5Chapter 4 States of Matter

4.1 Gases

The Kinetic Theory of Gases

The five fundamental assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases are:
1. The gas particles are in __________________________.
2. The gas consists of very tiny particles with _________________ if compared to the volume occupied
by the gas.
3. There is _______________________ (neither attractive nor repulsive) between the gas particles.
4. The collisions of the gas particles are perfectly __________ with no loss of kinetic energy.
5. The ___________________ of the gas particles is proportional to the absolute temperature
(temperature in Kelvin, K unit).

Molecular speed: Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution

1. The particles in a gas, at a constant temperature, are always in random motion. The speeds of gas
particles are distributed over a wide range (from very slow to very fast).This distribution is called the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
2. The __________of the curve represents the most probable speed that is the speed of the largest number
of particles.
3. The ________________________ is proportional to the total number of gas particles in the sample.
4. Increasing the temperature increases the average ___________________ of the molecules. Thus,
at higher temperature, the curve broadens out, i.e. there is a greater proportion of high-speed gas
particles and average speed of gas particles also rises. The areas under the curves are equal as there is
no change in the number of particles at different temperatures.

5. The average kinetic energy of the molecules of different gases at the same temperature is identical.
Nevertheless, lighter molecules move faster on average than heavier ones.

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Conditions for real gas approaches ideal gas behaviour are at:
• _____________________, as the volume occupied by the gas is large. The volume of gas particles are
comparatively small and can be ignored. As the gas particles are far apart, the intermolecular attractive
forces of gas particles can be ignored.
• ___________________, as the kinetic energy of gas particles is so high and the intermolecular forces of
the gas particles can be ignored.

Boyle's Law Charles's Law Avogadro's Law

At constant temperature, At constant pressure, the At constant temperature and pressure,

the volume occupied by a volume of a fixed amount of equal volume of different gases contains
fixed amount of gas is gas is directly proportional to the same number of particles. Therefore,
inversely proportional to the its absolute temperature (in at constant temperature and pressure, the
pressure. Kelvin, K). volume of the gas is directly proportional
to the number of moles of gas.

Molar volume of any gas

 at standard temperature and
pressure, s.t.p. (0 °C / 273 K, 1 atm)
= 22.4 dm3
 at room temperature and pressure,
r.t.p. (25 °C / 298 K, 1 atm)
= 24.4 dm3

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The Ideal Gas Equation

Boyle's law At constant n and T

Charles' law At constant n and P
Avogatlro's law At constant P and T
Combining the three expressions, we get a single equation calicd the ideal gas
equation
P is pressure in Pa
Vα
R is a gas constant (= 8.31 J mol-1K-1)
T is temperature in Kelvin
V= or
V is volume in m3
n is number of mole of gas
PV=nRT

The Gas Constant, R

Standard temperature and pressure (stp) is at condition __________________________________

By using one mol of gas occupies 22.4dm3 at standard temperature and pressure (stp), the gas
constant, R, can be calculated.
pV = nRT

R=

Pressure. P 1 atm 101.3 x 103 Pa

Volume. V 22.4 dm3 22.4 x 10-3 m3
No. of mol, n 1 mol 1 mol
Temperature. T 273 K 273 K
Gas Constant, R 1 X 22.4 101.3 x 103 x 22.4 x10-3
(R=PV/nT) 1 x 273 1 x 273
= 0.0821 atmdnr3 mol-1K-1 = 8.31 Jmol-1K-1

The gas equation, P V = n R T can further be modified into more useful equation as follow :
These equations enable us to calculate relative molecular mass of gases.
Mass of gas (g), m
Number of mole, n = --------------------------------
Relative molecular mass, Mr

P V = m/Mr R T

Relative molecular mass, Mr =

Mass. m
Density. p = ----------------------——-—
Volume. V

Relative molecular mass, Mr =

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Example 1 : STPM 2013 Question 19(a)

Ozone, O3, may be used as a bactericide in the

treatment of waste water. The concentration of ozone
in water may be determined using the following
equation:
O3 (g) + 3I-- (aq) + 2H+ (aq) →O2 (g) + I3-- (aq) + H2O (l)
In an experiment, 500.0 cm3 of a waste water sample
was treated with excess of iodide ions. The volume of
oxygen gas collected from the reaction at 25.0 °C and
101.3 kPa was 10.0 cm3. Calculate the concentration of
ozone in the waste water sample under the above
conditions of temperature and pressure. [6 marks]

Example 2 :STPM 2014 Question 16

Ammonia is directly synthesized from nitrogen and hydrogen by the Haber process. Ammonia is used in the
manufacture of nitric acid and it is also converted to nitrogenous fertilizers to be used in agriculture.
(a) Derive an expression for the density of a gas, p, from the ideal gas law. [ 1 mark]
(b) A sample of gases contains an equal amount of ammonia, helium and nitrogen. Determine the density,
in g dm-3, of this sample under atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 30°C. [3 marks]
[The gas constant, R, is 8.31 J K-1 mol-1 and the atmospheric pressure,p, is 1.01 x 105 Pa.]

(a) (b)

Example 3 : STPM 2017 Question 19(a)

A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 1.2 x 10-3

dm3 at a temperature of 2.0 °C and pressure of 2.4
atm.
What is the volume and mass of the sample of gas
under room condition? [6 marks]

Dalton's Law Of Partial Pressures

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Partial Pressure : In a mixture of gases, said gas A. gas B and gas C. the partial pressure of gas A is the
pressures that exerted if gas A alone occupied the same volume as the mixture.

PA = PB = PC =

Dalton's Law : The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of gases in the
mixture.
Total pressure. PT = PA + P„ + ...................Pz
PT = (nA + nB + ....... + nZ )RT/V

PT = nT R T
V
*The contribution that each gas makes to the total pressure is called the partial pressure, P A, P„, ... and
so on..
To see how each partial pressure is related to the total pressure, consider again the case of a mixture of
two gases A and B. Dividing PA by PT, we obtain

XA is called the mole fraction of gas A

Mole fraction of A, XA = nA / nT

The mole fraction (XA) is a dimensionless quantity that

expresses the ratio of number of moles of one component (nA)
to the number of moles of all components present (nT) in the
mixture.

*Note that the sum of mole fractions must he unity ( = 1).

If only two components A and B are present, then
XA + X B = 1

Example 4 :STPM 2017 Question 19(b)

Our body needs oxygen gas at a partial pressure of

0.20 atm. At a total pressure of 2.4 atm, calculate
the percentage of oxygen gas required to maintain a
partial pressure of 0.20 atm. [3 marks]

Example 5 : STPM 2019 Question 19(b)

A vessel which contains 300 dm3 of nitrogen gas at 25 °C and 100.3 kPa is contaminated with carbon
dioxide and water vapour. The mixture of gases is passed through concentrated sulphuric acid to remove
the water vapour and a mass loss of 1.00 g is observed. Then, the mixture is bubbled through concentrated
sodium hydroxide solution, a further mass loss of 16.20 g is observed. Calculate the partial pressure of
each component in the mixture. [7 marks]

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Example 6
(i) State Dalton's law of partial pressure. [2 marks]
(ii) A closed cylinder of volume 5.0 dm3 contains 0.29 mol N2 and 0.64 mol O2 at 25 °C. Calculate the
partial pressure of N2 in the cylinder. [6 marks]
[Gas constant, R is 8.31 J K"1 mol'1]
(i) (ii)

Comparison of Real and Ideal Gases Ideal Gas Behaviour

1. An ideal gas satisfies all the five fundamental assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases.
2. It obeys the ideal gas equation under any conditions.
pV
3. For 1 mole of ideal gas, n = 1 and — = 1
RT
Real Gases Behaviour
Real gases deviate from ideal behaviour for two main reasons:
(a) The _____________________ exist between gas particles cannot be ignored.
(b) The particles of gas have a definite ___________ that cannot be ignored.

Real gas deviates significantly from ideal gas behavior at:

• _____________ because at high pressure, the gas occupies
a smaller volume. Hence, the volume of the gas particles
cannot be ignored. Furthermore, the gas particles are so
close together that the intermolecular forces between
them cannot be ignored.
• _________________, as the kinetic energy of the gas
particles is low. Hence, the intermolecular forces between
the gas become more apparent.
Deviation from Ideality for Real Gases
There are two types of deviation of real gas from ideal gas:
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(a) Negative deviation ( PV/RT<1 )
• At moderately high pressure, the gas particles are _______ to each other. Intermolecular attraction
between gas particles become apparent and cannot be ignored
• ____________ forces between gas particles cause the number of collision between the gas particles
and the wall of container decreases. Pressure exerted reduces. Thus, PV/RT < 1.

(b) Positive deviation ( PV/RT > 1)

• At very high pressures, the gas particles are packed closely.
The ____________ of the gas particles cannot be ignored.
• There are ___________ forces between the gas particles.
Repulsive forces between gas particles cause the volume
occupied by a real gas to be __________than the volume
occupied by an ideal gas. Therefore, PV/RT > 1

Conclusion:
(1) At high temperature and low pressure, real gases
behave like ideal gas.
(2) At low temperature and high pressure, real gases
deviate from idealbehaviour.

Comparison between ideal gas and real gas

Ideal gas Real gas
Molecular volume
Intermolecular forces
Types of collision
Ideal gas equation ______ the gas laws and the ideal Do not _______ the gas laws and
pV = nRT gas equation perfectly the ideal gas equation

Example 7 : STPM 2013 Question 20(c)

Carbon dioxide gas from a fire extinguisher is often used to put out small fires.
(a) A fire extinguisher cylinder has an internal volume of 2.00 dm3 and contains 1.80 kg of carbon dioxide.
Calculate the pressure of carbon dioxide gas in the cylinder at 25.0 °C. [3 marks]
(b) The actual pressure in the fire extinguisher is 2.50 x 104 kPa under similar conditions as in (a). Explain
the difference between the actual pressure and the calculated value. [3 marks]

(a) (b)

. Example 8 : STPM 2014 Question 16

Ammonia is directly synthesized from nitrogen and hydrogen by the Haber process. Ammonia is used in the
manufacture of nitric acid and is also converted to nitrogenous fertilizers to be used in agriculture.
(a) Ammonia does not exhibit an ideal behaviour as assumed by the kinetic theory of gases. Explain why
ammonia shows this behaviour. [2 marks]
(b) Under what conditions would ammonia exhibit an ideal behaviour? [1 mark]

answer

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Essay Questions
1. (a) Explain in terms of intermolecular forces
(i) Why real gases are easier to compress at moderate pressure than at high pressure.
(ii) Why real'gases behave like ideal gas at low pressure.
(b) Sketch a labeled graph showing the variation of PV/RT versus F for an ideal gas and two real gases,
one of which is hydrogen, at room temperature.
(c) (i) What do you understand by the term partial pressure of a gas in a mixture of gases?
(ii) State Dalton's law of partial pressures.
(iii) A vessel of 22.4 dm3 contains 2 mol of hydrogen and one mole of nitrogen at 273.15 K. In this
reaction N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
. all the hydrogen is converted to ammonia. What is the total pressure in the Vessel after the
reaction?

Question 2:
(a) Name, and give reasons, a gas that
(i) behaves ideally (ii) deviate from ideal behaviour.
(b) Table below shows the experimental results obtained from a gas at 273 K
Pressure / atm 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
-3
Density / g dm 0.18 0.36 0.54 0.72
From the data above, determine the relative molecular mass of the gas.

Question 3:
(a) Using the kinetic theory of gases, state the differences between ideal gas and real gas Give one
example each.
(b) A vessel of 10.0 dm3 is filled with 17.2 g of a pure gas produced a pressure 152 kPa at 25.0 °C.
Calculate
(i) the number of mole of gas in that vessel.
(ii) the relative molecular mass of the gas.

4.(a) The ideal gas equation is given as PV = nRT. Explain this equation in terms of molecular movements
in a system where
(i) the amount and volume of gas are constant.
(ii) the amount and temperature of gas are constant.
(b) 250 dm3 of a sample of nitrogen gas at 25 °C and 100.3 kPa is known to contain trace of carbon
dioxide and water vapour. When the gas is passed through concentrated sulphuric acid, the mass
reduced by 0.65 g, and when the gas is passed through concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, the
mass reduced by 15.32 g. Calculate
(i) the percentage by volume of each gases and
(ii) partial pressure of each gases in that sample of nitrogen gas.

5.(a) Derive the ideal gas equation, P V = n RT, from various gas laws.
(b) A closed container of 2.0 x 10--3 m3 contains a mixture of chlorine and xenon gas at 96.5 kPa and 298
K. If the partial pressure of xenon is 46.7 kPa, what is the mass of chlorine gas in the container?

6. Element Y is a gas at normal condition. The density of Y is 1.11 g dm -3 at 25.0 oC and 86.1 kPa.
(i) Starting from ideal gas equation, calculate the relative molecular mass of Y and state the identity of Y.
(ii) Named the allotrope of Y, write its formula, and draw its Lewis structure.

Objectives questions
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1. A vessel containing a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen at 30 °C and 200 kPa. When all the oxygen has
reacted with zinc, the total pressure in the vessel is 150 kPa at 30 oC. What is the mol ratio of nitrogen to
oxygen in the original mixture?
A1:1 B1:3 C2:1 D3:1

2. 0.30 g of a gas occupied 82 cm 3 at 308 kPa and at 27 oC. What is the relative molecular mass of the
gas?
A3 B 27 C 30 D 100

3. At 273 K. 50% of 1 mole of PCI 5 which is in a vessel of capacity 22.4 dm 3 decomposes according to the
equation below.
PCI5(g) →PCI3(g) + Cl2(g)
What is the total pressure in the vessel after decomposition? [1 mole of gas occupied 22 .4 dm 3 at stp]
A 0.5 atm B 1.0 atm C 1.5 atm D 2.0 atm

4. At a fixed temperature and volume, an ideal gas X exerted a pressure of p atm but the hydrogen gas
exerted a pressure of 1.01 p atm. Which statement explains the discrepancy?
A Random movement of hydrogen molecules
B There are intermolecular forces between the hydrogen molecules.
C Collisions between hydrogen molecules with the vessel's wall are inelastic
D Total volume of hydrogen molecules cannot be neglected when compare with the volume of the
vessel.

5. A mixture of V m 3 of gases at stp contains 8.0 g of monoatomic gas X and an unknown amount.of
diatomic gas Y. If 20.0 g of gas X is added to this mixture at the same condition, total volume of the gas
becomes 2V m3. Calculate the mass of gas Y in the vessel. [Relative atomic mass: X, 4; Y, 1; Assume that
gas X and gas Y do not react]
A2g B3g C5g D6g

6. Ammonia is an example of a non ideal gas, because

A it has small molecular size
B i:t has strong intermolecular forces
C its molecular volume is negligible
D it can be compressed easily at low temperature and at high pressure.

7. A 2 g sample of hydrogen at temperature T and of volume V exerts a pressure P. Deuterium, 21H , is an

isotope of hydrogen. Which of the following would also exert a pressure P at the same temperature T?
A 2 g of deuterium of volume V.
B 4 g of deuterium of volume V/2.
C A mixture of 1 g of hydrogen and 2 g of deuterium of total volume V.
D A mixture of 2 g of liydrogen and 1 g of deuterium of total volume 2 V.

8. The value of PV is plotted against P for two gases, an ideal gas and a non ideal gas, where P is the
pressure and V is the volume of the gas

Which of the following gases shows the greatest deviation from ideality?
A ammonia B ethane C methane D nitrogen

9. Sodium azide, NaN3, is made for use in car 'air bags'. When this compound is heated to 300 °C, it rapidly
decomposes into its elements. Which volume of gas at room temperature and pressure, would be produced
by the decomposition of one mole of sodium azide?
A 24 dm3 B 36 dm3 C 48 dm3 D 72 dm3

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10 Under which conditions do real gases obey the ideal gas equation most closely?
A high temperature and high pressure B high temperature and low pressure
C room temperature and high pressure D room temperature and pressure

11 In 1892, Lord Rayleigh made 'atmospheric nitrogen' by removing oxygen from the atmosphere. He
found the density of this nitrogen to be 1.2572 g dm -3 at stp. Chemically pure nitrogen has a density of
1.2505 g dm-3 at stp. Which gas was present in 'atmospheric nitrogen' cause this discrepancy?
A argon B helium C methane D neon

12. In a syringe experiment, 0.1 g of a gas is found lo occupy 83.1 cm 3, measured at standard pressure
(1.0 x 105 Pa) and 27 oC. What is the relative molecular mass of the gas?
A 0.10 x 8 31 x 27 B 0.10 x 8.31 x 300 C 0.10 x 8.31 x 27 D 0.10 x 8.31x300
1.0 x 105 x 83 1.0 x 105x 83.1 1.0 x 105 x 83.1 x 10-6 1.0 x 105 x 83.1 x 10-6

13. Which graph is correct for a given mass of an ideal gas at constant pressure?

14. A sample of m grams of aii organic compound is vapourised in a gas syringe and occupies V cm 3 at T
K and P atm. What is the relative molecular mass of the compound, M r
A m x 22400x T B. m x 22400 x (T + 273) C. m x 22400 x 273 x P D. m x 22400 x 273 x P
P x V x273 P x V x273 VxT V x (T + 273)
15. At 273 K, 50% of 1 mol of PCI5 in a 222.4 dm3 container decompose according to the equation below.
PCl5(g) ↔ PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
What is the pressure in that container after the decomposition of PCI5?
[ 1 mol of gas occupies 22.4 dm3 at stp ]
A. 0.5 atm B 1.0 atm C. 1.5 atm D 2.0 atm

16: V m3 of a mixture of gases at stp contain 8.0 g of monoatomic gas X and unknown quantity of diatomic
gas Y. If 20.0 g of gas X is added to the mixture at the same condition, the total volume of the mixture
becomes 2 V m3. What is the mass of gas Y in the mixture?
[RAM : X, 4; Y, 1; Assume that gas X and Y will not react]
A1g B2g C3g D5g

17. The curve below represents velocity distribution of gas molecules at a fixed temperature.

Which statements are correct?

1 The area under the curve represents total number of molecules in that gas sample.
2 When temperature increases, the peak of the curve shifts towards the right.
3 When temperature increases, the peak of the curve becomes higher.

18. When a sample of a gas is compressed at constant temperature from 15 atm to 60 atm, its volume
changes from 76.0 cm3 to 20.5 cm3. Which statement are possible explanations of this behaviour?
1 The gas behaves nonl ideally 2 The gas dimerises 3 Gas is adsorbed on to the vessel walls
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19. Which of the followings are the assumptions made in the kinetic theory of gases?
1 the volume of gas molecule is negligible
2 there arc attractive forces among the molecules.
3 collisions among the gas molecules are inelastic.

20: Which of the graphs below show the ideal behaviour of the gas?

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4.2 Liquids

Kinetic Theory of Liquid

1. The particles in a liquid are held together by intermolecular forces of intermediate strength into clusters
with little empty space between them.
2. Particles arrange in random.
3. The particles can move randomly through the body of the liquid but not out of it. Hence, liquid has a
fix ___________ but has no fix ______________.
4. The energy of the particles is ___________ than that of a gas, but __________ than that of a solid.
5. A liquid is not easily compressed.

Changes of State

(A) MELTING (solid to liquid)

1. Melting occurs when a solid is heated, its particles receive sufficient energy to ____________________
and escape from its position.
2. During melting process, solid and liquid states ______________.
3. As the solid melts, the temperature of both solid and liquid ______________________. This means that
the ________________________ of the system _________________________..
4. The temperature remains constant at melting point is because the heat energy absorbed is used to
______________________________________________ between the particles.

(B) VAPORISATION
1. Liquid can convert to vapour by boiling or evaporation.
2. ________________ occurs at the surface of a liquid at any temperature, below the boiling point.
3. Since molecules of liquid are in constant motion, some of them (particularly those at the surface) will
have sufficient energy to overcome the intermolecular attraction and escape from the liquid into the
vapour phase.
4. The rate of vaporisation increases with
(i) decrement of the pressure exerted on the liquid
(ii) temperature

VAPOUR PRESSURE
1. (a) If a liquid is placed in an open container:
• Vaporisation will continue until all the liquid has evaporated.

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 (b) If a liquid is placed in a closed container:
• The vapour molecules are trapped within the container and collide with the walls of the container
and exerted a pressure called the __________________.
• Some of the vapour molecules occasionally strike the liquid's surface becomes trapped by
intermolecular forces in the liquid, and thus returns to the liquid state. This process is called
______________________
2. ________________ of a liquid is pressure exerted by vapour of a liquid when it collides with the wall of
container in a closed system.
3. Initially, when vaporisation begins to occur, vapour pressure increases. As more molecules pass into the
vapour state, the rate of condensation increases. Eventually, the rate of condensation becomes equal
to the rate of vaporisation in the closed container. This condition is called _____________________.
At this state, the vapour pressure is known as _________________________.
4. The vapour pressure increases with __________________.
At higher temperature, molecules gain ________and move ____________. More molecules collide
with the wall of the container and thus vapour pressure __________________.

(C) BOILING POINT

1. Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is the _________ as the
external pressure.
2. When the external pressure decreases, the boiling point of liquid also _____________.
For example, the boiling point of water is 100 °C at 101 kPa (or 1 atm). At higher altitude, if the pressure
is 80 kPa, the boiling point of water is 93 °C.
3. The volatile liquids have _______ intermolecular forces, hence they have _____ boiling point because
they are able to produce ________ vapour pressure at the same temperature compared to a less
volatile liquid.
4. The normal boiling point is the boiling point of liquid at 1 atm.
5. During boiling process, liquid and gaseous state coexist, the temperature also remains the
_________, because the heat supply is _______________to overcome all the intermolecular
forces.

(D) FREEZING (liquid to solid)

1. Freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid changes into the solid state at a given pressure.
2. The freezing point of a pure liquid is the ________ as the melting point of the same substance in its
solid form and may be regarded as the temperature at which the solid and liquid states of the substance
are in equilibrium.
3. If heat is removed from a mixture of liquid and solid substance at its freezing point, the substance will
remain at the same temperature until it has become completely solid, because heat is _____________
by the substance due to the bond formation when changing from the liquid to solid.

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4.3 SOLID
1. Crystal Structure
Crystalline solids Amorphous solids
Example: Ice Example :Glass
Possesses rigid and long-range order; its atoms, Lack well-defined arrangement and long-range
molecules, occupy specific position molecular order.

We concentrate on the structure of crystalline solid

(a) The basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid is a _____________________.
Figure 1 shows a unit cell and its extension in three dimensions.

(a) A unit cell (b) Its extension in three dimensions.

The black spheres represent either atoms or molecules

(b) Each sphere represents an ion; or a molecule and is called a _____________. For simplicity we can
assume-that each lattice point is occupied by an atom.
(c) Every crystalline solid can be described in terms of one of the seven types unit cells.

2. The seven types of unit cells

3. Atoms are regarded as spheres. The two basic types of packing are:

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(a) The spheres are not packed as close together as (a) The spheres come into as close contact as
there are larger spaces between the spheres possible. There is less space between the
(b) Has a ______ coordination number spheres
(c) Has a __________density (b) Has a ______ coordination number
(c) Has a ____________ density

4. The number of atoms with which a given atom is in contact is called its coordination number. A large
coordination number shows that the particles are very closely packed.

Packing Unit cell model Coordination number Example

Simple cubic 6 Cl

Body-centred cubic 8 Fe, K, Na, Ba

Hexagonal close- 12 Mg, Ti,Zn

packed

Face-centred cubic / 12 Cu, Al,Ag, Pb

Cubic closed packed

5. Coordination Number
(a) The coordination number is defined as the number of atom (or ion) surrounding an atom (or ion)
in a crystal lattice.
(b) The highest possible coordination number is 12, this indicate the closest packing. The higher the
coordination number the __________ the packing of the lattice points
(c) Contribution of lattice points to a unit cell. In all types of cubic cells
Each corner atom belongs to (share by) 8 unit cells
Each atom at the edge belongs to (share by) 4 unit cells
Each atom at the face-center belongs to (share by) 2 unit cells
The atom at the center of the cube entirely belongs to the unit cells
Position of the lattice point Contribution to tlie unit cell
Corner
Edge
Center of the face
Center of the body

6. The way the spheres arranged in layers determines what type of unit cell we have. There are three types
of cubic cell :

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(i) Simple cubic (ii) Body-centered cubic (iii) Face-centered cubic

Example : Sulphur, Phosphorus Example : Sodium, Potassium, Example : Silver, Copper,

Iron, Barium Calcium, Lead
Consist of ___ lattice points at Consist of ____ lattice points at Consist of ____ lattice points at
each corner of the cube. each comer of the cube and ____ each corner of the cube and ____
The particles are placed directly at the center of the cube. at the center of each face
on top of each other

The coordination number is 6. The coordination number is 8. The coordination number is 12.
Each particle is in contact with 6 Each particle is in contact with 8 Each particle is in contact with 12
other particles . other particles. other particles
(___ at the same layer, ___ on (____ on top and ___ at the (___ at the same layer, ___ on
top and ___ at the bottom) bottom) top and ___ at the bottom)

Number of particles per unit cell is Number of particles per unit cell is Number of particles per unit cell is
____ _____ ____

The unit cell can also be used to determine Avogadro's number, atomic radius and relative atomic
mass.

7. Types of lattice structures

In crystalline solids, the particles (atoms, ions or molecules) are in a three dimensional regular
arrangement which is called lattice structure. The repeating geometric pattern and maximum number of
atoms/ions that can be placed around a central atom/ion are known as unit cell and coordination number
respectively.

(a) Ionic structures

An ionic solid consists of _________________________ in a crystal
lattice and are held together by strong ____________. The solid
NaCl has a ____________________ which has a face-centred cubic
structure. The coordination number Na+ or Cl-- is 6.

(b) Simple molecular structures

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 A simple molecular solid consists of a lattice of molecules held
together by ___________________________ between molecules
e.g. solid iodine. Iodine has a face-centred cubic lattice structure.

(c) Giant covalent structures

A giant covalent solid consists of atoms held together by ________________________ in three
dimensional network e.g. graphite, diamond and SiO2.

1. Diamond
Diamond has a _________________________. Each carbon atom is
joined to four other carbon atoms by _____________________ in
tetrahedral arrangement. The carbon atoms are _____ hybridised.
There is no _____________________________.

Diamond has high melting point (3550°C), non-conductor of

electricity, very hard, high density and high refractive index.

2. Silicon(IV) oxide, SiO2

Silicon(IV) oxide has a _____________________. Each silicon atom is
covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms (ratio of Si:0 is 1:2).

The melting point of SiO2 is high due to the strong Si-0 covalent
bond.

3. Graphite
Graphite has a ________ lattice structure which the carbon atoms
arranged hexagonally with _______________________. However,
the attractive forces between the layers are
_________________________________ The carbon atoms are ____
hybridised, thus their fourth valence electrons are _________
throughout the layer.
Graphite has high melting point ( 3730 °C ), good conductor of
electricity, soft and slippery.

(d) Metallic structures

A metallic solid consists of a lattice of metal atoms with _____________ which

are the _______________________________________ between the
delocalised electrons and the metal cations.

Solid copper has a giant metallic structure which the copper atoms are packed
in a face-centred cubic structure with a coordination number of 12.

Properties of metallic solids: high melting point, good electrical conductor,

strong but malleable and ductile.

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8. Allotropes
(a) Allotropes are different forms of the same element

Allotropes of carbon Diamond, Graphite and Fullerene

Allotropes of sulphur Rhombic Sulphur (α-sulphur), Monoclinic sulphur (β-sulphur)
Allotr opes of oxygen Oxygen (O2), Ozone (O3)
Allotropes of phosphorus White phosphorus, Red phosphorus

(b) Allotropes of ail element have the same _________ properties. Due to the ________ in structures,
allotropes have different ___________ properties (such as freezing and boiling point, density,
colour, hardness, electric conductivity and so on)
(c) Allotropes of carbon
1. Allotropes are different forms of an element in the same physical state. Allotropes of carbon are
diamond, graphite and fullerene.
2. The common fullerenes are C60, C70 and C90. Unlike graphite and diamond, the C 60 molecule is
spherical which has 20 hexagon and 12 pentagon faces.
3. The attractive forces between the spheres are ____________________________________. The
carbon atoms are ______ hybridised, their fourth valence electrons are delocalised within the
sphere, thus fullerence cannot __________________________. However, it can be a
superconductor when doped with alkaline metals.
4.The table below lists the differences between diamond, graphite and fullerene C60.

Graphite
Diamond Fullerene, C60

Type of hybridisation sp3 sp2 sp2

Bond angle 109.5o 120° 120°
C-C bond length /nm 0.15 0.14 0.14
Density / gdm-3 3.55 2.25 1.65
Melting point / °C 3550 3730 280
Electrical conductivity non-conductor conductor non-conductor
Texture Bright and sparkling Soft & slippery Soft and slippery
insulator, abrasive and high superconductor, catalyst
Electrode, pencil-lead,
Uses velocity cutting tools and micro-ball bearing and
crucible and lubricant
diamond film electrode

Example 9 [STPM 2017 Question 19]

There are two types of solid, namely crystalline and amorphous solids. NaCl, I 2 and SiO2 are
examples of crystalline solids while glass is an example of amorphous solid.
(i) Draw the unit cell of iodine and explain why it is a crystalline solid under room condition? [2
marks]
(ii) Arrange the melting points of NaCl, I2 and SiCh, in ascending order. Explain your answer. [4
marks]

Example 10 [STPM 2019 Question 19]

Crystalline solids are classified based on the types of bonding. State four types of crystalline solids and
their types of bonding. [8 marks]

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4.4 PHASE DIAGRAM
1. A phase diagram shows the interconversion between three phases of a substance. Each line in the
diagram represents the conditions of pressure and temperature at which two phases exist at
equilibrium.
(a) Phase diagram for water (b) Phase diagram for CO2

Line OA: solid ↔ gas (sublimation curve) Line OA: solid ↔ gas (sublimation curve)
Line OC: solid ↔ liquid (melting point curve) Line OC: solid ↔ liquid (melting point curve)
Line OB: liquid ↔ gas (vapour pressure curve) Line OB: liquid ↔ gas (vapour pressure curve)
Line OA: supercooling (water exist at the Line OA: supercooling (water exist at the
temperature which is lower than temperature which is lower than
normal freezing point) normal freezing point)
Point B: Critical point is the highest point at Point B: Critical point is the highest point at
which liquid and gas exist in which liquid and gas exist in
equilibrium. Beyond this point, liquid equilibrium. Beyond this point, liquid
and gas phases are indistinguishable. and gas phases are indistinguishable.
Point O: Triple point is where the three phases Point O: Triple point is where the three phases
are in equilibrium at the temperature and are in equilibrium at the temperature and
pressure shown. pressure shown.
Effect of pressure on Melting point curve Effect of pressure on Melting point curve
Melting point curve has a _________ gradient, Melting point curve has a ___________ gradient
showing the melting point __________ as showing the melting point _________ as
pressure increases. Ice is ________ dense than pressure increases. The solid CO2 is _________
water (abnormal property of water). The volume than the liquid CO2. When solid CO2 melts, its
decreases as ice melts. volume increases.

Triple point Triple point

This occurs at 5.2 atm and -57 °C.
This occurs at 6.03 x 10 -3 atm (< 1 atm) and Solid CO2 sublimes at room conditions.
0.01 °C. Thus, solid carbon dioxide is known as dry ice.
CO2 is used in industry as a refrigerant because it
Ice melts at room conditions. is very cold, will not wet the food and non-toxic. It
is also used as fog for stage performances and
cloud seeding.

4.5 Colligative properties:

1. When a non-volatile solute dissolve in a liquid,
(a) the vapour pressure of the liquid is lowered,
(b) the boiling point of the liquid is raised, and

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 (c) the freezing point of the liquid is lowered.
The magnitude change depends on the number of solute particles in a solution but not the nature of
the solute particles.

(i) The vapour pressure of NaCl(aq) is lower than the vapour pressure of pure water.
(ii) The freezing point of NaCI(aq) is lower than the freezing point of pure water.
(iii) The boiling point of NaCl(aq) is higher than the boiling point of pure water.

Example 11 [STPM 2016 Question 16(a) ]

Iodine molecules crystallize in the face-centred cubic structure.
(a) (i) Draw the lattice structure of solid iodine. [3]
(ii) Iodine sublimes when heated at 1 atm. [2]
(b) Sketch the phase diagram showing the sublimation of iodine.

Example 12 [STPM 2018 Question 17]

A crystal lattice of ice is shown in the diagram

below.
(a) What is the lattice structure of the crystalline
solid above? [1 mark]
(b) State the chemical bonds which exist in the
crystal lattice of ice. [2 marks]
(c) Sketch and label the phase diagram of water.
[2 marks]
(d) State one anomalous behaviour of water and
give your reason. [2 marks]

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4.4 PHASE DIAGRAM
1. A phase diagram shows the interconversion between three phases of a substance. Each line in the
diagram represents the conditions of pressure and temperature at which two phases exist at
equilibrium.
(a) Phase diagram for water (b) Phase diagram for CO2

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 Line OA: solid ↔ gas (____________________) Line OA: solid ↔ gas (____________________)
Line OC: solid ↔ liquid (___________________) Line OC: solid ↔ liquid (__________________)
Line OB: liquid ↔ gas (____________________) Line OB: liquid ↔ gas (___________________)
Line OA: supercooling (water exist at the Line OA: supercooling (carbon dioxide exist at
temperature which is lower than the temperature which is lower than
normal freezing point) normal freezing point)
Point B: _____________ is the highest point at Point B: __________________ is the highest
which liquid and gas exist in point at which liquid and gas exist in
equilibrium. Beyond this point, liquid equilibrium. Beyond this point, liquid
and gas phases are ______________ and gas phases are indistinguishable.
(374oC,218atm) (31oC, 73atm)
Point O: ___________ is where the three phases Point O:___________is where the three phases
are in equilibrium at the temperature and are in equilibrium at the temperature and
pressure shown.( 0.006 atm, 0.01oC) pressure shown.(5 atm, -57oC)

Effect of pressure on Melting point curve Effect of pressure on Melting point curve

Melting point curve has a _______ gradient, Melting point curve has a ______ gradient
showing the melting point _________ as showing the melting point _________ as
pressure increases. Ice is __________ than pressure increases. The solid CO2 is ______
water (abnormal property of water). The volume than the liquid CO2. When solid CO2 melts, its
____________ as ice melts. volume __________.

Triple point Triple point

This occurs at 6.03 x 10 -3 atm (< 1 atm) and This occurs at 5.2 atm and - 57 °C.
0.01 °C. Solid CO2 ___________ at room conditions.
Thus, solid carbon dioxide is known as dry ice.
Ice melts at room conditions. CO2 is used in industry as a ________ because it
is very cold, will not wet the food and non-toxic. It
is also used as fog for stage performances and
cloud seeding.

4.5 Colligative properties:

1. When a non-volatile solute dissolve in a liquid,
(a) the vapour pressure of the liquid is ____________,

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 (b) the boiling point of the liquid is __________, and
(c) the freezing point of the liquid is ____________.
The magnitude change depends on the number of solute particles in a solution but not the nature of
the solute particles.

(i) The vapour pressure of NaCl(aq) is _____ than the vapour pressure of pure water.
(ii) The freezing point of NaCI(aq) is _______ than the freezing point of pure water.
(iii) The boiling point of NaCl(aq) is ________ than the boiling point of pure water.

Example 11 [STPM 2016 Question 16(a) ]

Iodine molecules crystallize in the face-centred cubic structure.
(i) Draw the lattice structure of solid iodine. [3]
(ii) Iodine sublimes when heated at 1 atm. [2]
Sketch the phase diagram showing the sublimation of iodine.

(i) (ii)

Example 12 [STPM 2018 Question 17]

A crystal lattice of ice is shown in the diagram

below.
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(a) What is the lattice structure of the crystalline
solid above? [1 mark]
(b) State the chemical bonds which exist in the
crystal lattice of ice. [2 marks]
(c) Sketch and label the phase diagram of water. [2
marks]
(d) State one anomalous behaviour of water and
give your reason. [2 marks]

Answer
(a) Simple molecular structure. [1]

(b) Covalent bond between hydrogen atom and

oxygen atom. Hydrogen bonding between
water molecules. [1]

(d) Ice is less dense than water /ice has a larger

volume than water. [1 ]
Ice has open structure. [ 1 ]

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