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Systems In Mechanical Engineering

Unit-04

VEHICLE SYSTEMS

Mr. Girish G Khope

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 Introduction
• Chassis is a basic structure of vehicle. Chassis
carry all parts of vehicles. Automotive chassis is a
skeletal frame on which various mechanical parts
like engine, tires, axle assemblies, brakes,
steering etc. are bolted

• Types of Chassis-
• Backward control ( conventional chassis),
• Forward control,
• Semi – forward control
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General Layout of vehicles

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 Chassis and its construction
• Automobile chassis is usually made of light sheet metal.

• It provides strength needed for supporting vehicular components and payload placed upon it.

• Automobile chassis helps keep an automobile rigid, stiff and unbending.

• Auto chassis ensures low levels of noise, vibrations and harshness throughout the automobile.

• Chassis of an automobile generally consists of the following components suitably mounted on

it
– Engine and the Radiator
– Transmission system(clutch, gear box, propeller shaft etc.)
– Suspension system
– Road Wheels
– Steering System
– Brakes
– Fuel Tank

• Types of Chassis
– Backward control ( conventional chassis)
– Forward controlOther Subjects: https://www.studymedia.in/fe/notes
– Semi – forward control
 Backward control ( conventional chassis)
• Here engine is usually mounted in front of driver’s seat. This offers
advantage as safety of driver in case of head collision.
• Driver’s front view is reduced as well as space utilization for pay load is
also reduced.

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 Forward control chassis
• The engine is mounted completely inside driver’s cabin.
• Full utilization of space.
• Driver’s safety is reduced to large extent in case of head on collision with
other vehicle.

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 Semi- forward control chassis
• Half engine fitted inside driver’s cabin.
• This chassis layout gives advantage good drivers safety and more space
utilization.

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 Types of Automobile Drives or layout
1. Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive :
• Rear wheel drive places the engine in the front
of the vehicle and the driven wheels are located
at the rear, a configuration known as
front-engine, rear-wheel drive layout.

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2. Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive :

• This layout consists of placing the engine, clutch

and gearbox in the back. So taking the space of
the boot. In these type of layout more than 50%
of the weight is on the rear axle.

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3. Front Engine Front Wheel Drive :

• This type Of arrangement provides optimum passenger

space
• The propeller shaft length is reduced or neglects the
propeller shaft.
• Good grip with road surface due to engine weight at
front.

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4. Mid-Engine, Rear Wheel Drive :

• This type of engine layout places the engine

between the two axles and the rear wheels
are driven. weight is equally distributed
between front and rear wheel

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5. Four Wheel Drive :

• In this arrangement all the four wheels of the

vehicle are driven bv the engine thus making
the entire vehicle weight available for traction.

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 Steering System

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 STEERING SYSTEM
• The purpose of steering system is to allow the driver to control
the direction of vehicle by turning the front wheels.

• This is achieved by means of steering wheel and a steering

column.

• A steering column transmits the rotation of the steering wheel

to the steering gears.

• The steering gears increase the rotational force of the steering

wheel in order to transmit greater torque to steering linkage.

• The steering linkage transmits the steering gear movement to

the front wheels
Otherof the vehicle
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General arrangement of steering system

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Steering Linkage with rigid axle front suspension

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 Steering system
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b/L= cotθ1 – cot θ2

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 Ackerman Steering Mechanism

• When a vehicle is turning, the inner front wheel

needs to turn at a different angle to the outer
because they are turning on different radii.

• The Ackermann steering mechanism is a

geometric arrangement of linkages in the
steering of a vehicle designed to turn the inner
and outer wheels at the appropriate angles.

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 Power Steering

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 Suspension System
• The automobile chassis is mounted on the axles
through some form of springs.

• This is done to isolate vehicle body from the road

shocks which may be in the form of bounce, pitch, roll
or sway.

• This will give rise to uncomfortable ride and also cause

additional stress in the automobile frame and body.

• All the parts which performs the function of isolating

the vehicle from the road shocks are collectively called
a suspension system.
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 Objective:
• To prevent the road shocks from being
transmitted to the vehicle components.
• To safeguard the occupants from road shocks.
• To preserve the stability of vehicle in pitching
or rolling while in motion.
• To provide minimum required ground
clearance to the vehicle
• Suspension system is provided in all vehicles
so as to provide smooth and comfortable ride
to passengers as well as to the driver
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Leaf Springs

Construction:
The spring consist of no. of leaves called Blades.
The blades are vary in length.
The longest length has eye on its both ends, called as Master leaf.
All blades are bound together by means of steel straps.
The springs are supported on the axle by means of U-Bolt.
One end is bolted on the frame with simple pin with rubber of bronze bushes.
Other end is connected to frame with shackle. This will give flexible connection as the
length of the spring changes with road projections.
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Shock Absorbers
• All the springs are flexible
and stiff. So they will not
absorbs shocks efficiently
and continue to vibrate with
the road irregularities.

• So dampers are provided

with the springs which
damps the vibrations.

• The shock absorbers absorbs

the energy of shock
converted into vertical
movement of axle by
providing damping and
dissipating the same into
heat.
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 Springs: Sprung and Unsprung Mass
• The sprung mass is the mass of the vehicle supported on the
springs, while the unsprung mass is loosely defined as the mass
between the road and the suspension springs.

• The stiffness of the springs affects how the sprung mass

responds while the car is being driven.

• Loosely sprung cars, such as luxury cars can swallow bumps

and provide a super-smooth ride; however, such a car is prone
to dive and squat during braking and acceleration and tends to
experience body sway or roll during cornering.

• Tightly sprung cars, such as sports cars, are less forgiving on

bumpy roads, but they minimize body motion well, which
means they can be driven aggressively, even around corners.

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 Brake
• The brake is used to slow-down or stops the motion of the
moving member whenever required.

• In other words brakes are one of the very important control

components of vehicle.

• The main function of brake is to stop the vehicle within the

smallest possible distance. This is done by converting the
kinetic energy of the vehicle into heat energy & this heat
dissipated in environment.

• In braking action, the kinetic energy is converted into heat

by friction and the generated heat is ultimately dissipated
to the atmosphere.

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Different types of a brakes are as follows
1.Band Brake
2. Single Block Brake
3. Band and Block Brake
4. Internal Expanding Brake
5. Disc Brake

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 Classification of brakes
(A) Classification According to Purpose
(i) Primary Brake (ii) Secondary Brake
(B)Classification According to Location
(i) At the transmission
(ii) At the wheel
(a) Two Wheel Brake (b) Four Wheel Brake
(C)Classification According to Construction
(a) Drum Brake(b) Disc Brake
(D) Classification According to Actuation
(i) Mechanical Brake (ii) Hydraulic Brake
(iii) Electrical Brake (iv) Vacuum Brake
(v) Air or Pneumatic Brake
(E)According to Extra Braking Effort
(i) Servo Brake or power assisted brake.
(ii) Power brakes or power operated brakes.
(F) According to Application
(i) Foot Brake (ii) Hand Brake
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 Drum Brakes
• Drum brakes consist of a backing plate, brake shoes, brake drum, wheel cylinder,
return springs and an automatic or self-adjusting system.

• When you apply the brakes, brake fluid is forced under pressure into the wheel
cylinder, which in turn pushes the brake shoes into contact with the machined
surface on the inside of the drum. When the pressure is released, return springs
pull the shoes back to their rest position.

• As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater distance to reach the
drum.

• When the distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting mechanism

automatically reacts by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that they are
closer to the drum.

• Brake Shoes: Like the disk pads, brake shoes consist of a steel shoe with the friction
material or lining riveted or bonded to it.

• Backing Plate: The backing plate is that holds everything together. It attaches to the
axle and forms a solid surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes and assorted
hardware.

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• Brake Drum: Brake drums are made of iron and have a machined surface on
the inside where the shoes make contact. Just as with disk rotors, brake drums
will show signs of wear as the brake linings seat themselves against the
machined surface of the drum.

• Wheel Cylinder: The wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder that has two pistons,
one on each side. Each piston has a rubber seal and a shaft that connects the
piston with a brake shoe. When brake pressure is applied, the pistons are
forced outpushing the shoes into contact with the drum. Wheel cylinders must
be rebuilt or replaced if they show signs of leaking.

• Return Springs: Return springs pull the brake shoes back to their rest position
after the pressure is released from the wheel cylinder. If the springs are weak
and do not return the shoes all the way, it will cause premature lining wear
because the linings will remain in contact with the drum.

• Self Adjusting System: The parts of a self adjusting system should be clean and
move freely to ensure that the brakes maintain their adjustment over the life
of the linings. If the self adjusters stop working, you will notice that you will
have to step down further and further on the brake pedal before you feel the
brakes begin to engage. Disk brakes are self adjusting by nature and do not
require any type of mechanism.
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 Disc Brake
The disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by
the friction. Most modern cars have disc brakes on the front wheels,
and some have disc brakes on all four wheels. This is the part of the
brake system that does the actual work of stopping the car.
The main components of a disc brake are:
· The brake pads
· The caliper, which contains a piston
· The rotor, which is mounted to the hub

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 Parts of disc
brake

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 Disc Brakes
• Disk brakes wear longer, are less affected by water, are self adjusting,
self cleaning, less prone to grabbing or pulling and stop better than
any other system around.

• The main components of a disk brake are the Brake Pads, Rotor,
Caliper and Caliper Support.

• Brake Pads: There are two brake pads on each caliper. They are
constructed of a metal "shoe" with the lining riveted or bonded to it.
The pads are mounted in the caliper, one on each side of the rotor.
Brake linings used to be made primarily of asbestos because of its heat
absorbing properties and quiet operation; however, due to health
risks, asbestos has been outlawed, so new materials are now being
used.

• Rotor: The disk rotor is made of iron with highly machined surfaces
where the brake pads contact it. Just as the brake pads wear out over
time, the rotor also undergoes some wear, usually in the form of
ridges and groves where the brake pad rubs against it.
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 Disc Brakes
• Caliper & Support:

• There are two main types of calipers: Floating calipers and fixed
calipers.

• A floating caliper "floats" or moves in a track in its support so

that it can center itself over the rotor. As you apply brake
pressure, the hydraulic fluid pushes in two directions. It forces
the piston against the inner pad, which in turn pushes against
the rotor. It also pushes the caliper in the opposite direction
against the outer pad, pressing it against the other side of the
rotor.

• Four Piston Fixed Calipers are mounted rigidly to the support

and are not allowed to move. Instead, there are two pistons on
each side that press the pads against the rotor.
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 Antilock Brake System (ABS)
These types of a brakes are called as Anti-skid Brake system
because of these brake reduces the risk of tyres skidding under heavy
load condition and allows driver to maintain steering control of the
vehicle.

Antilock brake system operates under heavy load braking or on

slipping surface conditions.
• ABS calculates the required slip rate of the wheels accurately based
on the vehicle speed and then controls the brake fluid pressure to
achieve the target slip rate.

∙ Although Antilock brake system prevents complete locking of the

wheels in practice it allows some wheel slip in order to attain the
best possible braking.

· Modern ABS consists of an Electronic Control Unit (ECU). An

individual sensor is connected to each wheel of car.
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ECU controls and monitors the antilock function and when
required.

In some ABS, a lateral accelerator sensor is also provided

to monitor the lateral (side) movement of the vehicle while
taking a turn. This also ensures proper braking out the time
of turning.

Electrically driven hydraulic pump is called as Hydraulic

Booster. It has four outlet brake lines connecting to each
wheel.

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 Working of ABS
• The sensor of each wheel provides the varying voltage signal to
the E.C.U. of brake system .

• E.C.U. Computes the voltage signal and compares it with

programmable information and determines whether a wheel is
about to lock or skid.

• When the wheel is about to lock , the ECU signals the hydraulic
unit to reduce hydraulic pressure at wheels brake calliper.

• Thus the wheel starts to spin again and avoids locking state.

• ECU then instructs hydraulic booster to reapply full pressure &

again measures rotation of wheel.

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 ABS

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 Cooling System of a Vehicle
• There are two methods used for cooling of
automobile engine.
1. Air Cooling.
2. Water Cooling.

• Water cooling system having two types

A) Thermosyphon system.
B) Pump circulation system.
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 Air Cooling System
• Air cooled system is generally used in small engines say up
to 15-20 kW and in aero plane engines.

• In this system fins or extended surfaces are provided on

the cylinder walls, cylinder head, etc.

• Heat generated due to combustion in the engine cylinder

will be conducted to the fins and when the air flows over
the fins, heat will be dissipated to air.

• The amount of heat dissipated to air depends upon : (a)

Amount of air flowing through the fins. (b) Fin surface
area. (c) Thermal conductivity of metal used for fins.
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 Advantages of Air Cooled System

(a) Radiator/pump is absent hence the system is light.

(b) In case of water cooling system there are leakages,
but in this case there are no leakages.
(c) Coolant and antifreeze solutions are not required.
(d) This system can be used in cold climates, where if
water is used it may freeze.

Disadvantages of Air Cooled System

(a) Comparatively it is less efficient.

(b) It is used in aero planes and motorcycle engines
where the engines are exposed to air directly
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 Water Cooling System
• The water cooling system is used in the
engines of cars, buses, trucks, etc.

• In this system, the water is circulated through

water jackets around each of the combustion
chambers, cylinder, valve seats and valve stems.

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1. Thermo Siphon System
• In this system the circulation of water is due to
difference in temperature (i.e. difference in
densities) of water. So in this system pump is
not required but water is circulated because of
density difference only.

• This system works on the principle that hot

water being lighter rises up and the cold water
being heavier goes down.

• In this system the radiator is placed at a higher

level than the engine for the easy flow of water
towards the engine.

• Heat is conducted to the water jackets from

where it is taken away due to convection by
the circulating water. As the water jacket
becomes hot, it rises to the top of the radiator.

• Cold water from the radiator takes the place of

the rising hot water and in this way a
circulation of water is set up in the system. This
helps in keeping the engine at working
temperature.

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2. Non-Return Water Cooling System

• This is suitable for large installations and where

plenty of water is available.

• The water from a storage tank is directly supplied to

the engine cylinder.

• The hot water is not cooled for reuse but simply

discharges.

• The low H.P. engine, coupled with the irrigation

pump is an example
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 3. Force Circulation Water Cooling System
• This system is similar in construction to the
thermo-syphon system except that it makes use of a
centrifugal pump to circulate the water throughout
the water jackets and radiator.

• The water flows from the lower portion of the

radiator to the water jacket of the engine through
the centrifugal pump.

• After the circulation water comes back to the

radiator, it loses its heat by the process of radiation.

• This system is employed in cars, trucks, tractors, etc.

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 Radiator
• The purpose of the radiator is to cool down the water received from
the engine.

• The radiator consists of three main parts: (i) upper tank, (ii) lower
tank and (iii) tubes.

• Hot water from the upper tank, which comes from the engine, flows
downwards through the tubes.

• The heat contained in the hot water is conducted to the copper fins
provided around the tubes.

• An overflow pipe, connected to the upper tank, permits excess

water or steam to escape.

• There are three types of radiators: (i) gilled tube radiator, (ii) tubular
radiator (Fig. b) and (iii) honey comb or cellular radiator (Fig. c)

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Gilled tube radiator:

• This is perhaps the oldest type of radiator, although it is still in use. In this,
water flows inside the tubes.
• Each tube has a large number of annular rings or fins pressed firmly over its
outside surface.

Tubular radiator:

• The only difference between a gilled tubes radiator and a tubular one is that in
this case there are no separate fins for individual tubes.
• The radiator vertical tubes pass through thin fine copper sheets which run
horizontally.

Honey comb or cellular radiator:

• The cellular radiator consists of a large number of individual air cells which are
surrounded by water.
• In this, the clogging of any passage affects only a small parts of the cooling
surface. However, in the tubular radiator, if one tube becomes clogged, the
cooling effect of the entire tube is lost.

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 Fuel Supply System
For the supply of fuel from fuel tank to engine
cylinder in petrol Engine following fuel feed
systems are used:

• Gravity system
• Air pressure system
• Vacuum system (suction and gravity system)
• Pump feed system
• Fuel injection system
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 1. GRAVITY FUEL FEED SYSTEM:
• In this system, the fuel tank is mounted
at the highest point of the SI engine.

• This system is quite simple and cheap

as the fuel drops into the float
Chamber of the carburetor under
Gravity.

• It is used in a small engine having low

fuel consumption as sufficient head is
not developed for large engine.

• Advantages:
The system is quite simple and cheap as
of other fuel feed system

• Disadvantages:
The rigidity of placing the fuel tank
necessarily over carburetor is its
disadvantage

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 2. AIR PRESSURE FEED SYSTEM:
• In this system, an airtight fuel tank is used and is placed
under the seat or near the engine.

• the hand operated a pump or mechanically operated

pump supplies the high-pressure air to the fuel tank for
supplying the fuel to the carburetor.

• Advantages:
The fuel tank can be placed at any suitable location

• Disadvantages:
There are chances of pressure leak within the chamber
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3. VACUUM FEED SYSTEM (Suction and Gravity system)
• In this system, fuel from the fuel tank which is
placed near the engine is sucked by means of
suction from the induction manifold. by
means of gravity, the fuel is supplied to the
float of the carburetor.

• Advantages:
The cost of the total system is less

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 4. PUMP FEED SYSTEM:
• In this system, a steel pipe carries petrol to
the fuel pump which Pumps it into the float
Chamber of the carburetor through the pipe.

• A mechanical or electrical or a diaphragm pump

supplies the fuel from the fuel tank is placed at
any suitable location and is vented to the
atmosphere.

• This system is used in most vehicles in the

present days.
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 5.FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM
• The petrol injection system now comes to modern vehicles. the fuel is
atomized by means of an air injector nozzle then delivered into an air
stream.

• there may be separate fuel injectors are used for separate cylinder or
one single fuel injector is used.

• Advantages:
• This is the most accurate fuel supply system
• High power is developed
• It has quick starting and warms up
• Low specific fuel consumption rate

• Disadvantages:
• Back-flow of petrol may take place
• High initial cost

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 Carburetor
• Getting the fuel-air mixture just right is the job of a clever mechanical gadget called
a carburetor: a tube that allows air and fuel into the engine through valves, mixing them
together in different amounts to suit a wide range of different driving conditions.

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 Working of Carburetor
1. Air flows into the top of the carburetor from the car's air intake,
passing through a filter that cleans it of debris.

2. When the engine is first started, the choke (blue) can be set so it
almost blocks the top of the pipe to reduce the amount of air
coming in (increasing the fuel content of the mixture entering
the cylinders).

3. In the center of the tube, the air is forced through a narrow kink
called a venturi. This makes it speed up and causes its
pressure to drop.

4. The drop in air pressure creates suction on the fuel pipe (right),
drawing in fuel (orange).

5. The throttle (green) is a valve that swivels to open or close the

pipe. When the throttle is open, more air and fuel flows to the
cylinders so the engine produces more power and the car goes
faster.

6. The mixture of air and fuel flows down into the cylinders.

7. Fuel (orange) is supplied from a mini-fuel tank called the

float-feed chamber.

8. As the fuel level falls, a float in the chamber falls and opens a
valve at the top.

9. When the valve opens, more fuel flows in to replenish the

chamber from the main gas tank. This makes the float rise and
close the valve again
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 Fuel Injection System for Diesel Engine
• Fuel supply system is a seperate system used to deliver diesel at correct time in
correct quantity, to a diesel engine (or C.I engine), for smooth and efficient
operation.

• The operation of a diesel engine is different from that of a petrol engine.

• In a petrol engine, air-fuel mixture is supplied by a carburetor to the engine, at

the beginning of the suction stroke. But in a diesel engine, fuel (without air) is
supplied at the end of the compression stroke, by means of a fuel supply
system.

• Fuel supply system in diesel engine is made of the following components:

Diesel tank or reservoir

Low pressure pump
Filter
Fuel injection pump
Fuel injectors

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1. Diesel tank or reservoir:

• Whenever you supply fuel to a diesel engine vehicle, it is stored in the diesel tank. Diesel tank
temporarily stores diesel that is to be supplied to the engine.

2. Low pressure pump:

• It pumps the diesel at a low pressure to the fuel injection pump through a filter.

3. Filter:

• Before diesel is supplied to an engine, it must be filtered to remove any unwanted impurities. Filter
is used for this purpose.

4. Fuel injection pump:

• This is the most important component of the fuel injection system.

• Fuel injection pump pressurizes the fuel to the required level and injects it correctly at the end of
the compression stroke, during each cycle of operation of the engine.

5. Fuel injectors:
• Injectors are devices used to inject the fuel to the cylinder. In diesel engine, when fuel is injected, it
is automatically atomized.
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 Working:
• Diesel is pumped from the diesel tank by a low pressure pump. It is
passed through a filter. The filter removes any unwanted impurities in
the diesel.

• Filtered diesel is supplied to the inlet port of the fuel injection pump.
The fuel injection pump automatically pressurizes the diesel to the
required level and supplies it to the fuel injector.

• The fuel injector forces the fuel into the cylinder at the end of the
compression stroke, during each cycle of operation of the engine.

• Fuel injection pump is operated by means of a cam shaft. CAV fuel

injection is the most common fuel injection pump used in diesel
engines.

• Any leak-off diesel from the fuel injection pump is supplied back into
the filter as shown in the figure.

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 Power transmission system-
• In Automobile, Power transmission is nothing but to transmit the
power from crank shaft to the rear wheels. It covers different
mechanisms & different system from engine to wheels.
• It includes clutch, Gear box, Propeller shaft & differential.

• Function of transmission:-
1.Vehicle at a low speeds, the torque produced by an I.C engine is
very small, which increases with increase of speed, peaks at some
optimum speed & starts decreasing beyond that.

2. The transmission provides a neutral position so that the engine &

road wheels are disconnected so engine in running condition but
power is not transmitted to wheels.

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to transmit power from engine to wheels.
 Clutch
• A clutch is a mechanical device used to connect or
disconnect a driving shaft(Engine) from driven shaft
(Gear box) at the will of the operator.

• Thus, clutch can permit the engine to run without

driving a vehicle, if it is disengaged.

• Normally clutch remains in engaged position i.e. it

transmits power from driving shaft to driven shaft.

• When it is disengaged, it stops transmitting power

from driving shaft to driven shaft.

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 Clutch
Clutches
– Clutch is defined as the mechanism to transmit rotary motion from
driving shaft to driven shaft as and when required, without stopping the
drive shaft.
– Clutch is a device used to engage and disengage two co-axial shafts while
at rest or in relative motion gradually. The gradual engagement of driven
shaft limits torque demanded from the driving shaft.

Need:
– To transmit power smoothly.
– Once the clutch is engaged , must transmit power without slipping.
– To overcome self inertia of vehicle.
– For gradual engagement of rotary motion from engine to the gear box
shaft.
– These are also used to disengage drive from engine to gear box for
changing of different gears.
– At the time of stopping of vehicle the clutch is utilized to disengage
engine from drive wheels and enable smooth stopping of the vehicle.
– Clutch also takes the care of speed and torque fluctuations for engine
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crank shaft to gear box input shaft science clutch is made from friction
 Classification of Clutches

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 Clutch Plate

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 Single plate clutch

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Disc or Single Plate clutch

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 Single Plate Clutch
• Clutch in normal working remains engaged. i.e. it transmits power
from driving to driven shaft.

• In this, the actuating force is provided by a spring, which forces

the driven flange to move towards the driving flange.

• Torque is transmitted by means of frictional force between the

driving and driven flanges.

• When the driven shaft is to be disengaged, axial force is applied,

so that driven shaft flange moves along the axis, away from the
other flange.

• It is a dry clutch, hence lubrication is required.

• Application : It is used in automobiles.

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 Multi-plate clutch

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 Multiplate Clutch

• If the number of friction plates in friction linings are more than

two, it is called as multiplate clutch.
• The plates are perpendicular to the axis of driving shaft.
Multiplate clutch is shown in Fig.
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 Multiplate Clutch
• Power transmitting capacity is more than single plate
clutch for the same size. i.e. in multiplate clutch, larger
frictional area is available which can be installed in a
small space.

• It also have more effective heat dissipation surfaces. It is

a wet clutch i.e. it requires lubrication so that heat
generated is carried away quickly.

• It acts as a flywheel in motorcycles.

• Application : It is used in two wheelers such as scooter,

motor cycle.

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 Gear: Definition

• A gear is a wheel with teeth along its rim.

• It is used to transmit power from one shaft
to another.

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Classification of gears

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 Gear Drive
Introduction
• Gears are defined as toothed wheels which transmit power
and motion from one shaft to another by means of successive
engagement of teeth.
Classification of Gears
• The gears are classified according to the position of the axes
of the shafts The shafts may be
a) Parallel shafts
b) Intersecting shafts
c) Non-intersecting and non-parallel shafts

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 Parallel shafts
• When shafts are parallel to each other, two
types of gears are mounted on the shaft to
transmit the power. They are
1) Spur gear
2) Helical gear

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 Spur gear

• Spur gears are cylindrical and have teeth parallel to the axis
of rotation.

• It is used to transmit the rotary motion between two shafts

which are parallel and co-planer as shown in Fig.

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Advantages of spur gears
1) Spur gears are simple and cheaper.
2) Manufacturing of spur gears is easy.
3) Spur gears impose only radial loads and no thrust load on
the shaft.

Disadvantages
1) Sudden contact of teeth generating noise at high speed.
2) Load carrying capacity is lower
Applications
Automobile gear boxes, machine tool gear boxes, etc

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 Helical gears
• Helical gears are cylinder
and have teeth at an angle
with the axis of rotation.

• The angle of teeth with the

axis of rotation is called as
helix angle.

• The magnitude of helix

angle of pinion and gear is
same, however the hands
of helix are opposite (one
left handed helix and
second right handed helix).
It is as shown in the Fig.

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b) Helical Gear

Fig: Single Helical Gears

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 Advantages of Helical Gear
• Engagement is gradual, hence operation is smooth and silent.
• Suitable for high speed applications.
• Power transmitting capacity of helical gears pair is higher.

Disadvantages of Helical Gears

• Have end thrust on the shaft along the gear axis.
• Costlier than Spur gears.
• Difficult to manufacture as compared to Spur gear.

Applications of Helical Gears

• High speed stages of automobiles gear boxes, machine tool gear
boxes, industrial gear box, etc.
• Used in high speed applications like Steam and Gas Turbines.

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Double helical gears, or herringbone gears

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 Rack and Pinion
• In this type, the rotary motion is
converted into linear one or vice
versa.

• A straight line gear is known as

‘Rack’. Rack is also sometimes
called as wheel of infinite radius.

• The circular gear is known as

pinion.

• The arrangement of Rack and

pinion in as shown in fig.

• Application :
It is used in machine tools such as
lathe, drilling machine.

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 Bevel Gears
• Bevel gears are used for shafts,
which are at right angles to each
other. However angle may be less
than 90.

• The teeth of the bevel gears can be

cut straight or curved .

• Straight teeth bevel gears are used

for low speed application while
curved teeth are used for high speed
application.
Advantages
1) Can transmit the power at right
angles or less. Application :
Differential gear box in
automobiles steering gear
Disadvantages mechanism etc.
1) Difficult for manufacturing.
2) Cost is more.
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c) Non Intersecting and Non Parallel Shafts
(Skew Shaft)
When the shafts are non intersecting and non
parallel and non coplaner then for power
transmission following gears are used.

1) Spiral gear
2) Worm and worm wheel.

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 Spiral Gears
• Spiral gears are used to connect non-parallel and non-intersecting shafts.

• They are having point contact with each other and hence are suitable only for
transmitting small powers.

• In this type of gearing, a left hand helical gear can mesh with right-hand helical
gear or with left hand helical gear and helix angles of both the meshing gears
may be having different values.

• The spiral gears are also known as skew helical gears or crossed helical gears.
Helical gears is a special case of spiral gear, wherein two shafts are parallel with
each other and helix

Applications
• Used to take light loads, because of point contact of meshing gears.
• Used to drive feed mechanisms on machine tools, camshafts and oil pumps on
small I.C. engines.
• Both the gears are made of same material (steel or cast iron).
• angles are opposite and
Other of same
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 Worm & Worm Wheel
• Worm gears is a special case of spiral gears, in which the axes of two gears do not
intersect, but are right angles to each other in two different planes (non-planer).

• It differs from spiral gears in one very important aspect namely the teeth have line
contact instead of point contact and hence the load carrying capacity is much higher.

• The smaller gear i.e. a driver gear is called as worm, which is basically a threaded
screw. The threads of the worm may be left handed or right handed. A larger gear i.e. a
driven gear is called as worm gear or worm wheel, which is similar to helical gear.

• Manufacturing of worm gears is costly.

• Worm is made of steel or cast iron and worm wheel is of phospher bronze.

• The specialty of worm gears is that it is used for high speed reduction ratio, as high as
100 : 1 in single stage. When worm completes one full rotation, the worm wheel will
rotate by only one tooth.

• e.g. If speed reduction ratio is 50 : 1, then worm wheel will be having 50 number of
teeth. When worm will complete 50 number of rotations, then worm wheel completes
one full rotation, during the same period of time.

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 Worm & Worm Wheel
Advantages
1) High speed reduction ratio is possible. 100 : 1 in the small space.
2) Tooth engagement occurs without shock hence operation in
quieter.
3) The provision of self locking can also be made.
Disadvantages
1) Transmission efficiency is very low as compared with other gears.
2) It generates considerable amount of heat, hence special cooling
arrangement has to be made in gear boxes.
3) Manufacturing is difficult and costlier.
4) It is non-interchangeable. Worm wheel can not operate with a
other worm having same pitch.
Applications
It is used in material handling devices, machine tool, lifting
devices, cranes, sugar cane industry.

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 Gear Box
• Need of gearbox for following reasons:

1. Provide the torque needed to move the vehicle under a variety of road and load
conditions. It does this by changing the gear ratio between the engine crankshaft
and vehicle drive wheels.

2. Be shifted into reverse so the vehicle can move backward.

3. Be shifted into neutral for starting the engineWhen engine is coupled to gear box
speed is given to the vehicle.

4.The gear box is provided with series of gears and shaft to obtain different speeds.

5.The gear box provides move torque on hill climbing and low torque at low speeds
of engine.

6.The gear box is also necessary to provide a neutral gear so that the engine power
does not transmit to the rest of transmission line upto the wheels even when the
clutch is engaged.

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 Classification :
• Selective Gear Transmission
– Sliding mesh Gear Box
– Constant Mesh Gear box
– Synchromesh Gear box
• Planetary Gear transmission
– Epicyclic gear type
– Automatic transmission
• Fluid type or torque converter
• Electric type

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• Classification of Gear Box

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 Differential Gear Box
• When the car is taking a turn, the outer wheels will have to
travel greater distance as compared to inner wheels in this case
differential works.

• The less rotation of a inner wheel and more rotation to outer

wheel it is possible by only using different gears in differential.
Or inner wheel steady and outer wheel in running condition.
Due to this every vehicle required differential.

Function

• Reduce speed and increase torque

• Change the direction of torque as gearbox output shaft is

longitudinal
i.e. it turns the drive of propeller shaft to that of the wheels.
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 Fig. Differential

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Schematic dia. Of Differential

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 Simple Gear Trains
•A gear train is a set or system of gears arranged to transfer rotational torque from
one part of a mechanical system to another.

•Gear trains consists of driving gears, intermediate or "idler" gears and transfer
gears. The driving gear is where energy is input into the system of gears.

•The intermediate gears transfer that torque and may reduce or increase it
according to the gear ratios involved.

•The transfer gear passes the modified torque onto the next component in the
machine, whether it is a wheel, a winch, a counter or anything that needs power.

•Velocity ratio of a pair of gears is the inverse proportion of the diameters of their
pitch circle, and the diameter of the pitch circle equals to the number of teeth
divided by the diameteral pitch.

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 Gear Ratio (Speed Ratio)
• It is defined as ratio of pinion speed to the gear
speed.
G= np / ng
• It is also defined as ratio of number of teeth on
gear to number of teeth on pinion.
G= Zg / Zp
• It is also defined as ratio of diameter of gear to
diameter of pinion.
G= Dg / Dp

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 NUMERICALS
Q.1 A pinion with 120 mm pitch circle diameter
meshes with gear of 400 mm pitch circle
diameter. Number of teeths on pinion is 18 & it
rotates at 1440 rpm. Determine Gear Ratio,
Number of teeth on Gear & speed of gear.

Q.2 The pitch circle diameter of pinion is 200 mm

.Gear Ratio is 3.The pinion is attached to motor
having 1440 rpm & 20 kw power. The number of
teeth on pinion is 20.Determine torque required
to transmit power at pinion & number of teeth
on gear.
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 Propeller Shaft
It is the shaft which connects the transmission output shaft to the differential
mechanism at the rear wheels.

In other words the shaft which transmits the engine power from slip joint
(sliding joint) to wheels through differential, this power used for to move the
vehicle from one place to another.

Functions:
• It transmits rotary motion of the gearbox output shaft to the differential.
• It transmits motion at some angle which varies frequently.

Construction:
• It is made up of a steel hollow tube, which are connected with slip joint and two
universal joints.
• Having diameter 50 to 70mm and thickness from 1.5 to7.5 mm.
• The slip joint are made on the propeller shaft with external splines on shaft and
internal splines onOther
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 Propeller Shaft

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 Universal Joint
• A joint is a particular type of connection between two
shafts, whose axes are inclined to each other.

• The Hooke’s joint is simple type of universal joint which

is widely used in vehicles.

• This type of joint is efficient for small angles of propeller

shaft movement up & down, upto the 18°

• The angular movements between the two shafts are

possible due to universal joint (Hook’s Joint).

• The Hooke’s joint uses needle roller bearing to support

the cross in the yokes. This results in increase of joint
efficiency.
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 Universal Joint

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 Axles
• An axle is a straight shaft that is fixed in location and is used to mount rotating
wheels or gears.

• The wheel or gear can be attached to it with a built-in bearing or bushing.

• A bearing or bushing fits inside the center of the wheel and allows it to rotate
without affecting the axle itself.

• The purpose of an axle is to secure the wheels or gears to specific locations

relative to other wheels or gears.

• On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them.
e.g. bicycles, or fixed to its surroundings, with the wheels rotating around the
axle as a spindle.

• In a vehicle, the axle absorbs braking and acceleration forces, as well as the
actual weight of the vehicle.

• It forms a central part of the structural strength of the vehicle, and it must be
able to absorb the weight and transfer the forces away from the wheels in order
to reduce pressure on the joints of the vehicle.
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 REAR AXLE
• In between the differential and the driving wheels is the
rear axle to transmit power from the differential to the
driving wheels.

• It is clear from the construction of the differential, that

the rear axle is not a single piece, but it is in two halves
connected by the differential, one part is known as the
half shaft.

• The inner end of the half shaft is connected to the sun

gear of the differential. and the outer end of the driving
wheel.

• Almost all rear axles on modern passenger cars are live

axles, that is, they revolve with the wheels.
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 VEHICLE SAFETY
• It is the study & practice of design, construction,equipment &
regulation to minimise the occurrence & consequences of
automobile accidents.

• Following factor under Active Safety:-

• There should be more glass area with minimum blind spots. This will increase the efficiency of
driver for parking and driving in heavy traffic.

• Good mirrors will enable the driver to see potential hazards when reversing parking or changing
lines. Mirrors are to be adjusted from inside of car. Heated mirrors should preferred to avoid
fogging in bad weather.

• Headlights should be designed in such a way that there is adequate intensity of lights. They
should give a good view of road ahead to the driver. In some cars wipers or water jets employed
to help cleaning the headlights.

• The suspension system and steering system should be properly designed to get better holding of
roads and improved characteristics while cornering.

• Now a day’s ABS (Antilock braking system) is applied for better steering and controlling of
vehicle.

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 Passive Safety
• It comes under design automobile vehicle for minimum injury at the time of accidents.

• Passive safety features are the features by which there is minimum, injury and crashing for occupants at the time of
accidents.

• Some of passive safety features help to absorb crash forces collision of vehicle.

• The following points come under passive safety features.

To reduce the risk of spilled fuel and consequent fire in case of near end collision fuel tank should be located at
suitable positions.

In case of accident it is very important to consider the doors closing after car comes to rest otherwise there are
channels of person to thrown out and being killed are increased so the doors should be fitted with safety lock.

Various switches controls etc. should be so shaped that they are not protruding excessively so as to cause injury to
the occupants at the front at the time of front side collision.

To minimize the leg injuries to occupants of front seats, a knee bolster must be provided knee bolster is an energy
absorbing crushable barrier under the dashboard that steps occupant knees from striking hard components and
surfaces below and behind the dash.

⮚ Seat belts should be worn both by passengers as well as drivers.

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 SEAT BELT
• The main purpose of a seat belt is to keep vehicle occupants
safe in the event of a crash.

• The seat belt functions by keeping the occupant in a more static

motion despite a sudden stop or change in momentum.

• A car moves with inertia, which is an object’s tendency to move

until something works against the motion of that object.

• When the vehicle hits something, or is hit by something, that

inertia changes.

• Without the seat belt, occupants can be thrown into various

parts of the interior of the car, or thrown completely out of the
car. The seat belt usually stops this from happening.

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 SEAT BELT
• In a typical seatbelt system, the belt webbing is connected to a retractor
mechanism.

• The central element in the retractor is a spool, which is attached to one end of
the webbing.

• Inside the retractor, a spring applies a rotation force, or torque, to the spool.
This works to rotate the spool so it winds up any loose webbing.

• When you pull the webbing out, the spool rotates counter-clockwise, which
turns the attached spring in the same direction.

• Effectively, the rotating spool works to untwist the spring.

• The spring wants to return to its original shape, so it resists this twisting
motion.

• If you release the webbing, the spring will tighten up, rotating the spool
clockwise until there is no more slack in the belt.

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 AIR BAGS
• Airbags are passive safety features designed to mitigate or
prevent injuries among drivers and passengers in the event of a
crash.

• Airbags provide added protection to seatbelts.

• For example, in higher-speed crashes, a seatbelt alone may not

prevent a driver’s head from hitting the steering column.

• The deployment of a airbag protects the head and upper body

of the driver, and reduces some of the force exerted on the
driver by the seatbelt.

• Airbags are strong fabric bags that are folded and concealed
behind various parts inside of the vehicle.
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 AIR BAGS
• Airbag systems are composed of three basic parts: the bag itself, the inflator
unit, and the crash sensor.

• The bag and inflator are contained together in the airbag module.

• Most often, the sensor is located in the passenger compartment of a vehicle

and towards the front, so if a crash occurs it is quickly detected.

• When the crash sensor detects rapid deceleration, it triggers the inflator to
produce nitrogen gas that quickly inflates the bag, causing the bag to escape
from its module.

• A commonly used type of sensor is the electromechanical ball-and-tube

design. This type of sensor is made up of a tube with a mechanical switch at
one end and a steel ball on the other held in place by a magnet.

• When a sufficiently forceful deceleration occurs, the ball is knocked loose from
its place, rolls down the tube and hits the switch. Hitting the switch causes the
electrical circuit that inflates the airbag to close. With the circuit closed, the
inflator engages to deploy the airbag.
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