ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Electric Charge
Electric charge is the fundamental and characteristic property of an elementary particle that
causes it to experience a force when placed in an electric and magnetic field. Electrons and
protons are the carriers of electric charge. The charge of a proton is 1e and that of an electron
is 1e, where e = 1.66×1019 C.

The unit of charge is Coulomb or C. 1 Coulomb is defined as the amount of charge that flows
through a cross section of a conductor in one second if there is a steady current of 1 ampere.

Quantization of Charge
Quantization of charge means that the flow of charge in a conductor is not continuous. That is
the charge cannot have any values rather it must be equal to an integer multiple of the electronic
charge. It therefore follows that the charge of a conductor will be

𝑞 = 𝑛𝑒, 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, …
where e is the charge of an electron.

Coulomb’s Law
The mutual electric force existing between two point charges at rest varies directly as the
product of the charges and inversely as the square of the distance between them. The force acts
along the straight line joining the charges.

Let us consider two point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r. According to Coulomb’s
law the electric force will be
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘 , (1)
𝑟2
1
where k is a proportionality constant. In SI unit, 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀 and so
0

1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜀 . (2)
0 𝑟2

Here 𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10−12 C2/N-m2 is the permittivity of free space.

1
The quantity 4𝜋𝜀 = 9 × 109 N-m2/C2.
0

1
Problem-1: Let the total positive and total negative charge in a copper penny be separated by
a distance such that the force of attraction is 4.5 N. How far apart must they be? (Charge of a
copper penny is 1.3 × 10−5 C.

Solution:
We know that
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹 = 4𝜋𝜀 .
0 𝑟2

Being electrically neutral, a copper penny consists of an equal amount of positive and negative
charges, i, e,
𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 1.3 × 10−5 C.
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
Therefore, 𝑟 2 = 4𝜋𝜀
0 𝐹

1 𝑞1 𝑞2 (1.3×10−5 )2
Or, 𝑟 = √4𝜋𝜀 = √(9 × 109 ) = 0.58 m.
0 𝐹 4.5

Problem-2: Find the electric force between the nucleus and the electron in a hydrogen atom.
(𝑟 = 5.0 × 10−11 m.)

Solution:
We know that
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹= .
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

The charge of the nucleus (proton) and the electron of the hydrogen atom is equal, and is
𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 1.6 × 10−19 C.
Therefore,
2
9) (1.66×10−19 )
𝐹 = (9 × 10 × (5.0×10−11 )2
= 9.9 × 10−8 N.

Electric Field
The space surrounding an electric charge within which it is capable of exerting a force on
another electric charge is called the electric field.

2
Electric Field Strength/Intensity

The electric field strength or intensity 𝐸⃗ at a point is expressed in magnitude and direction by
the force per unit charge experienced by a small positive test charge q0 placed at that point.
Mathematically,
𝐹
𝐸⃗ = 𝑞 , (1)
0

The value of test charge q0 must be so small that it should not disturb the electric field produced
by other charge. Therefore, the electric field intensity is given by in more precise form
𝐹
𝐸⃗ = lim . (2)
𝑞0 →0 𝑞0

Problem-3: What is the magnitude of the electric field strength such that an electron, placed
in the field, would experience an electric force equal to its weight? (Mass and charge of an
electron are 9×1031 kg and 1.6×1019 C.)

Solution:
The electric field strength is
𝐹
𝐸 = 𝑞 N/C.
0

Here, 𝑚 = 9×10−31 kg, 𝑞0 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 C

Thus,
𝐹 𝑚𝑔 (9×10−31 )×(9.8)
𝐸=𝑞 = = = 5.6 × 10−11 N/C.
0 𝑒 1.66×10−19

Problem-4: Calculate the magnitude of an electric field that is sufficient to balance an alpha
particle's weight. (Mass of the alpha particle is 6.68×10 kg.)

Solution:
The electric field strength is
𝐹 𝑚𝑔
𝐸=𝑞 = .
0 𝑞0

The charge of an alpha particle, 𝑞0 = 2𝑒 = 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 C.

Therefore,
(6.68×10−27 )×9.8
𝐸= = 2.05 × 10−7 N/C
2×1.6×10−19

3
Problem-5: What repulsive Coulomb force exists between two protons in a nucleus of iron?
Assume a separation of 4.0×1015 m.

Electric Field Intensity due to a Long Straight Uniformly Charged Wire

The above figure shows a long straight and uniformly charged wire of  charge per unit length.
Let us consider two symmetrical elements of the wire at a distance x from the perpendicular
drawn on the wire from point P.

Due to symmetry, the horizontal components cancel each other. Hence only the vertical
components will contribute to the total field at P which is given by
𝑑𝐸 = 2𝑑𝐸1 sin𝜃, (1)
1 𝜆𝑑𝑥
where 𝑑𝐸1 = 4𝜋𝜀 . (2)
0 𝑅2

Therefore,
2 𝜆𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸 = sin𝜃. (3)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

The electric field at point P is

∞ 2 𝜆𝑑𝑥
𝐸 = ∫0 sin𝜃. (4)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

From the diagram

𝑟
𝑅
= sin𝜃

and 𝑥 = 𝑟cot𝜃

4
 or, 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑟cosec 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃.
Hence, the electric field is given by

0 2 𝜆𝑟cosec 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃 0 1 𝜆𝑟cosec 2 𝜃𝑑𝜃

𝐸 = − ∫𝜋 sin𝜃 = − ∫𝜋 𝑟2
sin𝜃
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2 2 2𝜋𝜀0
sin2 𝜃

0 1 𝜆sin𝜃𝑑𝜃 1 0 𝜆
or, 𝐸 = − ∫𝜋 = − 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 ∫𝜋 𝜆sin𝜃𝑑𝜃 = − 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 [−cos𝜃]0𝜋/2
2 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 0 2 0

𝜆
or, 𝐸 = 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟.
0

Electric Flux
The electric flux is defined as the number of electric lines of force that intersect a given area.

Mathematically, the electric flux is given by

Φ𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸𝐴cos𝜃,
where E is the electric field intensity and A is the area through which the lines of forces pass
through.

Gauss’s Law
1
Gauss’s law states that the flux of electric field 𝐸⃗ through any closed surface is equal to 𝜀 times
0

the net charge enclosed by the surface. In equation form:

𝑞
Φ𝐸 = 𝜀 .
0

Since, Φ𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠, so that

𝑞
∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜀
0

or, 𝜀0 ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞.

Coulomb’s Law from Gauss’s Law

Let us consider a sphere of radius r in which a positive point charge q is placed at its centre.
From Gauss’s law, we have

𝜀0 ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞. (1)

5
As shown in the figure both 𝐸⃗ and 𝑑𝑠 at any point on the Gaussian surface are directed radially
outward.

The angle between 𝐸⃗ and 𝑑𝑠 is zero and so

𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐸𝑑𝑠cos0o = 𝐸𝑑𝑠. (2)

Using Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), we have

𝜀0 ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞. (3)
Since E is constant in magnitude at any point on the Gaussian surface so that it can be taken
outside the integral.
Therefore,

𝜀0 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑞

or, 𝜀0 𝐸(4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = 𝑞
𝑞
or, 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
. (4)
0𝑟

Let us place another point q0 on the surface of the sphere. The electric force is then given by
𝑞 𝑞
𝐹 = 𝑞0 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2` (5)
0

Equation (5) is the form of Coulomb’s law.

Electric Potential
Electric potential is defined as the amount of work done to bring a unit positive charge from
infinity to a point within the electric field E.

A (VA) B (VB)

q0

Let is consider a point charge q0 is moved from point A to point B in an electric field. The work
done in bringing a test charge q0 is given by

6
 𝑞0 𝑞
𝑑𝑊 = −𝐹𝑑𝑟 = −𝑞0 𝐸𝑑𝑟 = − 𝑑𝑟. (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

The electric potential is given by

𝑑𝑊 𝑞
𝑑𝑉 = = − 4𝜋𝜀 2
𝑑𝑟. (2)
𝑞0 0𝑟

If rA and rB be the position of point A and B respectively with reference to some point, then the
potential difference between point A to point B is given by
𝑟 𝑞
𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = − ∫𝑟 𝐵 4𝜋𝜀 2
𝑑𝑟.
𝐴 0𝑟

𝑞 1 𝑟𝐵 𝑞 1 1
or, 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = − 4𝜋𝜀 [− 𝑟 ] = 4𝜋𝜀 [𝑟 − 𝑟 ]. (3)
0 𝑟𝐴 0 𝐵 𝐴

1 1
By definition the point A is at infinity, i.e, 𝑟 = ∞ = 0 and 𝑟𝐵 = 𝑟 (let). Hence
𝐴

𝑞
𝑉 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟. (4)
0

⃗⃗ and V
Relation between 𝑬

The electric field 𝐸⃗ is given by

𝑞
𝐸⃗ = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 𝑟̂ . (1)
0

The electric potential is

𝑞
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟. (2)
0

𝑞 𝑞
Now, ⃗∇𝑉 = ⃗∇ (4𝜋𝜀 𝑟) = − 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 2 𝑟̂
0 0

or, ⃗∇𝑉 = −𝐸⃗ . (3)

Here ⃗ = 𝑖̂ 𝜕 + 𝑗̂ 𝜕 + 𝑘̂ 𝜕 is a three dimensional vector operator.

∇ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Equation (3) can be written as

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
(𝑖̂ 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑗̂ 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑘̂ 𝜕𝑧) 𝑉 = −(𝑖̂𝐸𝑥 + 𝑗̂𝐸𝑦 + 𝑘̂𝐸𝑧 )

Equating the x, y and z-components, one can have

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
or, 𝐸𝑥 = − 𝜕𝑥 , 𝐸𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑦 , 𝐸𝑧 = − 𝜕𝑧 .

In spherical polar coordinate system,

𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑟 = − 𝜕𝑟 , 𝐸𝜃 = − 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 .

7
Electric Field due to a Dipole

The above figure shows an electric dipole consisting of two equal but opposite charges +q and
–q placed at a small distance l apart.
The electric potential at A(r,) due to charge +q is
𝑞
𝑉+ = 4𝜋𝜀 . (1)
0 𝑟1

The electric potential at A(r,) due to charge q is

𝑞
𝑉− = − 4𝜋𝜀 . (2)
0 𝑟2

Here r1 and r2 are the distances of point A from charges +q and –q.
The total electric potential at point A is
𝑞 1 1 𝑞 𝑟 −𝑟
𝑉 = 𝑉+ + 𝑉− = 4𝜋𝜀 (𝑟 − 𝑟 ) = 4𝜋𝜀 ( 𝑟2 𝑟 1 ). (3)
0 1 2 0 2 1

If 𝑙 ≪ 𝑟, then 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 𝑙cos𝜃 and 𝑟2 𝑟1 ≈ 𝑟 2 .

Therefore, we have
𝑞 𝑙cos𝜃 𝑝cos𝜃
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
= 4𝜋𝜀 2
, (4)
0 𝑟 0𝑟

where 𝑝 = 𝑞𝑙 is the dipole moment.

The radial component of the electric field is given by
𝜕𝑉 𝜕 𝑝cos𝜃 𝑝cos𝜃 2 𝑝cos𝜃
𝐸𝑟 = − 𝜕𝑟 = − 𝜕𝑟 (4𝜋𝜀 2
)=− (− 𝑟 3 ) = 2𝜋𝜀 3
. (5)
0𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 0𝑟

The transverse component of electric field is given by

1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕 𝑝cos𝜃 𝑝sin𝜃
𝐸𝜃 = − 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 = − 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 (4𝜋𝜀 2
) = 4𝜋𝜀 3
. (6)
0𝑟 0𝑟

The total electric field at A due to the dipole is therefore given by

𝐸 = √𝐸𝑟 2 + 𝐸𝜃 2 + 2𝐸𝑟 𝐸𝜃 cos𝛼

8
 𝑝cos𝜃 2 𝑝sin𝜃 2 𝑝cos𝜃 𝑝sin𝜃
= √(2𝜋𝜀 ) + (4𝜋𝜀 ) + 2 2𝜋𝜀 . cos90o
0 𝑟3 0 𝑟3 0𝑟
3 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟 3
0

𝑝
= 4𝜋𝜀 3 √4cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃
0𝑟

𝑝
or, 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 3 √3cos2 𝜃 + 1
0𝑟

𝑝
or, 𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜀 3
√4 − 3sin2 𝜃.
0𝑟

Problem-6: If two charges of magnitude 4×10 C and 2×10 C are placed at 20 cm apart,
find the point on their joining line where their field strength is equal.

Solution:

Let the point is a distance x cm from the first charge. Therefore it is at (20x) cm from the
second charge.
The electric field strength due to the first charge at that point is
𝑞 4×10−8
𝐸1 = 4𝜋𝜀1 𝑥 2 = .
0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2

The field strength due to the second charge is

𝑞2 2×10−8
𝐸2 = 4𝜋𝜀 2
= 4𝜋𝜀 2
.
0 (20−𝑥) 0 (20−𝑥)

At that point, since 𝐸1 = 𝐸2 , so that

4×10−8 2×10−8
= 4𝜋𝜀
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑥2 0 (20−𝑥)
2

2 1
or, = (20−𝑥)2
𝑥2

𝑥2
or, (20−𝑥)2
=2
𝑥
or, = √2 = 1.414
20−𝑥

or, 𝑥 = 20 × 1.414 − 1.414𝑥

or, 2.414𝑥 = 20 × 1.414
20×1.414
or, 𝑥= = 11.71.
2.414

Thus, the point is at 11.71 cm from the first charge.

9
Capacitor and Capacitance
A capacitor is a device which stores electric potential energy and electric charge. A capacitor
is made by insulating two conductors from each other.
The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of charge to potential difference.
Mathematically,
𝑄
𝐶 = 𝑉.

The SI unit of capacitance is farad (F).

1 F = 1 C/V.
1 F is defined as the amount of charge stored by a capacitor if there is a potential difference of
1 V between its two plates.

Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor

Fig.1: A parallel plate capacitor of plate area A.

Figure 1 shows a parallel plate capacitor consisting of two parallel plates each of area A which
are separated by a distance d. If Q is the amount of charge stored in each plate then from
Gauss’s law, we have
𝑄
∮ 𝐄. 𝐝𝐬 = 𝜀 . (1)
0

Since the electric field E is normal to the plate area, so that

𝐄. 𝐝𝐬 = 𝐸𝑑𝑠cos𝜃 = 𝐸𝑑𝑠cos00 = 𝐸𝑑𝑠. (2)
Hence,
𝑄
∮ 𝐸𝑑𝑠 = 𝜀 . (3)
0

The electric field E between the plates is uniform and so it can be taken outside the integral.
Equation (3) now can be written as
10
 𝑄
𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜀
0

𝑄
or, 𝐸𝐴 = 𝜀
0

or, 𝑄 = 𝜀0 𝐸𝐴. (4)

Since, the electric field E is uniform, the potential difference between the plates is
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑. (5)
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is, therefore, given by
𝑄 𝜀0 𝐸𝐴 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=𝑉= = . (6)
𝐸𝑑 𝑑

Problem-7: The parallel plates of a 1.0 F capacitor are 1.0 mm apart. What is the plate area?

Solution:
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶= 𝑑

𝐶𝑑 (1.0 F)×(1.0×10−3 m)
or, 𝐴= = (8.854×10−12 C2/N−m2 ) = 1.1 × 108 m2.
𝜀0

Problem-7: The plates of a parallel plate capacitor in vacuum are 5.0 mm apart and 2.0 m 2 in
area. A 10.0-kV potential difference is applied across the capacitor. Compute (i) the
capacitance, (ii) the charge on each plate, and (iii) the magnitude of the electric field between
the plates.

Solution:
(i) The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is
𝜀0 𝐴 (8.854×10−12 C2 /N−m2 )×(2.0 m2 )
𝐶= = (5.0×10−3 m)
= 3.54 × 10−9 F.
𝑑

(ii) The charge on each plate is

𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 = (3.54 × 10−9 F) × (10.0 × 103 V)
= 3.54 × 10−5 C.

(iii) The magnitude of the electric field is

𝑉 𝑄 (3.54×10−5 C)
𝐸=𝑑=𝜀 = (8.854×10−12 C2 /N−m2 )×(2.0 m2 )
0 𝐴

= 2.0 × 106 N/C.

11