Manufacturing Processes

(MET 201)
 Module II: Thermal and Energy Systems

Contents:
Introduction to manufacturing processes, Introduction to machine tool.
Basic elements of machine tool, machine tool drives. Lathe machine: Tool
geometry, machining parameters. Lathe operations (Facing, Turning,
Drilling, Reaming, Boring), Taper turning by different methods. Milling
Machine: types, working principle, milling parameters, operations (slab,
end, slot, face milling), up and down milling. Estimating machining time
in lathe and milling operations, different types of indexing methods in
milling
 Text and Reference Books

Text Book:
1. Ghosh, A. and Malik, A.K., “Manufacturing Science”, Affiliated East Press, New-Delhi.

Reference Books:
1. Campbell, J.S., “Principles of Manufacturing Materials and Processes”, McGraw-Hill,
NewYork.
2. Rao, P.N., “Manufacturing Technology”, Vol. 2, McGraw-Hill Education, New Delhi.
3. Lindberg, R.A., “Processes and Materials of Manufacturing”, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
4. Schey, J.A., “Introduction to Manufacturing Processes”, McGraw-Hill, New-York.
5. Sindo Kou, “Welding Metallurgy”, 2nd Edition, Wiley-Interscience.
Declaration: Some of the diagrams in the ppt have been taken from other
sources while their references are not provided. The copyright of these
diagrams/tables/ any text should be taken from the source for their further use.
This ppt is only for sharing of knowledge, not for any other use.
 Introduction to Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing: The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words manus (hand) and factus
(make); the combination literally means “made by hand”.

Manufacturing: Something made from raw materials by hand or by machinery

Process: A series of actions that you take in order to achieve a result

➢The progress of society mainly depend on Manufacturing

 General Classification of Manufacturing Processes

➢ Primary or shaping processes (0)

➢Secondary or machining processes (-)

➢Joining processes (+)

➢ Finishing processes

➢ Processes to enhance the desired properties of materials

 Broad classification of Engineering Manufacturing Processes

It is extremely difficult to tell the exact number of various manufacturing processes existing and are
being practised presently because a spectacularly large number of processes have been developed till
now and the number is still increasing exponentially with the growing demands and rapid progress
in science and technology.

• However, all such manufacturing processes can be broadly classified in four major groups as
follows:

(a) Shaping or forming Manufacturing: a solid product of definite size and shape from a given
material taken in three possible states:
• in solid state – e.g., forging rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.
• in liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.
• in powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.
(b) Joining process such as welding, brazing, soldering etc.

(c) Removal process Machining (Traditional or Non-traditional), Grinding etc.

(d) Regenerative manufacturing Production of solid products in layer by layer from raw
materials in different form:

• liquid – e.g., stereo lithography

• powder – e.g., selective sintering
• sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)
• wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modelling)

Out of the aforesaid groups, Regenerative Manufacturing/Additive Manufacturing is the latest

one which is generally accomplished very rapidly and quite accurately using CAD and CAM for
Rapid Prototyping and Tooling.
Machine Tool

A machine tool is a machine that imparts the required shape to the workpiece with the desired
accuracy by removing metal from the workpiece in the form of chips.

Or

Machine tool is a power-driven machine, so designed that it is capable of holding and supporting
the job to be worked and at the same time direct and drive the cutting tool or job or both to
perform a definite metal removing operation in order to produce a desired shape of
predetermined size on the job surface which is being machined.

Thus, it is clear that every metalworking machine cannot be called as a machine tool.
 Basic elements of machine tools

M/C tools have following basic elements:

1.Work holding device

2.Tool holding device

3.Work motion mechanism

4.Tool motion mechanism

5.Support structure
 Functions of Machine Tools

The common functions of machine tools are:

➢ To hold and support the workpiece to be machined

➢ To hold and support the cutting tool in position

➢ To support the movement of cutting tool, work or both of them in a defined direction

➢ To regulate the cutting speed and provide the feeding movement

➢ Control of the machining parameters, i.e., speed, feed and depth of cut.
 Classification of Machine Tools

In view of the extremely vast range of shapes that are in practice imparted to various industrial
components, there exists a very large nomenclature of machine tools. Machine tools can be
classified by different criteria as given below:

1. By the degree of specialization:

❑ Standard machine tools or general purpose machine tools: are those machine tools which are
capable of performing a number of different types of operations.

❑ Single-purpose machine tools: which can perform a single operation on work pieces of a
particular shape and different sizes and size

❑ Special purpose machine tools: which can perform some specific operations on workpiece of
particular shape and size.
2. By the degree of automation:

❑ Machine tool with manual control

❑ Semi-automatic machine tools and
❑ Automatic machine tool.

3. By weight:
❑ Light-duty machine tools weighing up to 1 tonne
❑ Medium-duty machine tools weighing up to 10 tonnes and
❑ Heavy-duty machine tools weighing greater than 10 tonne.
 Machining

Purpose of Machining
Most of the engineering components such as gears, bearings, clutches, tools, screws and nuts
etc. need dimensional and form accuracy and good surface finish for serving their purposes.

Pre-forming like casting, forging etc. generally cannot provide the desired accuracy and finish.

For that such preformed parts, called blanks, need semi-finishing and finishing and it is done by
machining and grinding.

Grinding is also basically a machining process.

Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially enables a product

• fulfil its functional requirements
• improve its performance
• prolong its service
 Definition of Machining

Machining is an essential process of finishing by which jobs are produced to the desired
dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material from the
preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the work
surface(s).

Or

It is a metal removing operation from the workpiece with the help of machine tools and
cutting tools. Metal is removed in the form of chips from the workpiece.
 Common machining processes

Names of commonly used machine tools:

1. Lathe machines
2. Shaping machines
3. Planning Machines
4. Milling Machines
5. Drilling machines
6. Boring Machines
7. Grinders
8. Metal Cutting Saws
9. Slotting machines

Nontraditional machining process

 Lathe machine

The first lathe machine in its useful form was made by H. Maudslay in 1800.

Lathe: Definition and principle of working

❑ Lathe is a machine, which removes the metal from a piece of work to the required shape
and size.

Lathe is one of the most important machine tools in the metal working industry. A lathe
operates on the principle of a rotating workpiece and a fixed cutting tool.

The cutting tool is fed into the workpiece, which rotates about its own axis, causing the
workpiece to be formed to the desired shape.

Lathe machine is also known as “the mother” of the entire machine tool family”.
 Classification Of Lathes

Lathes are very versatile of wide use and are classified according to several aspects:

(a) According to the configuration

• Horizontal - Most common for ergonomic conveniences

• Vertical - Occupies less floor space, only some large lathes are of this type

(b) According to the purpose of use

• General purpose - Very versatile where almost all possible types of operations are carried out
on wide ranges of size, shape and materials of jobs; example : centre lathes

• Single purpose: Only one (occasionally two) type of operation is done on limited ranges of
size and material of jobs; example – facing lathe, roll turning lathe etc.

• Special purpose - Where a definite number and type of operations are done repeatedly over
long time on a specific type of blank; example: gear blank machining lathe etc.
 Classification Of Lathes…

(c) According to size or capacity

• Small (low duty) - In such light-duty lathes (upto 1.1 kW), only small and medium size jobs of
generally soft and easily machinable materials are machined

• Medium (medium duty) - These lathes of power nearly upto 11 kW are most versatile and
commonly used

• Large (heavy duty) -

• Mini or micro lathe - These are tiny table-top lathes used for extremely small size jobs and
precision work; example: swiss type automatic lathe
(d) According to degree of automation

Non-automatic
-Almost all the handling operations are done manually; example: centre lathes

- Semi-automatic - Nearly half of the handling operations, irrespective of the processing

operations, are done automatically and rest manually; example: capstan lathe, turret lathe,
copying lathe, relieving lathe etc.

- Automatic - Almost all the handling operations (and obviously all the processing operations) are
done automatically; example – single spindle automat (automatic lathe), swiss type automatic
lathe, etc.
 Types of lathes

1. Bench lathe

2. Speed lathe

3. Engine lathe

4. Tool room lathe

5. Capstan and turret lathe

6. Automatic lathe

7. Special purpose lathe

 Parts of lathe machine

A simple lathe comprises of a bed made of grey cast iron on which headstock, tailstock, carriage
and other components of lathe are mounted. Fig. shows the different parts of engine lathe or
central lathe. The major parts of lathe machine are given as under:

1. Bed
2. Head stock
3. Tailstock
4. Carriage
5. Feed mechanism
6. Thread cutting mechanism
Bed
The bed of a lathe machine is the base on which all other parts of lathe are
mounted. It is massive and rigid single piece casting made to support other active
parts of lathe.

On left end of the bed, headstock of lathe machine is located while on right side
tailstock is located. The carriage of the machine rests over the bed and slides on it.

On the top of the bed there are two sets of guideways-innerways and outerways.
The innerways provide sliding surfaces for the tailstock and the outerways for the
carriage. The guideways of the lathe bed may be flat and inverted V shape.

Generally cast iron alloyed with nickel and chromium material is used for
manufacturing of the lathe bed
Head Stock

The main function of the headstock is to transmit power to the different parts of a lathe. It
comprises of the headstock casting to accommodate all the parts within it including gear train
arrangement.

The main spindle is adjusted in it, which possesses a live centre to which the work can be
attached. It supports the work and revolves with the work, fitted into the main spindle of the
headstock.

The cone pulley is also attached with this arrangement, which is used to get various spindle
speed through electric motor.

The back gear arrangement is used for obtaining a wide range of slower speeds
Tail Stock

Fig. shows the tail stock of central lathe, which is commonly used for the objective of primarily
giving support to the circular job being turned on centers.

Tail stock can be easily set or adjusted for alignment or non-alignment with respect to the spindle
centre and carries a centre called dead centre for supporting one end of the work.

The dead centre can be mounted in a ball-bearing

so that it rotates with the job avoiding friction of
the job with dead centre as it important to hold
heavy jobs.
Carriage

It is supported on the lathe bed-ways and can move in a direction parallel to the lathe axis.
The carriage is used for giving various movements to the tool by hand and by power. It
carries saddle, cross-slide, compound rest, tool post and apron.

Saddle: It carries the cross slide, compound rest and tool post. It is an H-shaped casting
fitted over the bed. It moves alone to guide ways.

Cross-slide: It carries the compound rest and tool post. It is mounted on the top of the
saddle. It can be moved by hand or may be given power feed through apron mechanism
Compound rest

It is mounted on the cross slide. It carries a circular base called swivel plate which is graduated
in degrees. It is used during taper turning to set the tool for angular cuts.

The upper part known as the compound slide can be moved by means of a hand wheel.

Tool post: It is fitted over the compound rest. The tool is clamped in it.

Apron: The lower part of the carriage is termed as the apron. It is attached to the saddle and
hangs in front of the bed. It contains gears, clutches and levers for moving the carriage by a
hand wheel or power feed.
Feed mechanism:

The movement of the tool relative to the work piece is termed as “feed”.
The lathe tool can be given three types of feed, namely, longitudinal, cross and angular.

When the tool moves parallel to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called longitudinal
feed. This is achieved by moving the carriage.

When the tool moves perpendicular to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called cross
feed. This is achieved by moving the cross slide.

When the tool moves at an angle to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called angular
feed. This is achieved by moving the compound slide, after swiveling it at an angle to the
lathe axis.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LtMJonWHKyU
Feed rod: The feed rod is a long shaft, used to move the carriage or cross-slide for
turning, facing, boring and all other operations except thread cutting. Power is transmitted
from the lathe spindle to the apron gears through the feed rod via a large number of gears.

Lead screw: The lead screw is long threaded shaft used as a master screw and brought
into operation only when threads have to cut.

In all other times the lead screw is disengaged from the gear box and remains stationary.

The rotation of the lead screw is used to traverse the tool along the work to produce screw.
The half nut makes the carriage to engage or disengage the lead screw.
 Machining Operations on Lathe

1. Turning

2. Facing

3. Drilling

4. Boring

5. Reaming

6. Knurling

7. Forming

8. Chamfering

9. Parting off

10. Thread cutting or threading

Cutting speed, Feed & Depth of cut
Cutting Speed:
Cutting speed of a cutting tool is defined as the rate at which its cutting edge passes over the
surface of the workpiece in unit time.

Feed:
Feed of a cutting tool is defined as the distance it travels along or into the workpiece for each
pass of its through a particular position in unit time. For example, turning operation in lathe
machine

Depth of cut:
It represents the penetration of the cutting edge of the tool into the workpiece material in each
pass, measured perpendicular to the machined surface, i.e., it determines the thickness of
metal layer removed by the cutting tool in one pass.
Fig. Principle of machining (turning)
 Cutting Tools
Types of cutting tools:

Cutting tools may be classified according to the number of major cutting edges (points)
involved as follows:

Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools and boring tools

Double (two) point: e.g., drills.

Multipoint (more than two): e.g., milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping cutters
etc.
 Geometry of Single Point Cutting Tool

Objectives of Metal Cutting:

• Material removal rate

• Surface finish

•Tool life

• Power consumption
1. Shank:
The main body of the tool is known as shank. It is the backward part of tool which is hold by tool post.

2. Face:
The top surface of the tool on which chips pass after cutting is known as the face. It is the horizontal surface
adjacent of cutting edges.

Flank:
Sometime flank is also known as cutting face. It is the vertical surface adjacent to cutting edge. According to cutting
edge, there are two flank side flank and end flank.

3. Nose or Cutting point:

The point where both cutting edge meets known as cutting point or nose.
It is front of the tool.

4. Base:
The bottom surface of tool is known as base. It is just opposite surface of face.
5. Heel:
It is a intersecting line of face and base.

6. End cutting edge angle:

The angle between the end cutting edge
or flank to the plane perpendicular to the
side of shank is known as end cutting angle.

7. Side cutting edge angle:

The angle between the side cutting edge
or flank to the plane parallel to the side of
the shank known as side cutting edge angle

8. Back rake angle:

The angle form to smooth flowing of chips
from face, known as rack angle. It allows
to smooth flow of chips. Back rack angle
is the angle between face and the plane
perpendicular to the end cutting edge.
9. Side rack angle:
The angle between the face and plane perpendicular to the side cutting edge is known as side rack angle. It allows
chips to flow smoothly when material cut by side cutting edge.

10. End relief angle:

It is also known as clearance angle. It is the angle which avoids tool wear. It avoid the rubbing of flank with work
piece. End cutting angle made by end flank to the plane perpendicular to base.

11. Side relief angle:

It is the angle made by the side flank to the plane perpendicular to the base. It avoid rubbing of side flank with work
piece.

12. Nose radius:

The intersecting area of both cutting edges is known as nose of the tool. It does not have a sharp profile. Sharp
profile may cause scratches on work piece which gives poor surface finish. To avoid this and obtain good surface
finish this area is at some radius known as nose radius. If the radius is too small is gives poor surface finish and if it is
too large gives poor For better understanding watch the video given below.
End Cutting Edge Angle

➢ End cutting edge angle vary from 4° to 30°.

➢ End cutting edge angle prevents rubbing between the end of the tool
and the workpiece.

➢ If end cutting edge angle is less, it will cause vibration because of

excessive tool contact with workpiece.

➢ With end cutting edge angle, surface finish decreases and vice-versa.
Side Cutting Edge Angle

➢ It may vary from 0 to 90°.

➢ On increasing side cutting edge angle, the full length of cutting edge is not in contact
with workpiece when the tool enters the cut. The tool takes a little shock load and gradually
reaches the full depth of cut without any impact.

➢ If side cutting edge angle is 0°, the full length of cutting edge is in touch with workpiece
at once and produces severe initial shock.

➢ If side cutting edge angle is less, forces on tool will reduce as a result of which less
power consumption occur. Also with increase in side cutting edge angle, surface finish
increases and vice-versa.
Nose Radius
Nose radius is provided to increase strength of tip of the tool.

This is done by thinning the chip where it approaches tip of tool and by
enlarging the chip over a larger area of the point.

It is also provided to increase the surface finish. If the radius is more, the
surface finish will be good. But due to too large nose radius, contact
between tool and workpiece increases, which in turn increase friction. Thus,
power consumption increases, along with increase in vibration and chatter
occurs.
Back Rake Angle

The rake angle of single point cutting tool is useful in determining the
direction of chip flow across the face of the tool.

(a) A positive back rake angle is responsible to move the chip away
from the machined workpiece surface.

(b) The tool penetrates the workpiece easily and tends to shear the
material off rather than compressing. So the cutting efficiency is
best with positive back rake angle.

(c) Forces and power consumption reduces with increase in positive

back rake angle.

(d) If positive back rake angle increases, resisting area of tool

decreases.
Generally, for softer workpiece, back rake angle of 25° to 30° is preferable and for harder
workpiece back rake angle of 7° to 10° is preferable.

Negative back rake angle is preferable for carbide tool.

Carbide tools are very brittle in nature, so deformation occurs if we provide positive back
rake angle. To avoid deformation, negative back rake angle is provided.

Positive back rake angle is used for machining low tensile strength and non ferrous
materials. They are also used during machining of long/small diameter shafts or material
that is work hardened during machining.

Negative back rake angles are used for machining high tensile strength material, heavy
feed and interrupted cuts.
Side Rake Angle
Side rake angle should be positive. The significance of side rake angle is that it is used to
avoid rubbing action between tool and workpiece.

Relief Angle

The main significance of relief angle is that it prevents rubbing action below cutting edge.

Small relief angle gives maximum support below the cutting edge and is necessary while
machining hard and strong workpiece.

Too much relief angle weakens the cutting edge and failure of tool may take place. Relief
angles generally lie between 5° to 15°.
Signature of single point cutting tool:

According to the American standard a tool can be designated by seven parameters arranged in a specific manner. It
is also known as tool signature. These parameters are all angles and nose radius. If a tool has shown by 2, 9, 5, 5, 9,
11, 3 it means

Back rake angle: 2°

Side rake angle: 9°
End relief angle: 5°
Side relief angle: 5°
End cutting edge angle: 9°
Side cutting edge angle: 11°
Nose radius: 3mm
 Concept of rake and clearance angles of cutting tools

The word tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the salient
faces and edges of the tools at their cutting point. Rake angle and clearance angle are the
most significant for all the cutting tools. The concept of rake angle and clearance angle will be
clear from some simple operations shown in Fig
 Designation of Cutting Tools

By designation or nomenclature of a cutting tool is meant the designation of the shape of

the cutting part of the tool.

The following systems to designate the cutting tool shape which are widely used are:

•Tool in Hand System

•Machine Reference System or American Standard Association (ASA) System

Tool Reference System -

•Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)
•Normal Rake System (NRS)
•Maximum Rake System (MRS)
•Work Reference System (WRS)