1.

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is relevant to any intellectual task where the machine needs to take some decision or choose the
next action based on the current state of the system, in short act intelligently or rationally. As it has a very wide range of
applications, it is truly a universal field. In simple words, Artificial Intelligent System works like a Human Brain, where a
machine or software shows intelligence while performing given tasks; such systems are called intelligent systems or expert
systems. You can say that these systems can "think" while generating output!!! Al is one of the newest fields in science and
engineering and has a wide variety of application fields. AI applications range from the general fields like learning, perception
and prediction to the specific field, such as writing stories, proving mathematical theorems, driving a bus on a crowded street,
diagnosing diseases, and playing chess.

2) Rational Agent
Agents perceive their environment through sensors over a prolonged time period and adapt to change to create and pursue
goals and take actions through actuators to achieve those goals. A rational agent is the one that does "right" things and acts
rationally so as to achieve the best outcome even when there is uncertainty in knowledge. The rational-agent approach has two
advantages over the other approaches 1. As compared to other approaches this is the more general approach as, rationality can
be achieved by selecting the correct inference from the several available. 2. Rationality has specific standards and is
mathematically well defined and completely general and can be used to develop agent designs that achieve it. Human behavior,
on the other hand, is very subjective and cannot be proved mathematically. The two approaches namely, thinking humanly
and thinking rationally are based on the reasoning expected from intelligent systems while; the other two acting humanly and
acting rationally are based on the intelligent behaviour expected from them. In our syllabus we are going to study acting
rationally approach.

3) Components of Al
Al is a vast field for research and it has got applications in almost all possible domains. By keeping this in mind, components
of Al can be identified as follows: Components of Al 1. Perception 2. Knowledge representation 3. Learning 4. Reasoning
5. Problem Solving 6. Natural Language Processing (language understanding) Components of Al → 1. Perception In order
to work in the environment, intelligent agents need to scan the environment and the various objects in it. Agent scans the
environment using various sense organs like camera, temperature sensor, etc. This is called as perception. After capturing
various scenes, perceiver analyses the different objects in it and extracts their features and relationships among them.
Knowledge representation The information obtained from environment through sensors may not be in the format required by
the system. Hence, it need to be represented in standard formats for further processing like learning various patterns, deducing
inference, comparing with past objects, etc. There are various knowledge representation techniques like Prepositional logic
and first order logic. 3. Learning Learning is a very essential part of Al and it happens in various forms. The simplest form of
learning is by trial and error. In this form the program remembers the action that has given desired output and discards the
other trial actions and learns by itself. It is also called as unsupervised learning. In case of rote learning, the program simply
remembers the problem solution pairs or individual items. In other case, solution to few of the problems is given as input to
the system, basis on which the system or program needs to generate solutions for new problems. This is known as supervised
learning. → 4. Reasoning Reasoning is also called as logic or generating inferences form the given set of facts. Reasoning is
carried out based on strict rule of validity to perform a specified task. Reasoning can be of two types, deductive or inductive.
The deductive reasoning is in which the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion while, in case of inductive
reasoning, the truth of the premises supports the conclusion, but it cannot be fully dependent on the premises. In programming
logic generally deductive inferences are used. Reasoning involves drawing inferences that are relevant to the given problem
or situation. 5. Problem-solving Al addresses huge variety of problems. For example, finding out winning moves on the board
games, planning actions in order to achieve the defined task,

4) Computational Intelligence (CI) Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Computational Intelligence is the study of the design of Artificial Intelligence is study of making machines which
intelligent agents CI involves numbers and computations. CI can do things which at presents human do better. AI involves
constructs the system starting from the bottom level designs and knowledge representations. Symbolic AI
computations, hence follows bottom-up approach. CI analyses the overall structure of an intelligent system by
concentrates on low level cognitive function following top down approach. AI concentrates of high level
implementation cognitive structure design

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5) PEAS Properties of Agent.
PEAS: PEAS stands for Performance Measure, Environment, Actuators, and Sensors. It is the short form used for
performance issues grouped under Task Environment. You might have seen driverless/ self driving car videos of Audi/
Volvo/ Mercedes, etc. To develop such driverless cars we need to first define PEAS parameters.
*Performance Measure: It the objective function to judge the performance of the agent. For example, in case of pick and
place robot, number of correct parts in a bin can be the performance measure. * Environment: It the real environment where
the agent need to deliberate actions. Actuators: These are the tools, equipment or organs using which agent performs actions
in the environment. This works as the output of the agent. Sensors: These are the tools, equipment or organs using which
agent captures the state of the environment. This works as the input to the agent. To understand the concept of PEAS,
consider following examples.
 BFS DFS
BFS Stands for "Breadth First Search". DFS stands for "Depth First Search".
2. BFS traverses the tree level wise. i.e. each node near to 2. DFS traverses tree depth wise. i.e. nodes in particular
root will be visited first. The nodes are explored left to branch are visited till the leaf node and then search
right. continues branch by branch from left to right in the tree.
3. Breadth First Search is implemented using queue which 3. Depth First Search is implemented using Stack which is
is FIFO list. LIFO list.
4. This is a single step algorithm, wherein the visited 4. This is two step algorithm. In first stage, the visited
vertices are removed from the queue and then displayed at vertices are pushed onto the stack and later on when there
once. is no vertex further to visit those are popped out.
5. BFS requires more memory compare to DFS. 5.DFS require less memory compare to BFS.
6. Applications of BFS: 6. Applications of DFS :
To find Shortest path Single Source & All pairs shortest -Useful in Cycle detection -In Connectivity testing -
paths In Spanning tree In Connectivity Finding a path between V and W in the graph. -Useful in
7. BFS always provides the shallowest path solution. finding spanning trees & forest.
8. No backtracking is required in BFS. 7. DFS does not guarantee the shallowest path solution.
9. BFS is optimal and complete if branching factor is finite. 8. Backtracking is implemented in DFS.
10. BFS can never get trapped into infinite loops. 9. DFS is neither complete nor optimal even in case of
11. Example : finite branching factor.
10. DFS generally gets trapped into infinite loops, as
search trees are dense.
11. Example:

2) Concept of Bidirectional Search

In bidirectional search, two simultaneous searches are run. One search starts from the initial state, called forward search and
the other starts from the goal state, called backward search. The search process terminates when the searches meet at a common
node of the search tree. Implementation of Bidirectional Search Compare and contrast all t Write a note on comparative
depicts the co performance evaluation. As state viz. completeness, optimality, tin In Bidirectional search instead of checking
for goal node, one need to check whether the fringes of the two searches intersect; as they do, a solution has been found. When
each node is generated or selected for expansion, the check can be done. It can be implemented with a hash table, to guarantee
constant time. For example, consider a problem which has solution at depth d= 6. If we run breadth first search in each
direction, then in the worst case the two searches meet when they have generated all of the nodes at depth 3. If b = 10. This
requires a total of 2,220 node generations, as compared with 1,111,110 for a standard breadth-first search.

3) What is intelligent agent?

In the human agent example, we read that there is something called as "Nervous System" which helps in deciding an action
with the assistance of effectors, based on the input given by sensors. In robotic agent, we have software's which demonstrates
the functionality of nervous system. Intelligent agent is the one which can take input from the environment through its sensors
and act upon the environment through its actuators. Its actions are always directed to achieve a goal. The basic abilities of an
intelligent agent are to exist to be self-governed, responsive, goal-oriented, etc. In case of intelligent agents, the software
modules are responsible for exhibiting intelligence. Generally observed capabilities of an intelligent agent can be given as
follows: Ability to remain autonomous (Self-directed) – Responsive -Goal-Oriented
Intelligent agent is the one which can take input from the environment through its sensors and act upon the environment
through its actuators. Its actions are always directed to achieve a goal.

4) Utility-Based agents
Utility function is used to map a state to a measure of utility of that state. We can define a measure for determining how
advantageous a particular state is for an agent. To obtain this measure utility function can be used. The term utility is used to
depict how "happy" the agent is to find out a generalized performance measure, various world states according to exactly how
happy they would make an agent is compared. Take one example; you might have used Google maps to find out a route which
can take you from source location to your destination location in least possible time. Same logic is followed by utility based
automatic car driving agent. Goals utility based automatic car driving agent can be used to reach given location safely within
least possible time and save fuel. So this car driving agent will check the possible routes and the traffic conditions on these
routes and will select the route which can take the car at destination in least possible time safely and without consuming much
fuel.

5) Learning agents
Why do you give mock tests? When you get less marks for some question, you come to know that you have made some mistake
in your answer. Then you learn the correct answer and when you get that same question in further examinations, you write the
correct answer and avoid the mistakes which were made in the mock test. This same concept is followed by the learning agent,
Learning based agent is advantageous in many cases, because with its basic knowledge it can initially operate in an unknown
environment and then it can gain knowledge from the environment based on few parameters and perform actions to give better
results. Following are the components of learning agent:
4) Type of agents
Depending upon the degree of intelligence and ability to achieve the goal, agents are categorized into five basic types. These
five types of agents are depicted in the.
Types of Agents
1. Simple Reflex Agents 2. Model-based Reflex Agents 3. Goal-based Agents 4. Utility-Based Agents 5. Learning Agents
Let us understand these agent types one by one.
Simple Reflex Agents An agent which performs actions based on the current input only, by ignoring all the previous inputs
is called as simple reflex agent. It is a totally uncomplicated type of agent. The simple reflex agent's function is based on the
situation and its corresponding action (condition-action protocol). If the condition is true, then matching action is taken without
considering the percept history. You can understand simple reflexes with the help of a real-life example, say some object
approaches eye then, you will blink your eye. This type of simple reflex is called natural/innate reflex.
Model-based Reflex Agents :- Partially observable environment cannot be handled well by simple reflex agents because it
does not keep track on the previous state. So, one more type of agent was created that is model based reflex agent. An agent
which performs actions based on the current input and one previous input is called as model-based agent. Partially observable
environment can be handled well by model-based agent. The knowledge about "how the world is changing" is called as a
model of the world. Agent which uses such model while working is called as the "model-based agent Goal-based Agents :-
Model-based agents are further developed based on the "goal" information. This new type of agent is called as goal-based
agent. As the name suggests, Goal information will illustrate the situations that is desired. These agents are provided with
goals along with the model of the world. All the actions selected by the agent are with reference of the specified goals. Goal
based agents can only differentiate between goal states and non-goal states. Hence, their performance can be 100% or zero.7
The limitation of goal based agent comes with its definition itself. Once the goal is fixed, all the actions are taken to fulfil it.
And the agent loses flexibility to change its actions according to the current situation. You can take example of a vacuum
cleaning robot agent whose goal is to keep the house clean all the time. This agent will keep searching for dirt in house and
will keep the house clean all the time. Remember M-O the cleaning robot from Wall-E movie which keeps cleaning all the
time no matter what is the environment or the Healthcare companion robot Baymax from Big Hero 6 which does not deactivate
until user says that he/she is satisfied with care.