Key Topics in A2 Psychology 367

The Behavioural Approach

A Description of the Behavioural Approach

The essence of the behavioural approach is the assumption that all behaviour is learned
and that when we are born we are like a blank slate, or tabula rasa. Experience and
interactions with the environment make us what we are. We become what we become as
a result of forming stimulus–response units of behaviour in reaction to the environment.
This perspective has been called environmental determinism because it suggests that
we are determined by the environments in which we exist.
The second assumption is that all behaviour can be explained in terms of
conditioning theory: stimulus and response (S–R) links that build up to produce
more complex behaviours. In essence, conditioning refers to changing behaviour
in the absence of conscious thought, as in saying “I am conditioned to behave in that
way”.
The third main assumption is that we need look no further than the behaviours we
can observe in order to understand and explain how humans and non-human animals
operate. This is why of course it is called “behaviourism”—because the focus is solely on
observable behaviour. There is no need to look at what goes on inside the “black box” of
the mind (e.g., perception, attention, language, memory, thinking and so on), it is sufficient
to be concerned only with external and observable behaviour.
A further assumption of the behavioural approach is that humans and non-human
animals are only quantitatively different, i.e., they differ in terms of having more or less
of something rather than differing qualitatively. This is supported by the theory of
evolution which suggests that all animals have evolved from a common ancestor and are
“built” from the same units (called stimulus–response units by the behaviourists). This
means that behaviourists can generalise from non-human animals (such as rats and
pigeons) to human behaviour. Much behaviourist research is conducted with non-human
animals.
It is important to recognise the contrasting perspectives within behaviourism:

• Methodological behaviourism: the view that that all perspectives use some
behaviourist concepts to explain behaviour. This is a mild view of behaviourism—
it is the view that the perspective is not a “stand-alone” approach but is part of all
explanations.
• Radical behaviourism: the view that all behaviour is learned. Skinner was a
radical behaviourist but most behaviourists nowadays would take a less radical
view.
• Neo-behaviourism: this is a newer development and an extension of
behaviourism. The best known example is social learning theory which was an
attempt by Albert Bandura to reformulate learning theory to include a role for
cognitive factors. The principle of social learning theory is that we learn through
indirect (vicarious) rewards (which requires some cognitive activity) as well as
through direct rewards.

Examples of the behavioural approach

Throughout your AS studies and in this A2 book there have been constant references to
behaviourist approaches, learning theory, and social learning theory. We will identify some
of the main examples here. At AS level we considered learning theory as an explanation
of attachment and also discussed behavioural models of abnormality. At A2, we further
considered behavioural explanations of mental disorder and behavioural methods of
treatment (see Chapters 7 and 8).
Learning theory was mentioned in Chapter 1, Relationships, when considering the
reinforcement theory of interpersonal attraction, and again in Chapter 2, Pro- and
368 Chapter 11 ✦ Perspectives: Approaches in Psychology

Anti-social Behaviour, as an explanation for aggression. Social learning theory is especially

carefully explained in Chapter 2.
Both learning theory and social learning theory are important in developmental
explanations (Chapters 4 and 5, Developmental Psychology) such as with respect to moral
development (Chapter 4, Cognitive Development) and gender development (Chapter 5,
Social and Personality Development).

An Evaluation of the Behavioural Approach

Behaviourism has had enormous influence through its emphasis on behaviour rather than
introspection, and its insistence on studying behaviour in controlled conditions. However,
the theory of behaviour put forward by the behaviourists has been rejected by most
psychologists.

Strengths
Classic learning theory has had a major influence on all branches of psychology. This is
described as methodological behaviourism. There is no doubt that conditioning, both
classical and operant, is a fundamental part of psychological explanations. The argument
arises over the extent to which such explanations can provide a full account. In the case
of non-human animals it may be correct to suggest that learning theory can account for
much of their behaviour because thinking clearly has a smaller, if not non-existent, role
to play. On the other hand, the behaviour of lower-order animals may arguably be due
even more to nature rather than nurture, i.e., can be explained in terms of the principles
of evolution.
A second strength of the behaviourist approach is the large number of successful
applications derived from this theory. For example behaviour therapy is clearly
successful for target mental disorders, such as phobias (see Chapter 8, Treating
Mental Disorders). Social skills training is also related to learning theory and may be
the only way to teach some individuals how to acquire certain skills, such as teaching
an autistic child some basic self-care. Learning theory has also been applied to
education. Skinner advocated programmed learning, a method of teaching whereby
the task is broken down into individual “frames” or very small steps. A correct
response acts as a reward. The system may be linear (a list of questions) or branching
(the programme can “respond” to a student’s needs by offering special help with a
question the student got wrong). This concept lends itself to computer-mediated
learning.
A third strength of the behavioural approach is that it lends itself to scientific research.
It focuses on observable and measurable behaviours, things that can be quantified and
controlled in an experimental setting. Broadbent (1961) argued that behaviourism is the
best method for rational advance in psychology.

Weaknesses
There are a raft of negative criticisms that are levelled at the behavioural approach. It is
a mechanistic (machine-like) approach which ignores consciousness, subjective
experience, and emotions. It is deterministic in so far as behaviour is seen as being
determined by the environment though this may be an exaggeration. Bandura (1977)
expressed this point very neatly: “If actions were determined solely by external
rewards and punishments, people would behave like weather vanes, constantly
shifting in radically different directions to conform to the whims of others.” Much of
our behaviour is relatively consistent, because it is under the control of various internal
goals. This criticism is not true of social learning theory which portrays the individual
as a more active participant in his/her experiences, using the concept of reciprocal
 Key Topics in A2 Psychology 369

determinism. Classic and operant conditioning, however, very much portray humans
as passive.
The behavioural approach is also reductionist, reducing complex behaviour to
stimulus–response links. However all these “weaknesses” (mechanistic, deterministic, and
reductionist) are also strengths because they enable behaviourism to be highly appropriate
for experimental research. Such reductionist and deterministic explanations may be
appropriate for some non-human animal behaviour.
The behaviourists de-emphasised the influence of internal factors such as
motivation and knowledge. The behaviourists also denied the role of innate factors, but
we should remember that the nativist approach is equally determinist and reductionist.
However there is clear evidence, for example in language acquisition, that such nativist
explanations are correct and this leads us to conclude that radical behaviourism must
be rejected.
Behaviourism also excludes the role of cognitive (mental) factors, except for social
learning theory, a neo-behaviourist perspective, which will be discussed later. Like the
nativist position, the role of cognitive factors has been supported by much research
evidence. For example, even non-human animals show evidence of cognition in their
problem-solving abilities.
The behaviourists assumed that conditioning principles apply in very similar ways
in different species. In so doing, they drastically underestimated the differences between
species. For example, the fact that humans possess language transforms our learning
ability. Rats who have learned to press a lever for food reward will keep pressing for a
long time after food has stopped being provided. In contrast, most people will stop
immediately if they are told that no more rewards will be given.
The behaviourists assumed that reward or reinforcement has a major impact on
learning. In fact, however, reinforcement typically has more effect on performance than
on learning. For example, suppose you were offered £1 every time you said, “The earth
is flat.” This might lead you to say it several hundred times. However, although the reward
would have influenced your performance or behaviour, it would not have affected your
knowledge or learning to the extent that you started to believe the earth was actually flat.
Many of the early behaviourist theories were very oversimplified. For example,
Watson argued that thinking is merely sub-vocal speech. This led the philosopher Herbert
Feigl to remark wittily that Watson “made up his windpipe that he had no mind”.
Watson’s position was disproved in a dangerous study (Smith et al., 1947). Smith was
given a drug that paralysed his entire musculature, and he had to be kept alive by a
respirator. He was unable to engage in sub-vocal speech or any other bodily movement,
and so, according to Watson’s argument, he should have been unable to observe what
was going on around him, to understand what people were saying, and to think about
these events while in the paralysed state. In fact, Smith reported that he was able to do
all of these things, indicating that thinking is possible in the absence of sub-vocal speech.
Finally, we should reflect on the fact that the use of behaviourist principles to control
others (as in some prisons and psychiatric institutions using reward and punishment) What other methods of
could be considered unethical. Two notable behaviourists, Watson and Skinner, wished investigation might be suitable for
to use their principles to produce a better society. the behavioural approach?

Answering the approaches question

Using the behavioural approach to explain a behaviour In the A level examination you will be required to explain a target
behaviour using any approach. The aim of this activity is to offer you,
“Lottery addict children
the candidate, the opportunity to express your true understanding of
Britain is producing a generation of child gamblers hooked on the the approach by your ability to use it in a novel situation.
Lottery and fruit machines. Disturbing new research by two eminent
academics shows that hundreds of thousands of children—some as How would you explain lottery addiction in terms of the behavioural
young as 11—are now addicted despite the supposed legal restrictions. approach? Any behavioural explanation should involve terms and
The findings will fuel warnings from lottery critics that the country is concepts such as reinforcement, reward, and punishment. You could
storing up social problems and is likely to trigger pressure for a uniform include social learning theory within your explanation and thus use
age limit of 18 on all gambling.” (Reproduced from AQA A specimen concepts such as observational learning and vicarious reinforcement. An
material.) astute candidate will increase the amount of appropriate material by

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