1.

) Grammar Translation:

The Grammar-Translation Method is a traditional approach to teaching foreign languages

that emphasizes the explicit teaching of grammar rules and the translation of sentences
between the target language and the native language.

1.1) Key features:

1.2) Grammar based rules: This method has its own way of teaching grammar in grammar
rules.
1.3) Target language and native language: It uses the native language as a medium. By doing
this it is targeted to teach the student new items and make new comparisons between the
two language.

1.4) Not speaking nor listening: It is based on writing and reading.

1.5) Vocabulary: The student is expected to learn vocabulary in the learning process by
dictionary or other means.

2.) Direct Method

It is a method with a communicative approach to the target language.

2.1) Use of target language: Students are expected to only use the target language in the
class. Without relying on the native language.

2.2) Everyday language: The method targets using the everyday language and grammar,
being practical.

2.3) Oral communication: The students are expected to have a class with lots of question-
answer situations.

2.4) Inductive Grammar Instruction: Instead of explicitly teaching grammar rules, students
are encouraged to discover and internalize grammar through exposure to examples and
context.

2.5) Based on oral teaching and learning. Also listening is counted in it as well.

2.6) Accuracy: Teachers place importance on teaching students to speak with accurate
pronunciation and grammatical correctness.

3.) Oral approach

The Oral Approach focused on systematic principles for choosing, organizing, and presenting
language content. It aimed to teach English effectively, with a structured approach to oral
language instruction.
3.1) Characteristics of the Oral Approach:

Language instruction begins with spoken language, and material is taught orally before it is
introduced in written form.

The target language (English) is used as the primary language of instruction in the
classroom.

New language points are introduced and practiced within specific situations or contexts.

Vocabulary selection is guided by the need to cover essential, commonly used words.

Grammar instruction is sequenced, with simpler forms taught before more complex ones.

Reading and writing skills are introduced after a sufficient foundation in vocabulary and
grammar is established.

3.2)

Overall, Situational Language Teaching(SLT) emphasizes teaching language in context, with a

focus on practical, real-life situations. It places a strong emphasis on spoken language,
introducing written material later in the learning process.

4.) The Audiolingual Method, also known as the Audio-lingual Method, is a language
teaching approach that emerged in the mid-20th century, particularly during the 1950s and
1960s. It was influenced by behaviorist psychology and structural linguistics. This method
gained popularity as a reaction to the Grammar-Translation and Direct Methods, which
were criticized for their limited focus on practical language use.

4.1) Key characteristics of the Audiolingual Method include:

Oral-Aural Emphasis: The method places a strong emphasis on developing oral and aural
skills (speaking and listening) before reading and writing. Students are expected to actively
participate in oral drills and practice.

Repetition and Drills: Repetition is a central feature of the Audiolingual Method. Students
engage in various types of drills, such as substitution drills (replacing one word or phrase
with another), transformation drills (changing the form of a sentence), and question-answer
drills.

Pattern Practice: Students practice language patterns and structures in a controlled

environment, gradually moving from simple to more complex patterns.

Error Correction: Teachers correct errors immediately, aiming for accuracy in language
production.
Avoidance of Native Language: The use of the native language is minimized or even
discouraged in the classroom. The focus is on immersion in the target language.

Structural Focus: The method emphasizes the learning of sentence patterns and structures,
with a focus on grammar and syntax.

Minimal Use of Authentic Materials: Authentic texts or materials from real-life situations are
not commonly used. Instead, the emphasis is on specially designed materials for drills and
exercises.

Role of the Teacher: The teacher plays a central role in providing models for correct
language use, leading drills, and giving immediate feedback on student performance.

Formal Sequencing of Material: Language content is carefully sequenced, with new material
introduced in a logical and systematic manner.

5.) Silent Way

the Silent Way is a method that encourages active language production by learners while
minimizing the teacher's verbal input, and it is based on Gattegno's innovative use of visual
aids and previous experience in educational design.

5.1) Key points about the Silent Way:

Method Overview: The Silent Way progresses through stages, starting with pronunciation
practice and moving on to sentence patterns, structure, and vocabulary. It emphasizes the
idea that the teacher should be silent as much as possible, encouraging the learner to
generate language.

Use of Colored Tools: Elements of the Silent Way, including color charts and Cuisenaire rods,
are derived from Gattegno's previous work in education. Cuisenaire rods were originally
developed for math instruction by Georges Cuisenaire, and Gattegno adapted them for
language teaching.

Traditional Syllabus: The Silent Way follows a fairly traditional syllabus that focuses on both
structural and lexical elements. It shares similarities with other traditional methods like
Situational Language Teaching and Audiolingualism, with an emphasis on accurate
repetition and guided exercises leading to freer communication.

Cultural Considerations: The Silent Way gained popularity in the United States, particularly
in official training programs like those for the Foreign Service and Peace Corps. This may be
attributed to the observation that silence can be a more powerful prompt for verbalization
among Americans compared to other cultural groups. Americans often view communication
as primarily verbal and are less comfortable with extended periods of silence.
Avoidance of Awkwardness: In American culture, long periods of silence are often perceived
as moments of discomfort or awkwardness. The Silent Way may have been appealing to
American practitioners as it allowed the teacher to take on more of the speaking
responsibility, potentially reducing students' discomfort with silence.

5.2)

Cognitive-Code Theory of Learning: Gattegno's approach is rooted in a cognitive-code

theory of learning. This perspective views language learning as a mental activity, where
learners actively construct their understanding of language through exposure and
experience.

Learning Hypotheses: Gattegno's learning hypotheses include the ideas that learning is
facilitated by discovery or creation rather than rote memorization, by using physical objects
as mediators, and by engaging in problem-solving activities related to the material.

Problem-Solving and Discovery Learning: The Silent Way aligns with a problem-solving,
discovery-based approach to learning. It encourages learners to actively engage in the
learning process, promoting intellectual development, intrinsic motivation, heuristic
learning, and effective memory retention.

Role of Self-Awareness: Gattegno emphasizes the development of self-awareness in

language learning. Silent Way learners are expected to monitor and self-correct their
production through increased awareness, a capacity that may be less exercised by first
language learners.

6.) Suggestopedia

Suggestion as the Core Principle: The central concept in Suggestopedia is "suggestion."

While some may associate it with traditional forms of hypnosis, Lozanov distinguishes
Suggestopedia from the narrow clinical concept of hypnosis. He emphasizes that his method
involves both desuggestion (removing unwanted or blocking memories) and suggestion
(loading desired and facilitating memories).

Authority: Lozanov believes that people are more likely to remember and be influenced by
information from authoritative sources. He recommends creating an environment where
students perceive the teacher and educational establishment as authoritative figures. This
can be achieved through various methods, including the use of scientific-sounding language,
positive experimental data, and committed teachers.

Infantilization: Authority is also used to establish a parent-child-like relationship between

the teacher and student. The learner takes on the role of a child, engaging in activities like
role-playing, games, songs, and gymnastic exercises to regain childlike qualities such as self-
confidence, spontaneity, and receptivity.

Double-Planedness: This component emphasizes that learning occurs not only through
direct instruction but also through the environment in which instruction takes place. Factors
like the classroom decor, musical background, chair design, and the teacher's personality
are considered as important as the instructional material itself.

Intonation, Rhythm, and Concert Pseudo-Passiveness: Varying the tone and rhythm of
presented material helps to prevent boredom and adds emotional meaning to linguistic
material. Lozanov incorporates specific techniques, such as reading phrases with different
voice levels and rhythms, to enhance memorization.

Role of Music: Music plays a crucial role in Suggestopedia, inducing a relaxed state of mind
known as "concert pseudo-passiveness," which is deemed optimal for learning. The choice
of music is critical, and Lozanov recommends slow movements in 4/4 time from Baroque
concertos. The rate of presenting material is synchronized with the rhythm, with an eight-
second cycle used for pacing.

Overall, Suggestopedia is built on the principles of suggestion, authority, infantilization,

double-planedness, intonation, rhythm, and the careful selection of specific types of music
and presentation rates.

7.) Total Physical response (TPR)

The Total Physical Response (TPR) is a language teaching method developed by James
Asher. It is based on the idea that language learning can be facilitated through physical
activity and a strong focus on comprehension. In TPR, learners respond to spoken language
with physical actions. The method is rooted in several key principles:

Listening First: TPR emphasizes that learners should first focus on understanding spoken
language before attempting to speak themselves. This mirrors the natural process of how
children acquire their first language.

Physical Response: Learners are encouraged to respond physically to commands and

instructions in the target language. For example, if the teacher says "Stand up," the learners
should physically stand up.

Imperative Forms: The use of imperatives (commands) by the instructor is considered

central to TPR. Asher believes that much of the grammatical structure and vocabulary of the
target language can be learned through the skilled use of imperatives.

Low Stress Environment: Creating a relaxed and stress-free learning environment is

considered crucial for effective language acquisition. This is achieved by focusing on
meaning through movement, rather than on abstract language forms.
Bio-Program for Language Learning: Asher suggests that there is an innate biological
program that defines an optimal order for language learning. This program involves a
sequence of listening before speaking, and synchronizing language with the learner's body.

Right-Brain Learning: Asher proposes that TPR is directed towards right-brain learning. This
is in contrast to many other language teaching methods that focus on left-brain learning.
Right-brain activities, particularly motor movement, are seen as essential for language
acquisition.

Overall, TPR encourages learners to engage with the language through physical actions and
listening comprehension before actively producing language themselves. It aims to create a
naturalistic learning environment that aligns with the way children acquire their first
language.

8.) In summary, CLT emerged as a response to the evolving understanding of language

teaching, influenced by both external factors like the global spread of English and internal
factors within the profession. It emphasized the importance of communicative proficiency
and addressed the limitations of earlier approaches like SLT.

This passage discusses various versions and aspects of Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT), a language teaching approach that emphasizes communicative competence and real-
life language use.

Development of CLT:

In 1971, a group of experts began exploring the concept of developing language courses
using a unit-credit system, where learning tasks are broken down into units corresponding
to learners' needs.

British linguist D. A. Wilkins proposed a functional or communicative definition of language

that formed the basis for developing communicative syllabuses. He focused on systems of
meaning rather than traditional grammar and vocabulary.

Wilkins identified two types of meanings: notional categories (e.g., time, sequence) and
categories of communicative function (e.g., requests, offers).

His work influenced the development of CLT, and his ideas were incorporated into the
Council of Europe's Threshold Level specifications.

Influence of CLT:

The work of the Council of Europe, writings of British applied linguists, and rapid adoption
by textbook writers and language teaching specialists led to the prominence of CLT
nationally and internationally.
CLT became a new paradigm in language teaching, expanding beyond its British origins.

Defining CLT:

CLT is described as an approach (rather than a method) aiming to make communicative

competence the goal of language teaching.

It emphasizes the interdependence of language and communication, viewing language as a

means of accomplishing tasks effectively.

Variations within CLT:

CLT is not a uniform approach, and different practitioners interpret and apply it in various
ways.

Some see CLT as integrating functional and structural aspects of language, while others
focus on learners working in pairs or groups on problem-solving tasks.

Strong vs. Weak Versions of CLT:

There are distinctions between a "strong" version and a "weak" version of CLT.

The weak version emphasizes providing learners with opportunities to use English for
communicative purposes and integrating this into language teaching programs.

The strong version asserts that language is acquired through communication, advocating for
the development of the language system itself.

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT):

Some proponents of TBLT view it as an extension and refinement of CLT, as it builds

teaching and learning around real-life tasks.

Antecedents of CLT:

The focus on communicative and contextual factors in language use has roots in the work of
anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski and linguist John Firth.

CLT's learner-centered and experience-based approach also has historical antecedents

outside of language teaching.

Commonality in CLT:

All versions of CLT share a foundation in a communicative model of language and language
use, emphasizing achieving communicative purposes over control of structure. They seek to
translate this into instructional design, materials, roles, behaviors, and activities in the
classroom.

This passage discusses various learning theories that underpin Communicative

Language Teaching (CLT), as well as theories that align with its principles:
 • Communication Principle:
o Activities that involve real communication are believed to promote
learning. This principle emphasizes the importance of authentic
language use in the learning process.
• Task Principle:
o Activities that involve using language for meaningful tasks are thought
to promote learning. This principle emphasizes the value of tasks that
require learners to apply language in practical situations.
• Meaningfulness Principle:
o Language that is meaningful to the learner is considered to support the
learning process. This principle highlights the importance of engaging
learners with content that is relevant and personally meaningful.
• Skill-Learning Model:
o Johnson and Littlewood proposed a learning theory compatible with
CLT, viewing the acquisition of communicative competence as a form of
skill development. This theory involves both cognitive (internalizing
plans for behavior) and behavioral (automating plans for fluent
performance) aspects.
• Creative-Construction Hypothesis:
o This hypothesis suggests that language learning involves a process of
actively constructing and creating meaning through interaction.
• Interactional Theory and Sociocultural Learning Theory:
o These theories emphasize the importance of social interaction in
language learning. They highlight processes such as collaborative
meaning-making, negotiation of meaning, and learning through
feedback and interaction with others.
• Processes Supporting Language Learning:
o The passage lists various processes that contribute to language
learning, including attending to input, experimenting with language,
social mediation, scaffolding, and collaborative dialogue.
• Alignment with Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) and CLIL:
o TBLT and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) also
emphasize processes such as arriving at shared understanding of
meaning through strategies and cooperative tasks.

9.) Content-based instruction and content and language integrated learning

Definition of CBI and CLIL:

CBI: Teaching organized around content or subject matter, where language and content are
learned simultaneously.
CLIL: Similar to CBI but officially proposed in a European Commission policy paper. It aims to
develop English language skills in those using English as a lingua franca, focusing on creating
a multilingual population in Europe.

Comparison of CBI and CLIL:

CBI often involves language teachers working with content teachers, whereas CLIL involves
content teachers using a second language for instruction.

CBI starts with the goals of a content class, while CLIL may originate in language classes.

CLIL, by decree, aims not only to stimulate multilingualism but also to preserve the
independence and health of local languages.

Nature of CBI and CLIL:

Both are approaches rather than methods, referring to a set of principles for language
course design without prescribing specific teaching methods.

Reasons for the Expansion of CBI and CLIL Programs:

Application of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) principles, emphasizing real

communication and the exchange of information.

Basis for on-arrival and mainstreaming programs for immigrants and those with limited
English proficiency.

Support for immersion education, using foreign language as the medium for content
instruction.

Promotion of bilingualism in Europe through CLIL-based programs, driven by the need for
knowledge-driven economies and societies.

Factors Contributing to the Spread of CLIL in Europe:

Families wanting their children to be competent in at least one foreign language.

Governments aiming to improve language education for socio-economic advantage.

The European Commission seeking greater inclusion and economic strength.

Language experts recognizing the potential for integrating language education with other
subjects.

Consequences and Common Practices:

CBI and CLIL courses are now common globally, differing significantly from traditional
language instruction.

The passage concludes by emphasizing the need to understand the underlying principles of
CBI and CLIL to comprehend their application in language teaching programs and materials.
Principles:

Relevance of Language to Learning Context: The language learned in CLIL should be related
to the learning context, reconstruction of content, and related cognitive processes. It needs
to be transparent and accessible.

Language as a Tool for Understanding Content: Learning a second language is more effective
when it is used as a tool for comprehending content, rather than being an end in itself. This
sets CBI apart from traditional language courses where content is chosen based on its
alignment with a linguistic syllabus.

Reflecting Learners' Needs: CBI better aligns with learners' needs for acquiring a second
language. It prepares learners for academic studies or survival in an English language
environment.

Activating Cognitive and Interactional Processes: Content serves as the basis for activating
both cognitive and interactional processes essential for second language learning. Focusing
on meaningful and engaging content is believed to stimulate cognitive skills and support
naturalistic second language development.

Learner Roles in CBI and CLIL:

CBI:

• Autonomous Learning: The goal is for learners to become autonomous,

understanding and taking charge of their own learning from the beginning.
• Collaborative Learning: Students are expected to support each other in
collaborative modes of learning, involving collaborative problem-solving and
joint participation in topic and activity selection.
• Active Interpreters: Learners are active interpreters of input, willing to
tolerate uncertainty, explore alternative learning strategies, and seek multiple
interpretations of oral and written texts.
• Sources of Content: Learners themselves may serve as sources of content
and participate in the selection of topics and activities.
• Conscious and Intuitive Language Processing: Learners are expected to
acquire language along with content through noticing and awareness-raising
activities, processing language consciously as well as intuitively.
CLIL:

• Central Role of Learner Roles: Learner roles are considered central to the
success of CLIL, demanding more student-centered approaches.
• Engagement with Challenging Content: Learners acknowledge that CLIL
courses are challenging, especially at the beginning. Engaging with cognitively
challenging content through another language requires depth of processing.
• Depth of Processing: Learning appropriately challenging content through
another language requires a depth of processing, and learners are actively
involved in this process.

Teacher Roles in CBI and CLIL:

CBI:

• Cooperation and Collaboration: Teachers often cooperate with other

teachers, work collaboratively on course and material design, and may need to
develop their own courses or adapt materials.
• Familiarity with Content: Teachers must familiarize themselves with difficult
and unfamiliar content, keeping context and comprehensibility in mind.
• Material Selection and Adaptation: They are responsible for selecting and
adapting authentic materials, becoming student needs analysts, and creating
learner-centered classrooms.
• Essential Skills for CBI Instructors: Varying instruction formats, using group
work, defining background knowledge and language skills, helping students
develop coping strategies, using process approaches to writing, employing
appropriate error correction techniques, and maintaining high levels of
student esteem.

CLIL:

• Language Modification: Teachers modify the language used in teaching

content through a second language, providing additional support for
comprehension and production.
• Facilitation of Dialogic and Scaffolded Instruction: Teachers facilitate
dialogic and scaffolded instruction, intervening appropriately and providing
feedback to guide the learning of both content and the second language.
 Task-Based Language Learning:

The passage provides an introduction to Task-Based Language

Teaching (TBLT), an approach to language education that centers
around the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and
instruction. Let's break down the key points:

• Definition of TBLT: TBLT is defined as an approach where students are given

functional tasks that require them to focus on meaning exchange and use
language for real-world, non-linguistic purposes. It is considered a
development of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and shares
principles with CLT, such as the importance of real communication in
language learning.
• Characteristics of TBLT:
o TBLT is characterized as an approach rather than a method, allowing
flexibility in its application with different syllabus types and for different
purposes.
o It can be linked with other approaches and methods, such as content-
based and text-based teaching.
o TBLT contrasts with earlier grammar-focused approaches by
emphasizing meaningful communication and learner-centered
activities.
• Curricular Goals: TBLT distinguishes between curricula that focus on linguistic
content and those that focus on language use. Task-based curricula formulate
learning goals in terms of the purposes for which learners are acquiring the
language, emphasizing the tasks they need to perform.
• Contrast with PPP Strategy: TBLT is contrasted with the Present-Practice-
Production (PPP) strategy, highlighting differences such as the absence of
language control for students, the development of a natural context from
students' experiences, and a more varied exposure to language forms.
• Historical Context: The passage mentions early applications of a task-based
approach in language teaching, such as the Malaysian Communicational
 Syllabus and the Bangalore Project. The focus on tasks in language teaching
originated from the field of second language acquisition (SLA) in the mid-
1980s.
• Assumptions and Benefits: Advocates of TBLT believe in its effectiveness
based on assumptions such as the focus on meaningful communication
fostering language acquisition. Studies have reported benefits such as greater
motivation, curricular flexibility, and higher proficiency results.
• Key Assumptions of Task-Based Instruction: The passage outlines key
assumptions of task-based instruction, including a focus on the process rather
than the product, emphasis on purposeful activities and communication, and
the sequencing of tasks according to difficulty.
• Definition of Task: The concept of a task is central to TBLT, and various
definitions are provided. A task is generally understood as an activity or goal
carried out using language, with a focus on meaning rather than form.
• Historical Development: The use of tasks in curriculum planning has a
historical context, dating back to vocational training practices in the 1950s.
TBLT shares concerns with Competency-Based Language Teaching and
involves the analysis of real-world task-use situations.
• Academic Tasks: The discussion also highlights the relevance of tasks in
general education, where academic tasks involve the production of specific
products, required operations, cognitive operations, and accountability
systems.

Approaches

The passage explains the theoretical underpinnings of Task-Based Language

Teaching (TBLT), emphasizing that TBLT is primarily motivated by a theory of learning
rather than a theory of language. It outlines several key assumptions about the
nature of language that underlie current approaches to TBLT:

• Language as a Means of Making Meaning: TBLT is grounded in the belief

that language is primarily a tool for making meaning. The focus is on the
functional use of language in real-world situations, and the assessment of
tasks is based on the outcomes and meaning created, not just the display of
language forms.
 • Language as a Means of Achieving Real-World Goals: TBLT views language
proficiency as a means to an end, emphasizing the importance of preparing
learners for real-world communication and situations. Language teaching is
seen as instrumental in helping learners achieve their communicative goals.
• Central Role of Lexical Units: The passage underscores the significance of
lexical units, including vocabulary, phrases, sentence stems, prefabricated
routines, and collocations. TBLT acknowledges that vocabulary, beyond
individual words, plays a crucial role in language learning and use. The ability
to use lexicalized forms contributes to fluency, allowing learners to produce
language in real time without excessive pauses.
• Lexical Nature of Speech Processing: Drawing on linguistic and
psycholinguistic perspectives, TBLT acknowledges that native language speech
processing is often lexical in nature. Speech processing relies on the
production and reception of larger phrase units that do not require internal
processing when spoken. This supports the idea that fluency involves the use
of lexicalized modes of communication.
• Spoken Interaction as Central Focus: TBLT places a strong emphasis on
spoken interaction as the central focus of language acquisition. Learners are
encouraged to speak and communicate with others using the language,
drawing on their available linguistic and communicative resources. Many tasks
within TBLT involve conversation or dialogic interaction based on a given text
or task.
• Integration of Skills in Language Use: TBLT assumes a holistic view of
language use, emphasizing the integration of various language skills. Tasks in
TBLT typically require learners to use multiple skills simultaneously, reflecting
the interconnected nature of real-world language use.

In summary, TBLT is guided by a set of principles that prioritize the functional use of
language for meaning-making, the achievement of real-world goals, the importance
of lexical units, the lexical nature of speech processing, the centrality of spoken
interaction, and the integration of language skills in real-world contexts.