RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY
What is Research?
• Research in common refers to a search for knowledge.
• In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.
• The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of
research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge.”
• Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
• Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to the
unknown.
• According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating
data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
• It is actually a voyage of discovery.
Research methodology
• Research methodology refers to the systematic plan or approach that
guides how research is conducted. It outlines the overall strategy for
gathering, analyzing, and interpreting data, and ensures that the
research is valid, reliable, and replicable.
• Why is Research Methodology Important?
• Ensures Accuracy: It provides a structured approach to ensure the
research findings are trustworthy and meaningful.
• Guides the Researcher: Helps researchers understand the best way to
approach their research question.
• Facilitates Replication: Other researchers can replicate the study if
the methodology is clearly defined, which supports scientific
progress.
Research methodology vs
Research method
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
• The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures.
• The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet.
• Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of
research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group(providing a detailed and truthful description of the subject being studied).
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables
MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
• The possible motives for doing research may be either one or
more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH- Descriptive vs.
Analytical
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
• The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening
• In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies.
• Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping,
preferences of people, or similar data.
• Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when
they cannot control the variables.
• The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all
kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
• In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
• Descriptive Research:
• Survey on Customer Satisfaction: A company conducts a survey to
gather data on how satisfied customers are with its products or
services. The research aims to describe customer satisfaction levels
without analyzing the reasons behind them.
• Analytical Research:
• Factors Influencing Customer Satisfaction: Following the descriptive
research on customer satisfaction, an analytical study examines which
factors (e.g., product quality, pricing, customer service) influence
satisfaction levels.
TYPES OF RESEARCH- Applied vs.
Fundamental(Basic)
Applied Research Fundamental Research
aims at finding a solution for an immediate mainly concerned with generalisations and with the
problem facing a society or an industrial/business formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for
organisation knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”

Goal-oriented and specific. Knowledge-driven and general

Often conducted in real-world settings. Often conducted in laboratories or controlled

environments.
Produces immediate, tangible results that can be May not have immediate applications but can lay the
implemented or used groundwork for future applied research.

Typically funded by businesses, governments, or . Often funded by academic institutions, research

industries that need specific solutions organizations, and government grants.

Example: Developing a vaccine for a disease, Example: Studying the properties of a new chemical element
creating a more efficient engine, or improving or understanding how memory works in the human brain.
user interface design for software
TYPES OF RESEARCH- Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
• Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of quantity.
• Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind.

Aspect Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Nature of Data Numerical, measurable Non-numerical, descriptive

Objective Test hypotheses, measure Explore ideas, understand
outcomes experiences

Surveys, experiments, statistical Interviews, focus groups,

Methods analyses thematic/content analysis

Sample Size Large, statistically significant Small, focused

Output Numerical results (e.g., Descriptive insights, themes

percentages, averages)
• Qualitative research
• Content Analysis of Social Media: A researcher analyzes comments
and discussions on social media platforms to understand the public's
perception of a political event. Instead of focusing on numerical data,
the study explores themes and patterns in the language used.
• Quantitative research
• Clinical Drug Trial: A pharmaceutical company conducts a clinical trial
to measure the effects of a new medication on blood pressure levels
in patients. The study uses numerical data like blood pressure
readings before and after treatment.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH- Conceptual vs.
Empirical:Conceptual Research
Aspect Empirical Research

Based on observation, experimentation, or

Definition Based on theories, ideas, and concepts
actual data

Develop or analyze theories, concepts, or Test hypotheses or theories through real-

Objective
frameworks world data

Nature of Data Theoretical, non-observable Observable, measurable

Literature review, existing theories, expert Experiments, surveys, case studies, real-world
Data Sources opinions observations
Development of new theories or enhancement Validation, testing, or refutation of
Outcome of existing ones hypotheses
Strengths Provides in-depth theoretical insights Provides practical, real-world evidence
Conducting an experiment to test the
Example Developing a new model for leadership styles effectiveness of a new drug
 Research Approaches
• There are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach.
• The quantitative approach involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to
rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified into
• Inferential(assumption)
• experimental
• simulation approaches to research.
• The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer characteristics or
relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied
(questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same
characteristics.
• Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research environment and in this case
some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
• Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant information
and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system)
under controlled conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences applications
refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given the values
of initial conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent the behaviour of the
process over time.” Simulation approach can also be useful in building models for understanding future
conditions.
inferential
• Objective:
To determine whether a new teaching method (active learning) improves math test scores among
high school students and to generalize the results to all high school students in the district.
• Method:
• Participants: 200 high school students from 10 different schools in a large school district are selected
randomly to participate in the study. Half of the students (100) are taught using the traditional
lecture-based method, and the other half (100) are taught using the new active learning method.
• Data Collection: After one semester, all 200 students take the same standardized math test. The test
scores from both groups (traditional vs. active learning) are recorded.
• Outcome:
• If the students taught using the active learning method have significantly higher test scores
compared to those taught with the traditional method, the researcher infers that this new method is
more effective.
• Based on the findings from the sample of 200 students, the researcher uses inferential reasoning to
generalize the results to the larger population of all high school students in the district. The
conclusion might be that, with a high probability, the active learning method will improve math
performance across the entire district if implemented.
experimental

• Study Topic: The Impact of Urban Green Spaces on Stress Levels

• Objective:
To test if spending time in urban green spaces reduces physiological stress levels.
• Method:
• Participants: 80 participants are randomly assigned to two groups:
• Group A: Spends 30 minutes in a city park.
• Group B: Spends 30 minutes in a busy urban street with no green spaces.
• Experimental Design: This is a quasi-experimental design with pre- and post-
intervention measurements of stress (e.g., heart rate, cortisol levels).
• Variables:
• Independent Variable: The environment (green space vs. urban area).
• Dependent Variable: Physiological measures of stress (heart rate, cortisol levels).
• Outcome:
If Group A (park group) shows significantly lower stress levels after 30 minutes compared
to Group B, the researcher concludes that urban green spaces help reduce stress.
Research Approaches- Qualitative
approach
• Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective
assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
• Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions.
• Such an approach to research generates results either in non-
quantitative form or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis.
• Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective
techniques and depth interviews are used.
 Significance of Research
• Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of
thinking and organisation.
• Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
• Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business
and industry.
• Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems.
• In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood keeping in
view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism or a
way to attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative work;
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories.
 Criteria of Good Research
• The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
• The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat the
research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained.
• The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
• The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon
the findings.
• The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used
should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
• Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to those for which the
data provide an adequate basis.
• Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a
person of integrity.
• In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
• 1. Good research is systematic:
• 2. Good research is logical
• 3. Good research is empirical:
• 4. Good research is replicable:
Research Process
• Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research and the
desired sequencing of these steps.
• various steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding the research
process are
(1) formulating the research problem;
(2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
(6) collecting the data;
(7) execution of the project;
(8) analysis of data;
(9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalisations and interpretation, and
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results
(1) formulating the research problem;
•Define the problem or question you aim to address.
•Choose a topic of interest and identify a specific issue or gap in knowledge that your research will address
(2) extensive literature survey;
•Review existing research to understand what has been done.
•Gather relevant sources, such as books, journal articles, and reports, to identify existing theories, findings, and
methodologies. This helps refine your research question.
3.developing the hypothesis:
•Develop specific questions or hypotheses based on the problem.
•These questions guide your investigation. Hypotheses are testable statements predicting the relationship between
variables.
4.preparing the research design;
•Plan how to collect and analyze data.
•Select a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods approach. Decide on methods like experiments, surveys,
interviews, or case studies.
5.determining sample design;
•Determine who or what will be included in the study.
• Specify the population you're studying and decide on a sampling method to select a representative group.
6.Collect Data:
•Gather the information needed to answer your research questions.
• Use techniques such as surveys, interviews, experiments, or observations to collect the
data. Ensure ethical considerations are followed.
(7) execution of the project;
8) analysis of data; Make sense of the data you've gathered.
• For qualitative data, use thematic analysis or content analysis. For quantitative data,
employ statistical methods to determine patterns or relationships.
(9) hypothesis testing;
10. Interpret Results
• Draw conclusions based on the data analysis.
• Determine whether your hypotheses were supported or if the data answers your
research questions. Discuss any patterns, relationships, or discrepancies.
11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results
• Share the results of the research
• Reflect on the limitations of the study and suggest areas for future research. Consider
any improvements for future research designs.
THINKING - DEFINITION
• Thinking is an activity concerning ideas, symbolic in character
initiated by a problem or task which the individual is facing, involving
some trial & error but under the directing influence of that problem &
ultimately leading to a conclusion or solution of the problem. –Warren

• Thinking is the organization & reorganization of current learning in

the present circumstances with the help of learning & past
experiences. -Vinacke (1968)
• Thinking is the perceptual relationship which provides for the solution
of the problem. –Maier
 TYPES OF THINKING
1. Perceptual or Concrete Thinking:
• This is the simplest form of thinking the basis of this type is perception, i.e. interpretation of sensation according to
one’s experience. It is also called concrete thinking as it is carried out on the perception of actual or concrete objects
and events.
2. Conceptual or Abstract Thinking:
• Here one makes use of concepts, the generalized objects and languages, it is regarded as being superior to perceptual
thinking as it economizes efforts in understanding and problem-solving.
3. Reflective Thinking:
• This type of thinking aims in solving complex problems, thus it requires reorganization of all the relevant
experiences to a situation or removing obstacles instead of relating with that experiences or ideas.
• This is an insightful cognitive approach in reflective thinking as the mental activity here does not involve the
mechanical trial and error type of efforts.
• In this type, thinking processes take all the relevant facts arranged in a logical order into an account in order to arrive
at a solution of the problem.
4. Creative Thinking:
• This type of thinking is associated with one’s ability to create or construct something new, novel or unusual. It looks
for new relationships and associations to describe and interpret the nature of things, events and situations. Here the
individual himself usually formulates the evidences and tools for its solution. For example; scientists, artists or
inventors.
5. Critical Thinking:
• It is a type of thinking that helps a person in stepping aside from his own personal beliefs, prejudices and
opinions to sort out the faiths and discover the truth, even at the expense of his basic belief system.
6. Non-directed or Associative Thinking:
• There are times when we find ourselves engaged in a unique type of thinking which is non-directed and
without goal. It is reflected through dreaming and other free-flowing uncontrolled activities. Psychologically
these forms of thought are termed as associative thinking.
• Here day-dreaming, fantasy and delusions all fall in the category of withdrawal behaviour that helps an
individual to escape from the demands of the real world by making his thinking face non-directed and
floating, placing him somewhere, ordering something unconnected with his environment.
examples
• Reflective thinking example:An athlete reviewing their performance after a
game or competition often engages in reflective thinking. They might analyze
their technique, decisions made during the event, and how their mental state
affected their performance. This self-assessment helps them focus on specific
areas for improvement in their training.
• Creative thinking:A tech company brainstorming ideas for a new smartphone
might encourage team members to think outside the box. They might explore
unconventional features, like integrating augmented reality for navigation or
using sustainable materials for the phone casing. This creative approach could
lead to innovative products that stand out in the market.
• Critical thinking:A scientist conducting an experiment might use critical thinking
to analyze data results. Instead of simply accepting the findings, they would
question the methodology, look for patterns, consider alternative explanations,
and ensure that the results can be replicated.
LEVELS OF THINKING
• Levels of thinking can be categorized to reflect the depth and
complexity of reasoning involved in conducting research
• There are six levels of thinking/learning within cognitive hierarchy of
behaviours;
• 1. Level1: Knowledge (remember)
• 2. Level 2: Comprehension (understand)
• 3. Level 3: Application
• 4. Level 4: Analysis
• 5. Level 5: Synthesis
• 6. Level 6: Evaluation
LEVEL1: KNOWLEDGE (Remembering)
• It involves recall of facts, principles & terms in the forms in which they are learned.
• Key words: who, what, when, omit, where, which, choose, find, how, define, label,
show, spell, list, match, name, relate, tell, recall, select.
• Eg; When did--happen?
• Which one--?
LEVEL 2: COMPREHENSION (Understanding)
• It represents the lowest form of understanding.
• The student knows what is being communicated without relating it to other material
or seeing it in its fullest meaning.
• It demonstrates understanding of facts & ideas by organizing, comparing, translating,
interpreting, giving descriptions & stating main ideas.
• Key words: Compare, contrast, demonstrate, interpret, explain, extend, illustrate,
infer, outline, relate, rephrase, translate, summarize, show, classify.
Eg; What facts or ideas show--?
Which is the best answer--?
LEVEL 3: APPLICATION
• Using knowledge in new situations.
• It is solving problems by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques & rules in a different
way.
• Key words: apply, build, choose, construct develop, interview, make use of, organize, experiment
with plan, select, solve, utilize, model, identify.
• Eg; What would result if----?
• Can you make use of the facts to--------?
LEVEL 4: ANALYSIS
• It is examining & breaking information into parts by identifying motives or causes; making
inferences & finding evidence to support generalization.
• Key words: analyse, categorize, compare, contrast, discover, dissect, divide, examine, inspect,
simplify, survey, take part in, test for, distinguish, list, distinction, theme, relationships, function,
motive, inferences, assumption, conclusion.
• Eg; What are key parts or features of--?
• What motive is there-----?
• What evidence can you find--?
LEVEL 5: SYNTHESIS (Creating)
• It is compiling information together in a different way by combining element in a new
pattern or proposing alternative solution.
• • Key words: build, choose, combine, compile, compose, construct, create, design,
develop, estimate, formulate, imagine, invent, makeup, originate, plan, predict, propose,
solve solution etc.
• Eg; Can you propose an alternative--------?
• Can formulate a theory for—?
LEVEL 6: EVALUATION
• It is presenting & defending opinion by making judgment about information, validity of
ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria.
• Key words: award, choose, conclude, criticize, decide, defend, determine, evaluate,
judge, justify, measure, compare, mark, rate, recommend, prioritize, prove, disprove etc.
• Eg; What is your opinion of--?
• Would it be better if--?
• How would you rate the---?
 Scientific thinking
Scientific thinking is a methodical approach to understanding the world through observation,
experimentation, and reasoning. It involves several key components:
1.Observation: Carefully observing phenomena and gathering data.
2.Questioning: Formulating questions based on observations to seek explanations.
3.Hypothesis Formation: Developing testable predictions or explanations for the observed
phenomena.
4.Experimentation: Designing and conducting experiments to test hypotheses, ensuring that
conditions are controlled and variables are managed.
5.Data Analysis: Evaluating and interpreting the data collected during experiments to determine
patterns or relationships.
6.Conclusion: Drawing conclusions based on data analysis, determining whether the hypothesis is
supported or refuted.
7.Communication: Sharing findings with the scientific community for review, replication, and
further exploration.
8.Critical Thinking: Assessing the credibility of sources, recognizing biases, and questioning
assumptions to arrive at well-supported conclusions.
Scientific thinking example
• A researcher suspects that a specific fertilizer improves plant growth.
• They formulate a hypothesis, design a controlled experiment with a
control group and an experimental group, measure growth over time,
and analyze the data statistically to determine if the fertilizer had a
significant effect.
 Common sense thinking
• Common sense thinking refers to a practical and intuitive approach to
understanding everyday situations and making decisions. It relies on basic
reasoning, personal experience, and widely accepted beliefs rather than
formal logic or scientific methods. Here are some key characteristics:
1.Intuition: Common sense often involves gut feelings or instinctual responses
based on past experiences.
2.Simplicity: It tends to favor straightforward solutions to problems, avoiding
complexity unless absolutely necessary.
3.Pragmatism: Focused on practical outcomes, common sense emphasizes what
works in real-life scenarios over theoretical considerations.
4.Social Norms: Common sense is influenced by cultural and societal norms,
reflecting shared beliefs and practices within a community.
5.Adaptability: Common sense can evolve with new experiences and contexts,
allowing for flexible thinking.
Common sense thinking-example
• Deciding whether to carry an umbrella based on the weather.
• If it looks cloudy and people are wearing raincoats, you might think,
"It’s probably going to rain," and take an umbrella without needing to
check a weather report.
Logical thinking
• Logical thinking is a cognitive process that involves reasoning in a structured and coherent way to
arrive at conclusions or make decisions. It relies on clear principles of logic and aims to ensure
that thoughts are organized and consistent. Here are the key components of logical thinking:
1. Clarity: Ensuring that thoughts and arguments are expressed clearly, without ambiguity.
2. Structure: Organizing ideas in a coherent sequence, often following a specific format (e.g.,
premises leading to a conclusion).
3. Consistency: Maintaining logical coherence, where conclusions follow from premises without
contradiction.
4. Inference: Drawing conclusions based on evidence or reasoning from established facts or
assumptions.
5. Problem-Solving: Applying logical reasoning to identify solutions to complex problems.
6. Critical Evaluation: Assessing the validity of arguments and the strength of evidence to support
conclusions.
 Logical thinking example
• Imagine you’re planning a road trip with friends, and you want to ensure a smooth journey. Here’s how you might apply logical
thinking:
1. Identify the Objective:
1. Goal: Reach a destination (e.g., a national park) safely and enjoyably.
2. Gather Information:
1. Data: Consider the distance to the destination, road conditions, weather forecasts, and travel restrictions.
3. Break Down the Problem:
1. Components: Determine the route, the number of stops needed for rest and food, and the estimated travel time.
4. Analyze Options:
1. Routes: Evaluate different routes based on factors like distance, traffic patterns, and scenic views. For example:
1. Route A: Shorter distance but heavy traffic.
2. Route B: Longer distance but more scenic and less traffic.
5. Make Inferences:
1. Based on traffic data, you conclude that Route B, while longer, will likely take less time overall due to fewer delays.
6. Consider Constraints:
1. Budget: Analyze fuel costs, food expenses, and lodging, ensuring they fit within the budget.
7. Plan:
1. Finalize the itinerary, selecting rest stops, dining options, and accommodation that align with your time and budget
constraints.
8. Evaluate Outcomes:
1. After the trip, reflect on the decisions made. Was the chosen route effective? Were the stops enjoyable? This reflection
can inform future trips.