University Of Zakho

Faculty Of Science

Department Of Biology

Endangered species and

Human beings

Supervised by: dr. muhamad basher

Prepared by: Hoshmand Hersh Sabr

2021 – 2022
 Table of content
No. Title Page
1 Introduction 3
2 Loss of habitat 3_5
3 Loss of genetic variation 5_6
4 Advantages of the Endangered Species Act 7_8
5 Disadvantages of the Endangered Species 9_10
Act
6 Human beings and endangered species 11
7 Why We Protect Them ? 12
8 How to Help Endangered Species : 12
9 Reference 13

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INTRODUCTION
What is an "Endangered Species"?
An endangered species is an animal or plant that's considered at risk of
extinction. A species can be listed as endangered at the state, federal, and
international level. On the federal level, the endangered species list is
managed under the Endangered Species Act.
The Endangered Species Act (ESA) was enacted by Congress in 1973. Under
the ESA, the federal government has the responsibility to protect endangered
species (species that are likely to become extinct throughout all or a large
portion of their range), threatened species (species that are likely to become
endangered in the near future), and critical habitat (areas vital to the survival
of endangered or threatened species).
The Endangered Species Act has lists of protected plant and animal species
both nationally and worldwide. When a species is given ESA protection, it is
said to be a "listed" species. Many additional species are evaluated for
possible protection under the ESA, and they are called “candidate” species.

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Species become endangered for two main reasons:
1. loss of habitat.
2. loss of genetic variation.
1. loss of habitat :
A loss of habitat can happen naturally. Dinosaurs, for instance, lost their
habitat about 65 million years ago. The hot, dry climate of the Cretaceous
period changed very quickly, most likely because of an asteroid striking the
Earth. The impact of the asteroid forced debris into the atmosphere, reducing
the amount of heat and light that reached Earth’s surface. The dinosaurs were
unable to adapt to this new, cooler habitat. Dinosaurs became endangered,
then extinct.

Human activity can also contribute

to a loss of habitat. Development for housing, industry, and agriculture
reduces the habitat of native organisms. This can happen in a number of
different ways.

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Loss of habitat may happen as development takes place in a species range.
Many animals have a range of hundreds of square kilometers. The mountain
lion of North America, for instance, has a range of up to 1,000 square
kilometers (386 square miles). To successfully live and reproduce, a single
mountain lion patrols this much territory. Urban areas, such as Los Angeles,
California, and Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, grew rapidly during the
20th century. As these areas expanded into the wilderness, the mountain lion’s
habitat became smaller. That means the habitat can support fewer mountain
lions. Because enormous parts of the Sierra Nevada, Rocky, and Cascade
mountain ranges remain undeveloped, however, mountain lions are not
endangered.

Loss of habitat can also lead to increased encounters between wild species and
people. As development brings people deeper into a species range, they may
have more exposure to wild species. Poisonous plants and fungi may grow
closer to homes and schools. Wild animals are also spotted more frequently.
These animals are simply patrolling their range, but interaction with people
can be deadly. Polar bears, mountain lions, and alligators are all predators
brought into close contact with people as they lose their habitat to homes,
farms, and businesses. As people kill these wild animals, through pesticides,
accidents such as collisions with cars, or hunting, native species may become
endangered.

2. Loss of Genetic Variation

Genetic variation is the diversity found within a species. It’s why human
beings may have blond, red, brown, or black hair. Genetic variation allows
species to adapt to changes in the environment. Usually, the greater the
population of a species, the greater its genetic variation.
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Inbreeding is reproduction with close family members. Groups of species that
have a tendency to inbreed usually have little genetic variation, because no
new genetic information is introduced to the group. Disease is much more
common, and much more deadly, among inbred groups. Inbred species do not
have the genetic variation to develop resistance to the disease. For this reason,
fewer offspring of inbred groups survive to maturity.
Loss of genetic variation can occur naturally. Cheetahs are a threatened
species native to Africa and Asia. These big cats have very little genetic
variation. Biologists say that during the last ice age, cheetahs went through a
long period of inbreeding. As a result, there are very few genetic differences
between cheetahs. They cannot adapt to changes in the environment as
quickly as other animals, and fewer cheetahs survive to maturity. Cheetahs are
also much more difficult to breed in captivity than other big cats, such as
lions.

Human activity can also lead to a loss of genetic variation. Overhunting and
overfishing have reduced the populations of many animals. Reduced
population means there are fewer breeding pairs. A breeding pair is made up
of two mature members of the species that are not closely related and can
produce healthy offspring. With fewer breeding pairs, genetic variation
shrinks. Plant breeders often go back to wild varieties to collect genes that will
help cultivated plants resist pests and drought, and adapt to climate change.
However, climate change is also threatening wild varieties. That means

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domesticated plants may lose an important source of traits that help them
overcome new threats.

List of the Advantages of the Endangered Species Act

1. It works to help protect the environment.
The Endangered Species Act calls attention to specific environmental issues
that may be causing harm to a listed animal’s habitat. This process allows us
to call attention to the issues that are destroying that area for some reason. It
provides a mechanism where animals receive protection against the threat of
extinction while we can work toward better land management techniques
when a species is present in the area.
2. The law provides numerous educational opportunities.
One of the most significant influences this law has had on society is the
increase in the established levels of awareness for the various threatened plant
and animal species. Once we lose diversity in these areas, it is impossible to
reverse extinction. Education is our best weapon to stop this from happening.
This law forces people to be aware of the environment and help naturally
protect it. It has gone through several changes over the years so that it can
effectively protect our ecosystem. This adaptation ensures that threatened or
endangered species can recover their numbers even if they are at the brink of
extinction.
3. We can re-establish a sense of order to our environmental management
techniques.
Some individuals have no difficulty hunting and killing an endangered
species. Whether it is for food or solely for amusement, this legislation gives
the government powers to stop these actions from taking place. Some people
may not use the environment at all and decide to stay at home without giving
the prospects of a listed species a second thought. The advantage of this law is
that it provides everyone with a fair opportunity to enjoy the environment

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while still offering a sense of order that keeps threatened or endangered plants
and animals protected.

4. It provides more support for endangered species than most state laws.
Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act requires the relevant secretary to
work with states in the conservation of protective species. There must be
cooperative agreements that offer technical and financial assistance in the
support of local programs. The expectations at the federal level are more
inclusive than what states offer, even though many are seeking to play a larger
role in how the purposes of this legislation are addressed. Part of the reason
for this advantage involves the money that the federal government spends on
the Endangered Species Act compared to state efforts. When the Fish and
Wildlife Service works with other federal agencies, up to $1.2 billion is spent
annually to enforce this legislation.
5. There are several economic benefits that occur through the protection
of wildlife.
The Endangered Species Act creates jobs for communities that are dependent
upon wildlife. This legislation also has the power to protect plants and animals
that might one day provide economic benefits. There are several revenue-
earning opportunities that already exist because of the implementation of this
law.
6. The Endangered Species Act protects plants and animals who might
provide cures.
There are several species currently being studied because of their potential
medical benefits that the Endangered Species Act helps to protect. Desert
pupfish might offer future treatments for kidney disease, while black bears
could offer osteoporosis help. Crocodile blood could one day become the next
series of antibiotics. Even the Gila monster offers help with diabetes. The
Pacific yew tree produces a toxin that offers anti-tumor properties that
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eventually led to the development of the drug Taxol. Having this legislation in
place ensures that we can maximize the potential benefits that nature offers.

List of the Disadvantages of the Endangered Species Act

1. There is an inadequate focus on recovery.
The species recovery rate under the Endangered Species Act is only 2%. That
means the legislation has proven to be somewhat ineffective at its overall goal
of preservation. Even though there are hundreds of plant and animal species
that are engaged in a partial recovery, critics suggest that there isn’t enough
that can be done with this option. Scientists estimate that about 230 different
threatened species would have become extinct without this law, but that
means another 1,400 would be able to survive without it.
2. The implementation of the Endangered Species Act is chronically
under-funded.
The goals of the Endangered Species Act are lofty, but the same thing cannot
be said of the funding that this legislation receives. Between the years of 1980
to 2014, the vast majority of recovery plans received severe underfunding.
Only 9% of the projects received adequate funding, with another 5% of them
being listed as “overfunded.” The remaining portion of the efforts did not
receive the funding needed to achieve adequate funding.
3. There are perceived delays in the implementation of the Endangered
Species Act.
One of the most common complaints about the Endangered Species Act is that
it stops planning and development through long consultations and expensive
modifications. This disadvantage does exist at a small level, but it is a largely
unsubstantiated belief about the law. Formal consultations represent a small
portion of the total efforts that can lead to delays over the years, with most
years coming in at 10% or less.
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4. The Endangered Species Act has minimal flexibility.
The language of the Endangered Species Act is almost identical to what it was
over 30 years ago, which is when Congress last amended it. The difference in
this legislation from the changes that happened in 1988 is that its
administration is now dramatically different. Landowners have the option to
enter into several different conservation agreements that keep declining
species off of the endangered list. This process can also hasten the recovery of
plants or animals already designated by the legislation while providing some
regulatory predictability.
5. It doesn’t address the core issues that impact plant and animal life in
adverse ways.
Humans affect climate change because we are adding greenhouse gases to the
atmosphere. This action reflects more sunlight back to the surface of the
planet, altering the natural habitats that currently exist. We can use the
Endangered Species Act to work on saving loggerhead turtles, but 90% of
them are female because warmer temperatures impact their nesting conditions.
This legislation does have the authority to stop carbon or methane emissions.
6. Some activists use the legislation to invoke the law against unwanted
projects.
One of the biggest criticisms of the Endangered Species Act is that it allows
activists to target public works projects that they don’t want to see in their
community. The Editorial Board at USA Today refers to these individuals as
“not-in-my-backyard types.” “[When they] suddenly begin searching for some
tiny, endangered crustacean in their neighborhoods just so they can invoke the
law to stop a project, that’s exploiting the Endangered Species Act for selfish
reasons.”

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Human beings and endangered species
Roughly 99 percent of threatened species are at risk because of human
activities alone. By the early 21st century it could be said that human beings
(Homo sapiens) are the greatest threat to biodiversity. The principal threats to
species in the wild are:
1. Habitat loss and habitat degradation
2. The spread of introduced species (that is, non-native species that
negatively affect the ecosystems they become part of)
3. The growing influence of global warming and chemical pollution
4. Unsustainable hunting
5. Disease

Although some of these hazards occur naturally, most are caused by human
beings and their economic and cultural activities. The most pervasive of these
threats is habitat loss and degradation—that is, the large-scale conversion of
land in previously undisturbed areas driven by the growing demand for
commercial agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development. Because the
rates of loss are highest in some of the most biologically diverse regions on
Earth, a perpetual battle is waged to manage destructive activities there while
limiting the impact that such restrictions may have on the well-being of local
communities. The relative importance of each threat differs within and among
taxa. So far, incidental mortality from ecological disturbance, temporary or
limited human disturbance, and persecution have caused limited reductions in
the total number of species; however, these phenomena can be serious for
some susceptible groups. In addition, global warming has emerged as a
widespread threat, and much research is being conducted to identify its
potential effects on specific species, populations, and ecosystems.
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Why We Protect Them ?
The Endangered Species Act is very important because it saves our native
fish, plants, and other wildlife from going extinct. Once gone, they're gone
forever, and there's no going back. Losing even a single species can have
disastrous impacts on the rest of the ecosystem, because the effects will be felt
throughout the food chain. From providing cures to deadly diseases to
maintaining natural ecosystems and improving overall quality of life, the
benefits of preserving threatened and endangered species are invaluable.
How to Help Endangered Species :
1. Limit Your Consumption of Factory.
2. Make Your Home Wildlife-friendly.
3. Reduce Your Impact on the Environment.
4. Help Endangered Species When You Travel.
5. Don't Buy Plastic Products.
6. Harassing Wildlife Is Cruel and Illegal.
7. Support Endangered Species Conservation Organizations.
8. Protect Wildlife Habitats

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REFERENCES*
1. Abramovitz, Janet N. “Valuing Nature’s Services.” In Sources: Notable
Selections in Environmental Studies, 2nd ed., edited by Theodore D.
Goldfarb, 331–339. Guilford, CT: Dushkin/McGraw-Hill, 2000.
2. Armsworth, Paul R., Carrie V. Kappel, Fiorenza Micheli, and Eric P.
Bjorkstedt. “Marine Species.” In The Endangered Species Act at Thirty,
edited by Dale D. Goble, J. Michael Scott, and Frank W. Davis, vol. 1,
Renewing the Conservation Promise, 36–44. Washington, DC: Island
Press, 2005.
3. Diamond, Jared M. “Historic Extinctions: A Rosetta Stone for
Understanding Prehistoric Extinctions.” In Quaternary Extinctions: A
Prehistoric Revolution, edited by Paul S. Martin and Richard G. Klein,
824–862. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1984.
4. Gilpin, Michael E., and Michael E. Soulé. “Minimum Viable
Populations: Processes of Species Extinction.” In Conservation Biology:
The Science of Scarcity and Diversity, edited by Michael E. Soulé, 19–
34. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, 1986.
5. Goble, Dale D. “Evolution of At-Risk Species Protection.” In The
Endangered Species Act at Thirty, edited by J. Michael Scott, Dale D.
Goble, and Frank W. Davis, vol. 2, Conserving Biodiversity in Human-
Dominated Landscapes, 6–23. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2006.
6. Gould, Stephen Jay. “The Golden Rule: A Proper Scale for Our
Environmental Crisis.” In Sources: Notable Selections in Environmental
Studies, 2nd ed., edited by Theodore D. Goldfarb, 227–234. Guilford,
CT: Dushkin/McGraw-Hill, 2000.
7. Hayward, Gregory D., Jason F. Shogren, and John Tschirhart. “The
Nature of Endangered Species Protection.” In Protecting Endangered
Species in the United States: Biological Needs, Political Realities,

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 Economic Choices, edited by Jason F. Shogren and John Tschirhart, 1–
20. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

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