CHAPTER § Incompressible Flow in Pipes and Channels Chemical engineers in industrial practice are often concerned with the flow of flu ids through pipes, tubes, and channels with a noneircular cross section. Usually the Pipes are filled with the moving fluid, but some problems involve flow in partially filled pipes, in layers down inclined or vertical surfaces, through beds of sol in agitated vessels, This chapter deals with the steady flow of incompressible fluids through closed pipes and channels. Layer flow is discussed in Chap. 4; the flow of compressible fluids is covered in Chap. 6, flow through beds of solids in Chap. 7, and flow in agitated vessels in Chap. 9 SHEAR STRESS AND SKIN FRICTION IN PIPES Shear-stress distribution Consider the steady flow of fluid of constant density in fully developed flow through a horizontal pipe. Visualize a disk-shaped element of fluid, concentric with the axis of the tube, of radius r and length dL, as shown in Fig, 5.1. Assume the element 8 isolated as a free body. Let the fluid pressure on the upstream and downstream faces of the disk be p and p + dp, respectively. Since the fluid Possesses a viscosity, a shear force opposing flow will exist on the rim of the element. Apply the momentum equ tion (4.43) between the two faces of the disk. Since the flow is fully developed, fy = Buy and Vp = Va, so that 5° F =0, The quantities for substitution in Eq, (4.43) are Sa=Sp=ar p=p pS, = 7p pS, = (r2)(p + dp) The shear force F; acting on the rim of the element is the product of the shear ses and the cylindrical area, or (27rd L)r. (Force F, equals —F ty Eq. (4.43).] Since the channel is horizontal, F, is zero. Substituting these quantities ig2> Eq, (4.43) gives > F=axrp—xr(p +p) — QardL)r =CHAPTER 5: Incompressible Flow in Pipes and Channels 95 nt in steady flow through pipe. Simplifying this equation and dividing by xr? dL give dp aL (5.1) In steady flow, either laminar or turbulent, the pressure at any given cross section of a stream tube is constant, so that dp/dL is independent of r. Equation (5.1) can be written for the entire cross section of the tube by taking tT = t, and ry, Where Ty is the shear stress at the wall of the conduit and ry is the radius of the tube, Equation (5.1) then becomes dp , 2, “tn (5.2) Subtracting Eq. (5.1) from Eq, (5.2) gives (5.3) ‘Also, when r = 0, r = 0. The simple linear relation between z and r in Eq. (5.3) is shown graphically in Fig. 5.2. Note that this linear relationship applies in both laminar and turbulent flow, and to both newtonian and non-newtonian fluids. Relation between skin friction and wall shear Equation (4,62) can be written over a definite length L of the complete stream. In Chap. 4, Ap was defined as py — pe, but usually (though not always) p, > ps and thus p, — pq is usually negative. The term Ap is commonly used for pressure drop, that is, py, — ps, and this terminology is employed in this and subsequent chapters Here, then, pp = Pa — Ap. Zp — Zu = 0, and the two kinetic energy terms can Also. the only kind of friction is skin friction between the wall and the fluid stream, and the only pressure drop is that resulting from the skin friction. Denote the skin friction by h,, and the pressure drop by Ap,. Then Eq. (4.62) becomes a _ Pa — APs Po _ Paw SP Pp Pp (5.4)Leh Caney et ee Py Toe tat | Pi) % SECTION Ut: Fluid Mechanics FIGURE 5.2 Variation of shear Stress in pipe. Shear stress, + For a definite length L of pipe, dp/dL in Eq. (5.2) becomes Ap,/L. Eliminat. ing Ap, from Eqs. (5.2) and (5.4) gives the following relation between hy, and t, 2t Sept (5.5) where D is the diameter of the pipe. The friction factor Another common parameter, especially useful in the study of turbulent flow, is the Fanning friction factor,’ denoted by fand defined as the ratio of the wall shear stress to the product of the density and the velocity head V2 (/2: (5.6) Relations between skin friction parameters The four common quantities used to measure skin friction in pipes, ys BP bur and f, are related by the equations 2 ty hy = = = APs 6.0) Ptw p from which 68) and 69) ar aprsanyh acidbetorheparmind vue kee te ee ne straight pipe. The subscript sis used in Ap, and ‘fy, to call attention to the fact * in Eqs. (5.7) through (5.9) these quantities, when they are associated with "Another friction factor common in the Auid mechanics literature and called the Blasus of Da friction factors 4f.CHAPTER 5: Incompressible Flow in Pipes and Channels 97 Fanning friction factor, relate only to skin friction. If other terms in the Bernoulli equation are present or if form friction is also active, p, — p, differs from Ap,. If boundary layer separation occurs, hy is greater than h,, Flow in noncircular channels In evaluating skin friction in channels of noncircular cross section, the diame- ter in the Reynolds number and in Eq. (5.8), the definition of the friction factor, is taken as an equivalent diameter D.,, defined as 4 times the hydraulic radius, The hydraulic radius is denoted by ry and in tum is defined as the ratio of the cross- sectional area of the channel to the wetted perimeter of the channel: S "= (5.10) L, cross-sectional area of channel erimeter of channel in contact with fluid Thus, for the special case of a circular tube. the hydraulic radius is aD? /4 D rye aD 4 The equivalent diameter is 4r,, or simply D An important special case is the annulus between two concentric pipes. Here the hydraulic radius is _ 2D3/4—2D3/4__ D,~D, ""*—aD+nD, 4 where D, and D, are the inside and outside diameters of the annulus, respec- tively. The equivalent diameter of an annulus is therefore the difference of the diameters. Also the equivalent diameter of a square duct with a width of side b is 4(b7/4b) = b. For flow between parallel plates, when the distance between them 4 is much smaller than the width of the plates, the equivalent diameter De, = 2b. The defining equations for friction factor (Eq. (5.7)] and Reynolds number (Eq. (3.8)] can be generalized by substituting 2r,, for r or D., for D. The hydraulic radius is especially useful with turbulent flow. It is much less useful with laminar flow, but in many laminar flow situations the fluid flow relationships can be calcu- lated mathematically, as shown in the following section. (5.11) LAMINAR FLOW IN PIPES AND CHANNELS Equations (5.1) through (5.9) apply to both laminar and turbulent flow provided the fluid is incompressible and the fiow is steady and fully developed. Because the shear-stress viscosity relationship for laminar flow is simple, derivations from these equations can be made most readily for laminar flow.98. secTION 11: Fluid Mechanics ewtonian fluids i yard for pecially straightforward fe i age i stribution, the averag ty distri re readily calculated. a newtonian fluid, for wh Laminar flow of yelocity, and the Moment The treatment is es} quantities such as the veloci and kinetic energy correction factors local velocity and position jn the Jar channels, because of symmetry about the axis ds only on the radius r, Consider a thin ring of ent of Cross- sectional area dS. Then Velocity distribution. The relation between the stream is found as follows. In circul of the tube, the local velocity « depen radius r and width dr, forming an elem dS =2ar dr is found by using the definition of viscosity [Eq. (3.3), 6.12 The velocity distribution i written as t ee 6.1) du/dr 4 “ The minus sign in the equation accounts for the fact that in a pipe u decreases as r increases, Eliminating t from Eqs. (5.3) and (5.9) provides the following ordinary differential equation relating w and r: du Tw z= P (5.14) dr Tw Integration of Eq. (5.14) with the boundary condition u = 0, r = r,, gives faw=- fore 0 twht Ir, Tw u= rw (er) 6.19) The maximum value of the local velocity is de r noted by is loc: center ofthe pipe. The value oft, is found from Eq, (5. i aossiaed nae giving Tal 2u Dividing Eq. (5.15) by Eq. (5.16) a of the local velocity to the asin ca ‘otiowing relationship forthe rat inns rye Umax (Z) 5.17) ion (5.17) sh in lami ara Pe Sine ne flow the velocity distribution with respect i with the apex at the centerlin, Hepler? is shown as the dashed line in Fig. 5.3, '€ of the pipe. The distributio” (5.16)CHAPTER : Incompressible Flow in Pipes and Channels 99 Relotive distance from cenler of pipe 3 © 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 070 0.80 0.90 1.00 Fraction of maximum velocity FIGURE 5.3 Velocity distribution in pipe, fully developed flow of newtonian fluid, for laminar flow and for turbulent flow at Re = 10,000. Average velocity. Substitution of dS from Eq. (5.12), u from Eq, (5.15), and 72 for S into Eq, (4.9) gives oe ee Tal" = 2? )rdr = . Awd (r= 9?)rdr 7 (5.18) ‘Comparison of Eqs. (5.16) and (5.18) shows that v — =05 (5.19) Mnax ‘The average velocity is precisely one-half the maximum velocity. Kinetic energy correction factor. The kinetic energy factor a is calculated from Eq. (4.61), using Eqs. (5.8) for dS, (5.15) for u, und (5.18) for V. The final result is @ = 2.0. The proper term for kinetic energy in the Bernoulli equation [Eq. (4.62) oF (4.65)| for laminar flow in a pipe is therefore V*. Momentum correction factor. Again, to obtain the value of 6 for laminar flow, the defining equation (4.41) is used. The result is 6 =}. Hagen-Poiseuille equation For practical calculations, Eq. (5.18) is transformed by eliminating +, in favor of Ap, by the use of Eq. (5.7) and using the pipe diameter in place of the pipe radius. The result is100 stcTroN 11: Fluid Mechanics Solving for Ap, gives (5.29, and since Ap, = 41, /(DL), (5.21) Substituting from Eq. (5.21) into Eq. (5.6) gives lon 16 (sy DVp_ Re Equation (5.20) is the Hagen-Poiseuille equation. One of its uses is in the ey. perimental measurement of viscosity, by measuring the pressure drop and volume. ric flow rate through a tube of known length and diameter. From the flow rate, Vis calculated by Eq. (4.9) and jis calculated by Eq. (5.20). In practice, corrections fo kinetic energy and entrance effects are necessary. Laminar flow of non-newtonian liquids Because of the difference in the relation between shear stress and velocity gra dient, the shape of the velocity profile for non-newtonian liquids differs from that of a newtonian liquid. In the more complicated situations of non-newtonian flow, the shape of the profile is determined experimentally. For the simpler cases such as the power law model [Eq. (3.7)] or the Bingham model [Eq. (3.6)], the same methods used for determining the flow parameters of a newtonian fluid can be used for not- newtonian fluids in these categories, For fluids following the power law model, the velocity variation with radits follows the formula Vit En ay a= (ds,)" starve 6m rwK 1+1/n’ Velocity profiles defined by Eq. (5.23) when n' = 0.5 (a pseudoplastic fui nf = 1.0 (a newtonian fluid), and n’ = 2.0 (a ditatant fluid) are shown in Fig. 54!" all cases K” is assumed to be the same. The curve for the dilatant fluid is narrower more pointed than a true parabola; that for the Pseudoplastic fluid is blunter flatter. The pressure difference for the flow of a power law fluid is found by the me!” ods used in deriving Eq. (5.20) for a newtonian fluid. The result is * Ap. = ott)" ve 6) fa : ds to Eq. (5.20) f : uation (5.24) correspon 4 'or a newtonian fluid. a “The behavior of fluids following the Bingham Plastic flow model is somevils more complicated. The general shape of the curve of w vere s is sho" |CHAPTER 5: Incompressible Flow in Pipes and Channels 101 4 aot FIGURE 5.4 ] ] Velocity profiles in the laminar flow 26 ' 3 Ee of newtonian and non-newtonian 24+" liquids. feted seudoplostic: | n =0.5 10 ty P. 9 010203 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 080910 Fig. 5.5a. In the central portion of the tube there is no velocity variation with the radius, and the velocity gradient is confined to an annular space between the central portion and tube wall. The center portion is moving in plug flow. In this region the shear stress that would be generated in other types of flow is too small to overcome the threshold shear ty. The shear diagram is shown in Fig. 5.5b. For the velocity Variation in the annular space between the tube wall and the plug, the following ‘equation applies: 1 r lw zi wisi lrysar)| Se lilihen)i= ay (5.25) here K is a constant, The boundary between the plug and the remaining fluid is found by differentiating Eq. (5.25) and setting the velocity gradient equal to zero, ot "More simply by reading the value from Fig. 5.5b. The result is no Or (5.26) + Tw The velocity in the central core 1, the speed at which the plug is moving, is found bby substituting the value of r, from Eq. (5.26) for r in Eq. (5.25) and rearranging, This gives (5.27)102. section | 1: Fluid Mechanics | Pipe wall | t of pipe s region 0 Velocity, u (0) Pipe wall Pipe wall Sheor stress, + —> (b) FIGURE 5.5 (a) Velocity profile. (b) Shear diagram for Bingham plastic flow. An interesting observation with some non-newtonian mixtures® is that at high Sa OT ae sancare-elocity boundary condition atthe wall multiphase fluids such as suspensions and fiber-filled polymers, this effet ® believed to be the result of a thin layer near the wall that is depleted of particu or fibers and thus has a lower viscosity than the bulk of the fluid. This gives arance of a “slip” at the wall. Empirical formu era pjccount for such wall effects." las are often used in the Ii Laminar flow in an annulus of i local velocity g . 7 a The relation between ity and radial position for the laminar f a newtonian fluid through an annular space may be found by the same me™ s