding to isolated
points along a line interval. That is, there is a gap between
any two values.

Continuous Variable: A quantitative variable that can

assume an uncountable number of values. Intuitively, a
continuous variable can assume any value along a line
interval, including every possible value between any two
values.
Polulation & Sample
Sampling and Types
sampling is the selection of a subset of individuals from
within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of
the whole population.
Probability Sampling

.
Non Probabilty Sampling
Probability Sampling
Random Samples: A sample selected in such a way that every
element in the population has a equal probability of being chosen

Systematic Sample: A sample in which every kth item of the

sampling frame is selected, starting from the first element which
is randomly selected from the first k elements.
Stratified Sample: A sample obtained by stratifying the sampling
frame and then selecting a fixed number of items from each of
the strata by means of a simple random sampling technique.
Cluster Sample: A sample obtained by stratifying the sampling
frame and then selecting some or all of the items from some of,
but not all, the strata.
 Time in Research

cross-sectional vs. longitudinal

repeated measures time series

 Variables

 variable…
 any observation that can take on different values
 attribute…
 a specific value on a variable
 Examples
Variable Attribute

age
 Examples
Variable Attribute

age 18, 19, 20, etc...

 Examples
Variable Attribute

Gender or sex
 Examples
Variable Attribute

Gender or sex Male, female

 Examples
Variable Attribute

satisfaction
 Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction 1 = very satisfied

2 = satisfied

3= somewhat satisfied

4 = not satisfied

5 = not satisfied at all

 Types of Variables

 independent variable (IV)…

 what you (or nature) manipulates in some way
 dependent variable (DV)…
 what you presume to be influenced by the IV
 Examples
IV DV
health status

attitude
exercise
participation
social support

intervention
The purpose of the study was
to…

 test whether the “Fair Play for Sport” curriculum is

effective in promoting moral development in youth
 examine the relationship between age and VO2max.
 test whether there are gender differences the value
placed on sport participation
 determine whether students’ perceptions of the
amount of positive, negative, and informational
feedback provided by their teachers is predictive of their
self-esteem and level of achievement
IV, DV?
 Types of Relationships

 correlational vs. causal relationships

one variable causes the other
variables perform in a variable
synchronized manner

correlation does not imply causation!

(it’s necessary but not sufficient)
 Types of Relationships

 patterns of relationships…
 no relationship
 positive relationship
 negative relationship
 curvilinear relationship
 + +

fitness
fitness

- -
vocabulary
- resting HR + - +
+ +
exercise intensity

performance

- -
- HR + - arousal +
 Hypotheses

 hypothesis…
 a specific statement of prediction
 types of hypotheses
 alternative vs. null
 one-tailed vs. two-tailed
 Hypotheses

In an ideal
world…
Theories

Laws
 Hypotheses

 alternative hypothesis (HA)…

 An effect (that you predict)
 null hypothesis (HO) …
 Null effect
 Hypotheses
hypothesis there is a relationship between age
and exercise participation

HA there is a relationship

HO there is not a relationship

this is a two-tailed hypothesis as no

direction is predicted
 Hypotheses
hypothesis an incentive program will increase
exercise participation

HA participation will increase

HO participation will not increase or

will decrease

this is a one-tailed hypothesis as a

specific direction is predicted
 Theory vs. Hypothesis
 Hypothesis
 A belief or prediction of the eventual outcome of the
research
 A concrete, specific statement about the relationships
between phenomena
 Based on deductive reasoning
 Theory
 A belief or assumption about how things relate to each
other
 A theory establishes a cause-and-effect relationship
between variables with a purpose of explaining and
predicting phenomena
 Based on inductive reasoning
 Empiricism

 Acquiring information and facts through the

observation of our world
 Pragmatic observations
 Developing theory through experience and observation
 Non-scientific
 Quick and practical solution to a problem
 With little interest in explaining when, how, or why
 Example: Anabolic steroid use (abuse)…
 Research Classifications

 System #1:
 Basic research
 Applied research
 System #2:
 Quantitative research
 Qualitative research
 System #3:
 Experimental research
 Nonexperimental research
 Basic vs. Applied Research

 Basic  Applied
 Pure, fundamental  Central purpose to solve
research an immediate problem
 Discovery of new  Improved products or
processes
knowledge; theoretical in
nature  Infers beyond the group
or situation studied
 Takes many years for the  Interpretation of results
results of basic research relies upon Basic research
to find some practical
utility
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative

 Quantitative  Qualitative
 Numerical, measurable data  Generally non-numerical
 Traditional or positivist data
approach
 Typically anthropological
 Clearly stated questions
and sociological research
 Rational hypotheses
methods
 Developed research
procedures  Observations of a “natural”
 Extraneous variable controls setting
 Large samples  In-depth descriptions of
 Traditional, statistical situations
analyses
 Interpretive and descriptive
 Experimental vs.
Nonexperimental

 Experimental  Nonexperimental
 IVs and DVs 1. Causal-comparative
 Cause-and-effect 2. Descriptive
 Extraneous variable 3. Correlational
controls
 3 fundamental 4. Historical
characteristics
1. At least 1 active IV
2. Extraneous var
controls
3. Observation of the
DV response to the IV
Steps to Experimental Research

1. Identifying the research question or

problem area
2. Initial review of literature
3. Distilling the question to a specific research
problem
4. Continued review of literature
5. Formulation of hypotheses
6. Determining the basic research approach
7. Identifying the population and sample
Steps to Experimental Research

8. Designing data collection plan

9. Selecting or developing specific data
collection instruments or procedures
10. Choosing the method of data analysis
11. Implementing the research plan
12. Preparing the research report
 Types of Data

 quantitative vs. qualitative

 Types of Data

 Data (Sing: Datum) Collection of raw facts and figures.

 There are four basic types of data (scales of measurement):
1. Nominal data
2. Ordinal Data
3. Ratio Data
4. Metric Data
Numerical discrete

Numerical continuous
 Nominal Scale Data
 Nominal data:- Data that represent categories or
names.
 There is no implied order to the categories of nominal data.
 In these types of data, individuals are simply placed in the proper
category or group, and the number in each category is counted.
 Each item must fit into exactly one category
eg. Nominal scale data: survival status of
propanolol - treated and control patients with
myocardial infarction
Status 28 days after Propranolol-treated Control Some other examples of nominal data:
hospital admission patient Patients
Dead 7 17
Alive 38 29
Total 45 46 Eye color - brown, black, etc.
Christianity, Islam,
Survival rate 84% 63%
Religion - Hinduism, etc
Source: snow, effect of propranolol in MI ;The Sex - male, female
Lancet, 1965.
 Ordinal Scale Data

 Ordinal Data:- have order among the

response classifications (categories).
 The spaces or intervals between the categories are not
necessarily equal.
Example:
1. strongly agree
2. agree
3. no opinion
4. disagree
5. strongly disagree
 Ratio Data

 Ratio Data:- The data values in ratio data do have

meaningful ratios.
For example:
 Age is a ratio data;
 some one who is 40 is twice as old as someone who is
20.
 Numerical Discrete

 Numerical discrete data occur when the observations are

integers that correspond with a count of some sort.

Some common examples are:

 the number of bacteria colonies on a plate,
 the number of cells within a prescribed area upon microscopic
examination,
 the number of heart beats within a specified time interval,
 a mother’s history of number of births ( parity) and pregnancies
(gravidity),
 the number of episodes of illness a patient experiences during
some time period, etc.
 Numerical Continuous
 The scale with the greatest degree of quantification
is a numerical continuous scale.
 Each observation theoretically falls somewhere along
a continuum.
 One is not restricted, in principle, to particular values
such as the integers of the discrete scale.
 The restricting factor is the degree of accuracy of the
measuring instrument.
 Most clinical measurements, such as blood pressure,
serum cholesterol level, height, weight, age etc. are
on a numerical continuous scale.
 Research Fallacies

 fallacy…
 an error in reasoning (logic or premise)
 types of fallacies described by Trochim
 ecological
 exception
 Structure of Research
The "hourglass" notion of research
begin with broad questions
narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions
 Deduction and Induction

Deduction

Induction
 Ethics in Research

 balance between protecting participants vs. quest for

knowledge
 IRB provides one mechanism
 informed consent/assent
 confidentiality and anonymity
 justification of procedures
 right to services
 http://www.rsp.ilstu.edu/policy/IRB/IRB_policy.pdf
 Practice Questions

1. Is the study descriptive, relational, or causal?

2. Is the study cross-sectional or longitudinal?
3. What is (are) the IV (IVs)?
4. What is (are) the DV (DVs)?
5. What are the alternative and null hypotheses?
 Introduction to Validity

 validity…
 the best available approximation to the truth of a given
proposition, inference, or conclusion
 Introduction to Validity

 types of validity…
 conclusion
 internal
 construct
 external

types of validity are cumulative

 Introduction to Validity

 for each type of validity there are typical threats, and

ways to reduce them
 this provides our framework for critiquing the overall
validity (= worth) of studies
 Additional Information

 Describing Refereed Articles

 Sharing Research Findings with Clients
The Validity Questions Are
Cumulative...
 The Validity Questions Are
Cumulative...

Is there a relationship between

In this study the cause and effect?
 The Validity Questions Are
Cumulative...

In this study Is the relationship causal?

Is there a relationship between

Conclusion the cause and effect?
 The Validity Questions Are
Cumulative...

Can we generalize to
In theory the constructs?

Internal Is the relationship causal?

Is there a relationship between

Conclusion the cause and effect?
 The Validity Questions Are
Cumulative...

Can we generalize
In theory to other persons,
places, times?

Construc Can we generalize to

the constructs?
t
Internal Is the relationship causal?
Is there a relationship between
Conclusion the cause and effect?
 The Validity Questions are
cumulative...
Validity

Can we generalize
External to other persons,
places, times?
Can we generalize to
Construct the constructs?
Internal Is the relationship causal?

Is there a relationship between

Conclusion the cause and effect?
 Validity Questions are Cumulative
Validity

Can we generalize
External to other persons,
places, times?
Can we generalize to
Construct the constructs?
Internal Is the relationship causal?

Is there a relationship between

Conclusion the cause and effect?
 Types of Research Questions

 3 Types
 Descriptive questions
 Difference questions
 Relationship questions
 Descriptive Questions

 Purpose:
 To describe phenomena or characteristics of a particular
group of subjects being studied
 Survey research
 Qualitative research
Determinants of college students' health-promoting lifestyles.

Larouche R.

Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.

This descriptive study of 151 university students in SALU, BNB, was undertaken to
determine the relationships of their perceived health status, gender, grade point
average, and health and non health majors to their health-promoting lifestyles, using
the Health Promoting Lifestyle Profile (HPLP) II, based on Pender's model.
Students' perceived health status was significantly predictive of total HPLP II,
exercise, stress management, and spiritual growth. College women practiced
significantly better nutrition, interpersonal relationships, health responsibility, and
total HPLP II than men. The whole sample scored lower in stress management than
any previous group studied. Male students, those reporting poor health, and all
students are targeted for intervention and research in their deficient areas.
Guidelines for nursing practice are derived from the HPLP II questionnaire. These
clinically significant findings may guide nurse practitioners to intervene in the health
awareness and practices of college students.
ntroduction
The health promotion model was developed in 1982 by Dr. Nola J. Pender.
Pender believed that the goal of nursing care was to help patients achieve
optimal health and well-being. The model was created following Pender’s
work examining health promoting and preventative behaviours. The health
promotion model claims that each individual’s characteristics and life
experiences have a direct impact on their actions and decisions regarding
their health. Health is not defined solely as the absence of disease but the
state of well-being. Pender’s health promotion model has been revised
since its first creation and has had significant influence on the work of
other theorists.
What are the concepts of the health promotion model?
Pender’s health promotion model concentrates on three major categories: individual characteristics
and experiences, behaviour-specific cognitions and affect and lastly, the behavioural outcomes.

1. Individual Characteristics and Experiences

The first category explores the concept that each individual has his or her own set of characteristics
and experiences, which in turn help shape their actions. Pender emphasised that one’s past actions
have a direct link to whether they would partake in future health-promoting behaviours. Personal
attributes and habits can also be a barrier to health-promoting behaviours.

2. Behaviour-specific Cognitions
The second category involves the behaviour-specific cognitions and affect which have a direct impact
on the individual’s motivation for change. Nursing interventions can be tailored to these variables to
assist in forming positive changes. Variables include; the observed benefits and barriers to the action,
self-worth, and the activity-related result.

3. Behavioural Outcomes
The third category is the behavioural outcome. The start of the outcome begins with the person
committing to taking the steps necessary to make a change. During this phase the individual must be
supported with barriers addressed in order to produce a positive health-promoting behaviour. The
goal of the health promotion model is to stimulate a behavioural change that results in a positive
health outcome.
Weight management behaviors of African American female college students.

July F, Hawthorne D, Elliot J, Robinson W.

Department of Nursing, Fayetteville State University, USA.

The prevalence of overweight and obesity among African American women is a

problem of significance, and one, which demands investigation through scientific
research. The purpose of this study was to determine the weight management;
behaviors among African American female college students. A descriptive
correlational study was conducted to answer this question. The results revealed that
at least fifty percent (50%) of these students exhibited behavior that could lead to
obesity.
MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1996 Sep 6;45(35):760-5. Related Articles, Links

School-based HIV-prevention education--United States, 1994.

[No authors listed]

Many adolescents in the United States engage in behaviors that increase their risk for human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Because 95% of all
youth aged 5-17 years are enrolled in school, school health programs can be an efficient method to help
prevent these behaviors. Previous studies have examined selected characteristics of HIV education in the
United States; however, none provide a comprehensive assessment of HIV education policies and programs
nationwide. In 1994, CDC conducted the School Health Policies and Programs Study (SHPPS), which
assessed five components of the school health program: health education, physical education, health services,
food service, and health policies. To provide a comprehensive assessment of HIV-prevention education
programs nationwide in 1994, CDC analyzed data from the health education component of the study. This
report summarizes the findings, which indicate that although HIV-prevention education has been widely
implemented in U.S. schools, improvement in these programs is needed.
 Difference Questions

 Purpose:
 To make comparisons between or within groups.
 Is there a difference?
 Experimental research
 Treatment vs. control
 Pre- vs. post-test comparisons
 Nonexperimental research
 Compare one group to another based on existing
characteristics
J Appl Physiol. 2000 Sep;89(3):1179-88.

Reduced strength after passive stretch of the human plantarflexors.

Fowles JR, Sale DG, MacDougall JD.

Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8S 4K1.

The purpose of this study was to assess strength performance after an acute bout of maximally
tolerable passive stretch (PS(max)) in human subjects. Ten young adults (6 men and 4 women)
underwent 30 min of cyclical PS(max) (13 stretches of 135 s each over 33 min) and a similar control
period (Con) of no stretch of the ankle plantarflexors. Measures of isometric strength (maximal
voluntary contraction), with twitch interpolation and electromyography, and twitch characteristics
were assessed before (Pre), immediately after (Post), and at 5, 15, 30, 45, and 60 min after PS(max)
or Con. Compared with Pre, maximal voluntary contraction was decreased at Post (28%) and at 5
(21%), 15 (13%), 30 (12%), 45 (10%), and 60 (9%) min after PS(max) (P < 0.05). Motor unit
activation and electromyogram were significantly depressed after PS(max) but had recovered by 15
min. An additional testing trial confirmed that the torque-joint angle relation may have been
temporarily altered, but at Post only. These data indicate that prolonged stretching of a single muscle
decreases voluntary strength for up to 1 h after the stretch as a result of impaired activation and
contractile force in the early phase of deficit and by impaired contractile force throughout the entire
period of deficit.
 Relationship Questions

 Purpose
 To investigate the degree to which two or more
variables covary or are associated with each other
 Rather than analyzing the differences between groups,
researchers characterize the relationships among them.
 Extent to which variables are related
 Not to establish cause-and-effect
 Practice Questions

A. The purpose of the study was to examine the link

between age and physical fitness levels in terms of
muscular strength and endurance. It was
hypothesized that older and younger adults would
demonstrate significantly different fitness levels.
 Practice Questions

B. The purpose of the study was to determine whether

track athletes trained to use mental imagery
performed superior to athletes who did not receive
the mental imagery training. We expected those
athletes receiving the training would perform
significantly better than the untrained athletes.
 Practice Questions

C. The study examined the effects of an acute bout of

resistance training on participants’ mood and
cognitive functioning at 1, 6 and 12 hours post
exercise. It was expected that the positive effects on
mood and cognitive function would decline over time.
 Practice Questions

D. Participants at the 2009 Chicago Marathon were

polled to determine their satisfaction with the course.
The race officials hoped for positive reactions on the
part of the runners.
 Practice Questions

E. A researcher was interested in the role of caffeine in

sports performance. In cooperation with her
University’s baseball team, she randomly assigned
players to one of two conditions: (1) no caffeine or (2)
low dose (100mg). She then used performance on a
batting machine as a test. She speculated that
caffeine would positively affect performance.
Am J Epidemiol. 1988 May;127(5):933-41. Related Articles, Links

Relation of cardiovascular fitness and physical activity to cardiovascular

disease risk factors in children and adults.

Sallis JF, Patterson TL, Buono MJ, Nader PR.

Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla.

The associations of physical activity and cardiovascular fitness with cardiovascular disease risk factors were
studied in 88 male adults, 180 female adults, 148 male children, and 142 female children. Subjects were
families recruited from elementary schools in San Diego, California. Fitness (VO2 max) was measured by a
submaximal cycle ergometer test. Physical activity was assessed by seven-day recall interview, yielding caloric
expenditure, and by a simple self-rating of activity level. Risk factors included blood pressure, high density
lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, the ratio of high density lipoproteins to low density lipoproteins (LDL), and body
mass index. For all subgroups, fitness was strongly and significantly correlated with virtually all risk factors.
After adjustment for body mass index, most fitness-risk factor associations were no longer significant. Seven-
day caloric expenditure was significantly correlated with HDL/LDL only in female adults and children. The
activity rating was significantly correlated with body mass index in all subgroups and with HDL/LDL in female
adults and male adults. The simple activity rating tended to be correlated with fitness. The pattern of association
was similar for adults and children.
J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2003 Mar;43(1):21-7. Related Articles, Links

Effects of running, static stretching and practice jumps on explosive force production
and jumping performance.
Young WB, Behm DG.
School of Human Movement and Sport Sciences, University of Ballarat, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia. w.young@ballarat.edu.au

AIM: The interaction between running, stretching and practice jumps during warm-up for jumping tests has not
been investigated. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of running, static stretching of
the leg extensors and practice jumps on explosive force production and jumping performance. METHODS:
Sixteen volunteers (13 male and 3 female) participated in five different warm-ups in a randomised order prior
to the performance of two jumping tests. The warm-ups were control, 4 min run, static stretch, run + stretch,
and run + stretch + practice jumps. After a 2 min rest, a concentric jump and a drop jump were performed,
which yielded 6 variables expressing fast force production and jumping performance of the leg extensor
muscles (concentric jump height, peak force, rate of force developed, drop jump height, contact time and
height/time). RESULTS: Generally the stretching warm-up produced the lowest values and the run or run +
stretch + jumps warm-ups produced the highest values of explosive force production. There were no
significant differences (p<0.05) between the control and run + stretch warm-ups, whereas the run yielded
significantly better scores than the run + stretch warm-up for drop jump height (3.2%), concentric jump height
(3.4%) and peak concentric force (2.7%) and rate of force developed (15.4%). CONCLUSION: The results
indicated that submaximum running and practice jumps had a positive effect whereas static stretching had a
negative influence on explosive force and jumping performance. It was suggested that an alternative for static
stretching should be considered in warm-ups prior to power activities.
J Strength Cond Res. 2002 Aug;16(3):399-408.

Power output, mechanomyographic, and electromyographic responses to maximal,

concentric, isokinetic muscle actions in men and women.
Cramer JT, Housh TJ, Weir JP, Johnson GO, Ebersole KT, Perry SR, Bull AJ.
Department of Health and Human Performance, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln 68588, USA. jcramer@unlserve.unl.edu

The purpose of this study was to examine the responses of peak torque (PT), mean power output (MP),
mechanomyographic (MMG) and electromyographic (EMG) amplitudes, and mean power frequencies
(MPFs) of the vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF), and vastus medialis (VM) in men and women during
dynamic muscle actions. Twelve women (mean +/- SD age = 22 +/- 3 years) and 11 men (22 +/- 3 years)
performed maximal, concentric, isokinetic leg extensions at velocities of 60, 120, 180, 240, and 300 degrees
x s(-1) on a Cybex 6000 dynamometer. Piezoelectric MMG-recording sensors and bipolar surface EMG
electrodes were placed over the VL, RF, and VM muscles. No sex-related differences were found among the
velocity-related patterns for PT, MP, MMG amplitude, MMG MPF, or EMG MPF. There were, however, sex-
related differences in the patterns of EMG amplitude across velocity. The results indicated similar velocity-
related patterns of increase of MP and MMG amplitude for all 3 muscles and of EMG amplitude for the VL
and VM in the women. Velocity-related decreases (p <or = 0.05) were found for PT and EMG MPF for the
VL. EMG amplitude for all muscles in the men and for the RF in the women as well as EMG MPF for the RF
and VM remained unchanged (p > 0.05) across velocity. MMG MPF increased (p < or = 0.05) only between
240 and 300 degrees x s(-1). Overall, these findings suggested that there were sex- and muscle-specific,
velocity-related differences in the associations among motor unit activation strategies (EMG amplitude and
MPF) and the mechanical aspects of muscular activity (MMG amplitude and MPF). With additional
examination and validation, however, MMG may prove useful to practitioners for monitoring training-induced
changes in muscle power output.
 Questions
1. Write two new conclusion statements by
using deductive and inductive reasoning.
2. Identify the research problem.
3. Identify the research plan.
4. How did they collect the data?
 What equipment/methods/procedures did they
use?
5. How did they analyze the data?
6. Did they support or reject the original
research hypothesis? Why?
 Questions

7. What were the conclusions? Future studies?

8. Identify the purpose statement.
9. Identify the hypotheses.
 Additional Questions

1. Re-write the title using 5 – 8 words.

2. Re-write the title using 15 – 18 words.
3. Provide the delimitations for this study.
4. What are 2 examples of the limitations of this
study?
5. Does this study answer the questions of the
“Methods” section checklist?
 Assignment 1

 PART 1
 Sign up for the following two discussion groups:
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 Assignment 1
 PART 2
 Bring copies (for everyone, 7 total) of a full-text article
published recently on a topic of your interest that is related to
Kinesiology, Exercise Science, Athletic Training, etc.
 Provide a written summary (1-2 pages, double spaced, times
roman font) of your answers and answer the following
questions.
 You’ll be asked to give a brief oral presentation (5 – 7 min)
regarding your article and your answers to the following
questions:
1. What is the research problem?
2. What is the purpose statement?
3. What were the delimitations of this study?
4. What were some potential limitations of this study?
5. What were the initial hypotheses for this study?
6. Where the hypotheses rejected or accepted?
7. What was the overall conclusion of this paper?
8. If you were to replicate this study, describe how you would do it
at UTA.
Research Studies

136
 Descriptive Studies
Three essentials characteristics of disease that we look
for in descriptive studies are Time, Person and Place. ...
 1. Person 2. Place
❖ age, gender, ethnic group ▪ Agent/Vector
❖ genetic predisposition ▪ climate
❖ concurrent disease ▪ geology
▪ population density
❖ diet, physical activity, smoking
▪ economic
❖ risk taking behavior development
❖ education, occupation ▪ nutritional practices
• 3. Time ▪ medical practices
▪ calendar time
▪ time since an event
▪ physiologic cycles
▪ age (time since
137
birth)
▪ Seasonality
 Descriptive Studies (Disease Trends)
Four time trends
First/ The secular trend
It describes the occurrence of disease over a prolonged
period, usually years; it is influenced by the degree of
immunity, improved socioeconomic and nutritional
For example, the secular trend of tetanus in the United
States since 1920 shows a gradual and steady decline.

The second/ Periodic trend.

A temporary modification in the overall secular trend, the
periodic trend may indicate a change in the antigenic
characteristics of the disease agent.
For example, the change in antigenic structure of the
prevalent influenza A virus every 2 to 3 years results in
periodic increases
 The third/ seasonal trend.
This trend reflects seasonal changes in disease occurrence
following changes in environmental conditions that enhance
the ability of the agent to replicate or be transmitted.
For example, food-borne disease outbreaks occur more
frequently in the summer, and Respiratory infections like Flu
in Winter.
The fourth trend/epidemic occurrence
An epidemic is a sudden increase in occurrence due to
prevalent factors that support transmission.
 For Example . Covid-19
 Analytic Studies

I analyzes disease determinants for possible causal

relations.

The main analytic methods are

1. The case-control (or case-comparison) method
2. The Cohort method.
3. Cross Sectional Study/Method.
The case-control (case-comparison) method
❖ The case-control method starts with the effect (disease) and
retrospectively investigates the cause that led to the effect.
❖ The case group consists of individuals with the disease; a
comparison group has members similar to those of the case
group except for absence of the disease.
❖ These two groups are then compared to determine differences
that would explain the occurrence of the disease.
❖ The case-control approach is relatively easy to conduct, can
be completed in a shorter period
❖ An example of a case-control study is selecting individuals
with meningococcal meningitis and a comparison group
matched for age, sex, socioeconomic status, and residence, but
without the disease, to see what factors may have influenced
the occurrence in the group that developed disease
141
 The Cohort method.
❑ The cohort method, prospectively studies two populations:
one that has had contact with the suspected causal factor
under study and a similar group that has had no contact with
the factor.
❑ When both groups are observed, the effect of the factor
should become apparent.
❑cohort studies take longer and are more expensive to
conduct.
❑An example of a cohort approach is to observe two similar
groups of people, one composed of individuals who received
blood transfusions and the other of persons who did not.
The occurrence of hepatitis prospectively in both groups
permits one to make an association between blood
transfusions and hepatitis; 142
 Cross Sectional Study/Method

❑ cross-sectional study, in which a population is surveyed

over a limited period to determine the relationship
between a disease and variables present at the same time
that may influence its occurrence
❑ Eg. Smoking, Alcohol in heart Diseases

143
 Experimental Studies
 The third method is the experimental approach.
 A hypothesis is developed and an experimental model is
constructed in which one or more selected factors are
manipulated. The effect of the manipulation will either
confirm or disprove the hypothesis.
 An example is the evaluation of the effect of a new drug on
a disease. A group of people with the disease is identified,
and some members are randomly selected to receive the
drug. If the only difference between the two is use of the
drug, the clinical differences between the groups should
reflect the effectiveness of the drug.
 Strengths

SOWT Weakness
Oppurtunity

Threats

Dr. Tahira Jatt

146