Chapter 3

Fault Location Estimation and System Design

3.1 Overview of the Project

A fault is defined as flow of a large current which could cause equipment damage. Faults in a
power system can be created by natural events such as falling of a tree, wind, and an ice storm
and sometimes by mechanical failure of transformers and other equipment in the system. If the
current is very large, it might lead to interruption of power in the network. Moreover, voltage
level will change, which can affect equipment insulation. Voltage below its minimum level could
sometimes cause failure to equipment. It is important to study a power system under fault
conditions in order to provide system protection and maintenance. A power system condition can
be analyzed by calculating the system operating voltages and currents under normal and
abnormal states. One of the methods used in real world application to find fault location is
impedance based fault location estimation and we will discuss it later. In our testing model with
Arduino, we will apply Ohm’s law based voltage division method for simulation. In order to
understand how to calculate the fault distance on a transmission line, the use of symmetrical
components in power system must be defined first.

3.2 Symmetrical Components

Power systems are always analyzed using per-phase representation because of its
simplicity. Balanced three-phase power systems are solved by changing all delta connections to
equivalent wye connections and solving one phase at a time. The remaining two phases differ
from the first by 120°. To analyze an unbalanced system, the system is transformed into its
symmetrical components for per-phase analysis. Converting a set of unbalanced phasors into sets
of balanced components is helpful in performing fault calculations, power flow studies, and
stability studies. They are represented by “+”, “-” and “0” or “1”, “2”, and “0” for positive,
negative and zero sequence respectively.

1. Positive Sequence: It consists of three phasors with equal magnitudes and 120° apart
from each other. The phase sequences are in the same order of original phasors.
2. Zero Sequence: It consists of three phasors with equal magnitudes and zero phase
displacement.
3. Negative Sequence: It consists of three phasors with equal magnitudes and 120° apart
from each other. The phase sequence are in the opposite order of original phasors

Figure; 1
Let’s take an arbitrary set of three phasors I a, Ib , and Ic . It can be represented in terms of nine
symmetrical components as follows:
I a = I0a + I1a + I2a
I b = I0b + I1b + I2b
I c = I0c + I1c + I2c
Where I0a, I0b, I0c are zero sequence set, I1a, I1b, I1c are positive sequence set and I2a, I2b, I2c are
negative sequence set. Now to find the nine symmetrical components, taking α =¿ ej2p/3 = 1
∠ 120 °. Multiplying phase sequences I by α gives the magnitude unchanged but increased the
angle by 120 ° which means it rotates I according to the phase angles.
To find positive sequence components of each phase by using operator α ;
I1a = I1a
I1b = 1∠ 120 ° I1a
I1c = 1∠ 240 ° I1a
To find negative sequence components of each phase by using operator α ;
I2a = I2a
I2b = 1∠ 240 ° I2a
I2c = 1∠ 120 ° I2a
The zero sequence set has equal magnitude phasors with zero phase displacement.
I0a = I0b = I0c

In matrix form;

[][ ][ ]
Ia 1 1 1 I 0a
I b = 1 1 ∠ 120 ° 1∠ 240° I 1a
Ic 1 1 ∠ 240 ° 1∠ 120 ° I 2a

3.3Methods of fault distance calculations

Currently, there are many methods for detecting and eliminating faults in transmission networks.
Some of the commonly used techniques to find fault location are
1. methods of artificial intelligence
2. travelling wave method
3. impedance based method
The main idea of this project with Arduino is inspired by the impedance-based methods that
estimate the fault location based on the measured impedance during fault incidence. So, the
detail estimation of impedance method and voltage division based fault location estimation with
Arduino will be discussed below.
3.3.1Impedance based Method
Impedance based method uses the fundamental frequency of voltage and current phasors from
installed transducers such as numerical relays and fault recorders. Under this technique, phasor
voltage and current can be taken from both terminals or from single terminal of a transmission
line. Impedance based method is widely used because of its simplicity and low cost. After
calculating the line impedance per unit length, the fault distance on the line is calculated. To
illustrate the principle of one-ended methods, consider a single-line-to-ground fault is occurred at
point F as shown in figure.
 Figure; Transmission network
The voltage-drop from the sending terminal to the fault location by using symmetrical
components can be expressed as;
VR1 = mZ1IR1 + VF1
VR2 = mZ2IR2 + VF2
VR0 = mZ1IR0 + VF0
The summation of the three equations results in;
VRa = mZ1IR1 + mZ2IR2 + mZ1IR0 + VF1 + VF2 + VF0
Assume, m = the location of distance from relay, Z1 and Z2 are usually equal.
VF = VF1 + VF2 + VF0 = IFRF
From above assumption,
VRa = mZ1 (IRa + kIR0) + IFRF
Z 0−Z 1
Where k=
Z1

VRa = VR
IR = IRa + kIR0
VR = mZ1IR + IFRF
The apparent reactance measured at the terminal R is obtained by dividing the above equation by
IR,
VR
IR
= mZ1 + RF
IF
Is ( )
To compensate the effect of fault resistance, only the imagery part of equation is computed.

Im (
VR
IR
)= m. Im ( Z1 ) + Im ( RF( )
IF
Is
)
After neglecting the real part of impedance, m =
ℑ
( )
VR
IR
X1

Step by step calculation process is created by a system model using ETAP software where faults
will be simulated. The fault information from the simulation will be used in the fault location
calculation.

66 kV
Bus 1
R
CB

Transmission line
3.72723 +j20.6122

From this network, a single line-to-ground

Bus 2 fault at Bus2 will be simulated. The voltages and
currents at Bus1 will be used to represent ‘VR‘ and ‘IR‘, respectively.
Transmission Line Impedance Parameters:
R1 = 3.72723 ohms
X1 = 20.6122 ohms
R0 = 13.5151 ohms
X0 = 62.0961 ohms
The measured voltage VR at faulted phase from relay = 37.93∠−0.04 kV
The measured current IRa at faulted phase from relay = 1.079∠−78.57 kA
To find IR , IRa = 3IRo
IR = IRa + kIR0 = IRa + ( Z1 )
Z 0 −Z 1 I R 0
3

= 1079∠−78.57 + [ 3.72723+ j 20.6122 ]

( 13.5151+ j62.0962 ) −(3.72723− j 20.6122) 1079 ∠−78.57
3
= 1810.26∠−79.79 A

The location of faulted point from relay, m =

ℑ
( )
VR
IR
X1
37930 ∠−0.04
ℑ( )
m= 1810.26 ∠−79.79
20.6122
m = 1.0003
By multiplying ‘m‘ by the transmission line length of 50 km, we can get the estimated fault
location of 50.02 km.

Working principle of Project model

The single phase AC 230V voltage is step-down through step down transformer which is an
electrical device that transfers electrical energy from high voltage to low voltage or vice vasa
through electromagnetic induction. This step-down voltage goes to rectifier which is used to
convert an AC supply into DC supply. AC supply is converts into 12V DC supply and then
moves to the regulator unit. Regulator is an electrical device which is used to maintain a constant
voltage. Voltage regulator 7812 and 7805 are used to maintain 12V and 5V DC supply. 12V is
enough to operate relay unit and 5V is used to handle LCD and Arduino kit. Arduino is the
advanced version of embedded system. These Arduino has many types but we selected Arduino
UNO. These Arduino UNO helps to develop many advanced versions user friendly environment.
It easily to adopt other devices using serial port.
The project uses four sets of resistors in series representing cables i.e. R 1R2R3R4 , R5R6R7R8,
R9R10R11R12(one set for each phase) and R13R14R15R16 for ground. Each series resistors represents
the resistance of the cables for a specific distance thus 4 such resistances in series represent 1-
4kms (i.e. each resistor is placed 1km’s from each other). Three relays are used to check the
cable through R1, R5 and R9 and Arduino digital pins 2,3,4 are connected to operate relay through
relay driver. Twelve switches are placed between the R, Y, B cables and ground cable to
demonstrate the ground fault. If any of 12 switches is closed that means there is a fault between a
phase and ground, then Arduino digital pins will check which phase is in faulted saturation and
Arduino ADC analog pin reads the voltage drop from ground cable and execute as written in the
program. Finally, it sends the distance of the fault from the relay to LCD. Therefore, in order to
write a program to detect the distance of the fault, the following calculations need to be executed
first.
Arduino Analog ADC pins
An analog signal is one that can take on any number of values, unlike a digital signal which has
only two values: HIGH and LOW. To measure the value of analog signals, the Arduino has
multichannel, 10bits analog-to-digital converter (ADC). The ADC turns the analog voltage into a
digital value. This function converts the value of the voltage on an analog input pin and returns a
digital value from 0 to 1023, relative to the reference value.
Calculation of short circuit voltage at 4km which is between R phase and ground;

1kΩ 1kΩ 1kΩ 1kΩ

LG
R
Fault
1kΩ

Vdrop
5V dc
1kΩ 1kΩ 1kΩ 1kΩ
G

Supply voltage, Vs = 5 V
Vdrop = ?
By voltage division rule or Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
3
8 ×10
Vdrop = 5 x 3
9 ×10
= 4.44 V
4.44
By converting the analog voltage 4.44V to digital value = ×1023
5
= 908.42
Due to some tolerance, set maximum and minimum limit of voltage at 4km; 890≥ V drop ≤920
Calculation of short circuit voltage at 3km which is between R phase and ground;

1kΩ 1kΩ 1kΩ

1kΩ

Vdrop
5V dc
1kΩ 1kΩ 1kΩ

Supply voltage, Vs = 5 V
Vdrop =?
By voltage division rule or Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
3
6 ×10
Vdrop = 5 x 3
7 ×10
= 4.28V
4.28
By converting the analog voltage 4.44V to digital value = × 1023
5
=875.68
Due to some tolerance, set maximum and minimum limit of voltage at 3km; 850≥ V drop ≤890

Calculation of short circuit voltage at 2km which is between R phase and ground;

1kΩ 1kΩ

1kΩ

Vdrop
5V dc
1kΩ 1kΩ
Supply voltage, Vs = 5 V
Vdrop = ?
By voltage division rule or Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
3
4 × 10
Vdrop = 5 x 3
5 ×10
= 4V
4
By converting the analog voltage 4.44V to digital value = ×1023
5
=818.4
Due to some tolerance, set maximum and minimum limit of voltage at 2km; 750≥ V drop ≤850

Calculation of short circuit voltage at 2km which is between R phase and ground;

1kΩ

1kΩ

Vdrop
5V dc
1kΩ

Supply voltage, Vs = 5 V
Vdrop = ?
By voltage division rule or Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
3
2× 10
Vdrop =5x 3
3× 10
= 3.33 V
3.33
By converting the analog voltage 4.44V to digital value = ×1023
5
 =681.31
Due to some tolerance, set maximum and minimum limit of voltage at 1km; 600≥ V drop ≤750

Sure, protective relays are devices that are used to detect abnormal conditions
in an electrical system and automatically isolate the faulted section of the
system to protect equipment and personnel from damage or injury. Here's a
brief explanation of how protective relays work:
1. Sensing: Protective relays continuously monitor electrical parameters such as
voltage, current, frequency, and phase angle in the system. These parameters
are measured using current and voltage transformers installed in the system.
2. Comparison: The measured parameters are compared to pre-set values or
settings that are programmed into the protective relay. If a parameter exceeds
the pre-set value, the relay will be activated.
3. Decision-making: Once the relay is activated, it makes a decision whether to
trip or not based on the type of fault, the magnitude of the fault, and the
location of the fault. The decision-making process is based on pre-
programmed logic and algorithms that are designed to detect specific fault
conditions.
4. Tripping: If the relay decides to trip, it sends a trip signal to the associated
circuit breaker or switch, which opens the circuit and isolates the faulted
section of the system.
5. Communication: Protective relays may also communicate with other protective
relays and control systems in the network to coordinate the tripping of
multiple circuits and minimize the impact of the fault on the overall system.

1. Control systems: Protective relays may also communicate with control systems
such as SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems to provide
real-time information about the status of the network. Control systems can
use this information to make decisions about the operation of the system and
to coordinate the actions of protective relays and other devices in the
network.
In summary, protective relays use standardized communication protocols and
coordination algorithms to communicate with other protective relays and
control systems in the network and coordinate the tripping of multiple circuits
in the event of a fault. This ensures that the faulted section of the system is
 isolated quickly and safely, minimizing the impact on the overall system and
ensuring the safety of equipment and personnel.
1. Data Acquisition: SCADA systems collect data from sensors, meters, and other
devices located throughout the process or infrastructure being monitored.
This data may include temperature, pressure, flow rate, power consumption,
and other parameters.
2. Data Transmission: The data collected by SCADA systems is transmitted to a
central control system through wired or wireless communication channels,
such as Ethernet, radio, or cellular networks.
3. Data Processing: The data collected by SCADA systems is processed by
software running on a central computer or server. The software analyzes the
data and displays it in a user-friendly format, such as graphs, tables, or charts,
to enable operators to quickly understand the status of the process or
infrastructure being monitored.
4. Control: SCADA systems can also be used to control the process or
infrastructure being monitored. Operators can use the software to send
commands to devices, such as valves, pumps, and motors, to adjust their
operation based on the data collected by the system.
5. Alarms and Alerts: SCADA systems can be configured to generate alarms and
alerts when certain conditions are met. For example, if a sensor detects a
temperature or pressure that exceeds a pre-set limit, the system can generate
an alarm to alert the operator to the potential problem.
6. Historical Data: SCADA systems can also store historical data, allowing
operators to analyze trends and identify patterns in the data over time. This
data can be used to optimize the performance of the process or infrastructure
being monitored.
In summary, SCADA systems are computer-based control systems used to
monitor and control industrial processes and infrastructure. They collect data
from sensors, transmit the data to a central control system, process the data,
and enable operators to control the process or infrastructure being monitored.
SCADA systems can also generate alarms and alerts when certain conditions
are met and store historical data for analysis
 to expand further on the differences between line-to-ground faults and line-
to-line faults:
1. Causes: Line-to-ground faults are often caused by environmental factors such
as lightning strikes, falling tree branches or animals coming in contact with
power lines. Line-to-line faults are often caused by equipment failures such as
insulation breakdown or short circuits between two power lines.
2. Effects: Line-to-ground faults can cause current to flow from the power line to
the ground, which can result in equipment damage, power outages, and even
electrical shocks or electrocution for people or animals in contact with the
ground. Line-to-line faults can cause current to flow between the two lines,
which can result in overheating of the equipment, damage to the insulation
and other components, and power outages.
3. Detection: Line-to-ground faults are often detected by protective devices such
as fuses or circuit breakers that measure the current flowing through the line
and trip the circuit if the current exceeds a certain threshold. Line-to-line faults
are often detected by protective relays that detect abnormal current flow
between two power lines.
4. Repair: Line-to-ground faults can often be repaired by isolating the faulty
section of the line, repairing or replacing the damaged equipment, and
restoring power to the system. Line-to-line faults may require more extensive
repairs, such as replacing damaged sections of the line or equipment, and may
result in longer power outages.
In summary, both line-to-ground faults and line-to-line faults can cause
significant damage and safety hazards. Rapid detection and repair of these
faults are crucial to ensuring the reliability and safety of electrical distribution
systems.
Line-to-ground faults can be caused by a variety of factors, including:
1. Insulation failure: If the insulation on a power line deteriorates or becomes
damaged, it can allow electricity to flow from the line to the ground.
2. Lightning strikes: Lightning can cause a line-to-ground fault by creating a path
for electricity to flow from the power line to the ground.
3. Contact with trees or other objects: If a tree or other object comes into contact
with a power line, it can create a path for electricity to flow from the line to the
ground.
4. Animal activity: Animals, such as birds or squirrels, can come into contact with
power lines and create a path for electricity to flow from the line to the
ground.
Line-to-line faults can also be caused by a variety of factors, including:
1. Insulation failure: If the insulation between two power lines deteriorates or
becomes damaged, it can allow electricity to flow between the lines.
2. Equipment failure: Faulty equipment, such as transformers or switches, can
cause a line-to-line fault by creating a path for electricity to flow between two
power lines.
3. Lightning strikes: Lightning can also cause a line-to-line fault by creating a
path for electricity to flow between two power lines.
4. Human error: Line-to-line faults can also be caused by human error, such as
accidental contact between two power lines during maintenance or repair
work
5. Fault indicators are devices that are installed on power lines to detect
and locate faults. They work by monitoring the current and voltage on
the power line, and detecting changes that are indicative of a fault.
6. When a fault occurs on the power line, the fault indicator detects the
change in current or voltage and triggers a visible or audible signal. The
signal can be in the form of a flashing light, a beeping sound, or a text
message or email alert. The signal alerts maintenance personnel that a
fault has occurred, and provides an indication of the location of the
fault.
7. Some fault indicators are designed to provide additional information
about the fault, such as the type of fault or the severity of the fault. This
information can help maintenance personnel to quickly diagnose and
repair the problem.
8. Fault indicators are typically installed on power lines at regular intervals,
such as every few miles or at key junctions in the power system. This
allows for quick detection and isolation of faults, and helps to minimize
downtime and repair costs.
9. Overall, fault indicators are an important tool for maintaining the
reliability and safety of power systems, and can help to quickly detect
and repair faults before they cause significant damage or outage.
When the protective relay detects an abnormal condition, such as a line-to-
ground or line-to-line fault, it sends a signal to a circuit breaker to open and
 disconnect the affected part of the system from the rest of the network. This
helps to prevent damage to equipment and to minimize the risk of injury to
people and animals.
Protective relays can be designed to operate in a number of different ways,
depending on the specific application. Some common types of protective
relays include:
1. Overcurrent relays - these relays detect when the current flowing through a
circuit exceeds a pre-set threshold, indicating a fault condition.
2. Differential relays - these relays compare the current flowing into a circuit with
the current flowing out of the circuit, and trip the circuit breaker if there is a
mismatch, indicating a fault.
3. Distance relays - these relays use the time it takes for a fault to travel from the
relay location to the fault location to determine the distance to the fault, and
trip the circuit breaker if the fault is within a pre-set distance.
4. Voltage relays - these relays detect when the voltage in a circuit drops below a
pre-set threshold, indicating a fault or a loss of power.

There are three main types of Overhead Transmission Lines:

1. Short transmission line – The line length is up to 60 km and the line voltage
is comparatively low less than 20KV.
2. Medium transmission line – The line length is between 60 km to 160 km and
the line voltage is between 20kV to 100kV.
3. Long transmission line – The line length is more than 160 km and the line
voltage is high greater than 100KV.

Overhead Transmission Lines

a. Short transmission lines - In short transmission lines, the

length is within 50km and the voltage is limited to less than 20
kV. In short transmission lines, the effect of line resistance and
inductance is more predominant than capacitance.
 b. Medium transmission lines - These lines have an overhead
cable length of greater than 50km and less than 150km. The
allowable voltage ranges from 20 to 100 kV. The analysis of
medium transmission lines considers the three lumped line
constants: resistance, inductance, and capacitance.
c. Long transmission lines - Overhead transmission lines with
lengths greater than 150km and voltages above 100kV form long
transmission lines. Line constants are considered distributed
elements in the analysis of long transmission lines.

The main idea of these approaches is inspired by the impedance-based methods that estimate the fault
location based on the measured impedance during fault incidence

In terms of the required measurements, there are generally two classes of fault location techniques. The
first class, such as impedance-based fault location methods rely on fundamental frequency phasor of
recorded voltages and currents. The second class comprises techniques such as travelling-wave-based
fault location methods which rely on recorded fault waveforms and often extract high-frequency
information and features. In AI-based methods, both classes are used; e.g., Refs. [29,30,31,32] rely on
fundamental frequency measurements and [19,20,21,22] rely on high-frequency measurements.

If we imagine a 100km line that is an error between 1k and 15km. Therefore, a

more accurate fault location method is necessary to reduce manpower, reduce
time searching, reduce downtime, and identifying trouble spots that can go on to
cause further outages.

Fault on the transmission line needs to be restored as quickly as possible. The sooner it is
restored, the less the risk of power outage, damage of equipment of grid, loss of revenue,
customer complaints and repair crew expenses. Rapid restoration of service can be achieved if
precise fault location algorithm is implemented.

Causes
Broken conductor and malfunctioning of circuit breaker in one or more phases.

Effects

 Abnormal operation of the system

  Danger to the personnel as well as animals

Exceeding the voltages beyond normal values in certain parts of the network, which further leads to insulation
failures and developing of short circuit faults.

Although open circuit faults can be tolerated for longer periods than short circuit faults, these must be removed
as early as possible to reduce the greater damage.

Causes

These may be due to internal or external effects

 Internal effects include breakdown of transmission lines or equipment, aging of insulation,

deterioration of insulation in generator, transformer and other electrical equipments, improper
installations and inadequate design.
 External effects include overloading of equipments, insulation failure due to lighting surges and
mechanical damage by public.

Effects
Arcing faults can lead to fire and explosion in equipments such as transformers and circuit breakers.

Abnormal currents cause the equipments to get overheated, which further leads to reduction of life span of
their insulation.

The operating voltages of the system can go below or above their acceptance values that creates harmful effect
to the service rendered by the power system.

The power flow is severely restricted or even completely blocked as long as the short circuit fault persists.

1. EFFECTS OF FAULTS

The damaging effect of faults depends upon the type of fault ,as we
know short circuit is the most dangerous fault as the current is
maximum approximately 10 times the nominal current of
instrumentation, given below is the effect:
  Due to heating by fault, electrical equipment like bus bar,
generator, transformer are going to be broken & excessive
heating of lines, cables may result in fire or explosion.
 Negative sequence current rises from unsymmetrical fault
will result in heating.
 Stability of the power system may be adversely affected and
can lead to a complete shutdown of the power system.
 Sometimes the short circuit takes the form of arc on an
overhead transmission line if not quickly cleared will burn the
conductor causing it to break resulting in long time
interruption in supply.
 A reduction in the voltage in power system due to a fault
sometimes be so large so that relays having pressure coil
tends to fail.
 In an industry where we see interconnected system, when a
fault develops it is followed by a fall in voltage and
frequency, this may result in loads such as motor which
normally takes the power from supply will start to feed or
deliver the power to fault location. During the fault, induction
motor and synchronous motor feed the fault.

3.3.1Artificial intelligence method

The application process of AI-based methods is illustrated in figure. The first step of applications is to
choose the input variables which comprehend the network condition. In the second step, the features of
voltage or current are adopted by using transforms such as Wavelet, Stockwell, and Fast Fourier to
generate informative features. In the last step, the main algorithm analyzes the input features and gives
an estimation of the fault location as the output. ANN is the most used AI-based algorithm in the field of
fault location due to its flexibility and high precision. ANNs are a class of supervised regression algorithms
that can be used as a prediction tool. The training procedure of ANNs is based on a series of experienced
samples of the system. In a fault location method, the training samples are formed of tuples including
inputs (e.g., current or voltage features) and outputs (e.g., fault distance or fault reactance). The training
data is often adopted from simulations because this data is extracted from the fault condition, and it is not
possible to apply several faults on real-world systems to generate data.

Figure; the process of AI based fault location method

3.3.2Travellimg wave method