seismicity of the area.

3.0 LOAD COMBINATIONS

The design of structures shall be carried out for the load combinations for service and
ultimate load conditions as per ACI-318-08.

4.0 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

4.1 REINFORCING STEEL

All reinforcing steel, to be used in rfhsfdsh einforced concrete works shall be deformed, hot
rolled billet steel bars
covers shall conform to the ACI 318 Code requirements.

4.2 CONCRETE

All reinforced concrete for water retaining structures shall have minimum compressive
cylinder strength of 28 N/mm2 (4000 psi) at 28 days and (3000 psi) at 28 days for other
members.

Adequate protection shall be given to concrete against direct exposure to earth and to
possible physical damage at locations like vehicle entrances by bitumen coating, corner
angles, bollards etc.

4.3 BRICK WORK

All brick work shall be laid in first class Brick Masonry. A good first class brick shall be
sound hard and well burnt with uniform size , shape and color, homogeneous in texture
and free from flaws and cracks. Minimum crushing strength of first class burnt bricks shall
be 14 N/mm2 (2000 psi).

5.0 ANALYSIS

The analysis for final design shall be carried out using computer software of analysis and
design as listed below.

ETABS - Extended. Three Dimensional Analysis of

Building System.
SAFE - Slab analysis by the finite element method

SAP - Integrated solution for Structural analysis program

 PILE
FOUNDATION
DESIGN
( GUIDE )
 Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

Ascalew Abebe & Dr Ian GN Smith

School of the Built Environment, Napier University, Edinburgh

See Elements of Soil Mechanics (8th Edition) to learn how to design piles
(and other geotechnical structures) to Eurocode 7. Full details are here....
PURPOSE OF THE GUIDE
(Note: This Student Guide is intended as just
that - a guide for students of civil engineering. There are many texts on pile foundations.
Use it as you see fit, but please note that there Generally, experience shows us that
is no technical support available to answer undergraduates find most of these texts
any questions about the guide!) complicated and difficult to understand.

This guide has extracted the main points and

puts together the whole process of pile
foundation design in a student friendly manner.

The guide is presented in two versions: text-

version (compendium from) and this web-
version that can be accessed via internet or
intranet and can be used as a supplementary
self-assisting students guide.
 STRUCTURE OF THE GUIDE

Introduction to pile foundations

Pile foundation design

Load on piles

Single pile design

Pile group design

Installation-test-and factor of safety

Pile installation methods

Test piles

Factors of safety

Back to Top
 Pile

Introduction to pile foundations

Objectives: Texts dealing with geotechnical and ground engineering techniques classify
piles in a number of ways. The objective of this unit is that in order to help the
undergraduate student understand these classifications using materials extracted from
several sources, this chapter gives an introduction to pile foundations.

1.1 Pile foundations

Pile foundations are the part of a structure used to carry and transfer the load of the
structure to the bearing ground located at some depth below ground surface. The main
components of the foundation are the pile cap and the piles. Piles are long and slender
members which transfer the load to deeper soil or rock of high bearing capacity avoiding
shallow soil of low bearing capacity The main types of materials used for piles are Wood,
steel and concrete. Piles made from these materials are driven, drilled or jacked into the
ground and connected to pile caps. Depending upon type of soil, pile material and load
transmitting characteristic piles are classified accordingly. In the following chapter we learn
about, classifications, functions and pros and cons of piles.

1.2 Historical
Pile foundations have been used as load carrying and load transferring systems for many
years.

In the early days of civilisation[2], from the communication, defence or strategic point of
view villages and towns were situated near to rivers and lakes. It was therefore important to
strengthen the bearing ground with some form of piling.

Timber piles were driven in to the ground by hand or holes were dug and filled with sand
and stones.

In 1740 Christoffoer Polhem invented pile driving equipment which resembled to days pile
driving mechanism. Steel piles have been used since 1800 and concrete piles since about
1900.

The industrial revolution brought about important changes to pile driving system through
the invention of steam and diesel driven machines.

More recently, the growing need for housing and construction has forced authorities and
development agencies to exploit lands with poor soil characteristics. This has led to the
development and improved piles and pile driving systems. Today there are many advanced
techniques of pile installation.

1.3 Function of piles

As with other types of foundations, the purpose of a pile foundations is:

to transmit a foundation load to a solid ground

to resist vertical, lateral and uplift load

A structure can be founded on piles if the soil immediately beneath its base does not have
adequate bearing capacity. If the results of site investigation show that the shallow soil is
unstable and weak or if the magnitude of the estimated settlement is not acceptable a pile
foundation may become considered. Further, a cost estimate may indicate that a pile
foundation may be cheaper than any other compared ground improvement costs.

In the cases of heavy constructions, it is likely that the bearing capacity of the shallow soil
will not be satisfactory, and the construction should be built on

pile foundations. Piles can also be used in normal ground conditions to resist horizontal
loads. Piles are a convenient method of foundation for works over water, such as jetties or
bridge piers.

1.4 Classification of piles

1.4.1 Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional
behaviour

End bearing piles (point bearing piles)

Friction piles (cohesion piles )

Combination of friction and cohesion piles

1.4.2 End bearing piles

These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth below
the base of the structure and they derive most of their carrying capacity from the
penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile (see figure 1.1). The pile behaves as
an ordinary column and should be designed as such. Even in weak soil a pile will not fail by
buckling and this effect need only be considered if part of the pile is unsupported, i.e. if it is
in either air or water. Load is transmitted to the soil through friction or cohesion. But
sometimes, the soil surrounding the pile may adhere to the surface of the pile and causes
"Negative Skin Friction" on the pile. This, sometimes have considerable effect on the
capacity of the pile. Negative skin friction is caused by the drainage of the ground water
and consolidation of the soil. The founding depth of the pile is influenced by the results of
the site investigate on and soil test.

1.4.3 Friction or cohesion piles

Carrying capacity is derived mainly from the adhesion or friction of the soil in contact with
the shaft of the pile (see fig 1.2).

Figure 1-1 End bearing piles Figure 1-2 Friction or cohesion pile
1.4.4 Cohesion piles

These piles transmit most of their load to the soil through skin friction. This process of
driving such piles close to each other in groups greatly reduces the porosity and
compressibility of the soil within and around the groups. Therefore piles of this category are
some times called compaction piles. During the process of driving the pile into the ground,
the soil becomes moulded and, as a result loses some of its strength. Therefore the pile is
not able to transfer the exact amount of load which it is intended to immediately after it has
been driven. Usually, the soil regains some of its strength three to five months after it has
been driven.

1.4.5 Friction piles

These piles also transfer their load to the ground through skin friction. The process of
driving such piles does not compact the soil appreciably. These types of pile foundations
are commonly known as floating pile foundations.

1.4.6 Combination of friction piles and cohesion piles

An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not hard, such as a firm
clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower material to develop adequate frictional
resistance. A farther variation of the end bearing pile is piles with enlarged bearing areas.
This is achieved by forcing a bulb of concrete into the soft stratum immediately above the
firm layer to give an enlarged base. A similar effect is produced with bored piles by forming
a large cone or bell at the bottom with a special reaming tool. Bored piles which are
provided with a bell have a high tensile strength and can be used as tension piles (see
fig.1-3)

Figure 1-3 under-reamed base enlargement to

a bore-and-cast-in-situ pile

1.4.7 Classification of pile with respect to type of material

  Timber
 Concrete
 Steel
 Composite piles

1.4.8 Timber piles

Used from earliest record time and still used for permanent works in regions where timber
is plentiful. Timber is most suitable for long cohesion piling and piling beneath
embankments. The timber should be in a good condition and should not have been
attacked by insects. For timber piles of length less than 14 meters, the diameter of the tip
should be greater than 150 mm. If the length is greater than 18 meters a tip with a diameter
of 125 mm is acceptable. It is essential that the timber is driven in the right direction and
should not be driven into firm ground. As this can easily damage the pile. Keeping the
timber below the ground water level will protect the timber against decay and putrefaction.
To protect and strengthen the tip of the pile, timber piles can be provided with toe cover.
Pressure creosoting is the usual method of protecting timber piles.

1.4.9 Concrete pile

Pre cast concrete Piles or Pre fabricated concrete piles : Usually of square (see fig 1-4 b),
triangle, circle or octagonal section, they are produced in short length in one metre intervals
between 3 and 13 meters. They are pre-caste so that they can be easily connected
together in order to reach to the required length (fig 1-4 a) . This will not decrease the
design load capacity. Reinforcement is necessary within the pile to help withstand both
handling and driving stresses. Pre stressed concrete piles are also used and are becoming
more popular than the ordinary pre cast as less reinforcement is required .

Figure 1-4 a) concrete pile connecting detail. b) squared pre-cast concert pile
The Hercules type of pile joint (Figure 1-5) is easily and accurately cast into the pile and is
quickly and safely joined on site. They are made to accurate dimensional tolerances from
high grade steels.

Figure 1-5 Hercules type of pile joint

1.4.10 Driven and cast in place Concrete piles

Two of the main types used in the UK are: West’s shell pile : Pre cast, reinforced concrete
tubes, about 1 m long, are threaded on to a steel mandrel and driven into the ground after a
concrete shoe has been placed at the front of the shells. Once the shells have been driven
to specified depth the mandrel is withdrawn and reinforced concrete inserted in the core.
Diameters vary from 325 to 600 mm.

Franki Pile: A steel tube is erected vertically over the place where the pile is to be driven,
and about a metre depth of gravel is placed at the end of the tube. A drop hammer, 1500 to
4000kg mass, compacts the aggregate into a solid plug which then penetrates the soil and
takes the steel tube down with it. When the required depth has been achieved the tube is
raised slightly and the aggregate broken out. Dry concrete is now added and hammered
until a bulb is formed. Reinforcement is placed in position and more dry concrete is placed
and rammed until the pile top comes up to ground level.

1.4.11 Steel piles

Steel piles: (figure 1.4) steel/ Iron piles are suitable for handling and driving in long lengths.
Their relatively small cross-sectional area combined with their high strength makes
penetration easier in firm soil. They can be easily cut off or joined by welding. If the pile is
driven into a soil with low pH value, then there is a risk of corrosion, but risk of corrosion is
not as great as one might think. Although tar coating or cathodic protection can be
employed in permanent works.

It is common to allow for an amount of corrosion in design by simply over dimensioning the
cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In this way the corrosion process can be prolonged up
to 50 years. Normally the speed of corrosion is 0.2-0.5 mm/year and, in design, this value
can be taken as 1mm/year

a) X- cross-section b) H - cross-section c) steel pipe

Figure 1-6 Steel piles cross-sections

1.4.12 Composite piles

Combination of different materials in the same of pile. As indicated earlier, part of a timber
pile which is installed above ground water could be vulnerable to insect attack and decay.
To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the ground water level, whilst wood pile
is installed under the ground water level (see figure 1.7).
 Figure 1-7 Protecting timber piles from decay:
a) by pre-cast concrete upper section above water level.
b) by extending pile cap below water level

1.4.13 Classification of pile with respect to effect on the soil

A simplified division into driven or bored piles is often employed.

1.4.14 Driven piles

Driven piles are considered to be displacement piles. In the process of driving the pile into
the ground, soil is moved radially as the pile shaft enters the ground. There may also be a
component of movement of the soil in the vertical direction.
 Figure 1-8 driven piles

1.4.15 Bored piles

Bored piles(Replacement piles) are generally considered to be non-displacement piles a

void is formed by boring or excavation before piles is produced. Piles can be produced by
casting concrete in the void. Some soils such as stiff clays are particularly amenable to the
formation of piles in this way, since the bore hole walls do not requires temporary support
except cloth to the ground surface. In unstable ground, such as gravel the ground requires
temporary support from casing or bentonite slurry. Alternatively the casing may be
permanent, but driven into a hole which is bored as casing is advanced. A different
technique, which is still essentially non-displacement, is to intrude, a grout or a concrete
from an auger which is rotated into the granular soil, and hence produced a grouted column
of soil.

There are three non-displacement methods: bored cast- in - place piles, particularly pre-
formed piles and grout or concrete intruded piles.

The following are replacement piles:

Augered

Cable percussion drilling

Large-diameter under-reamed
Types incorporating pre caste concrete unite

Drilled-in tubes

Mini piles

1.5 Aide to classification of piles

Figure 1-8. for a quick understanding of pile classification, a hierarchical representation of

pile types can be used. Also advantages and disadvantages of different pile materials is
given in section 1.6.
 Figure 1-9 hierarchical representation of pile types

1.6 Advantages and disadvantages of different pile material

Wood piles

+ The piles are easy to handle

+ Relatively inexpensive where timber is plentiful.

+ Sections can be joined together and excess length easily removed.

-- The piles will rot above the ground water level. Have a limited bearing capacity.

-- Can easily be damaged during driving by stones and boulders.

-- The piles are difficult to splice and are attacked by marine borers in salt water.

Prefabricated concrete piles (reinforced) and pre stressed concrete piles. (driven)
affected by the ground water conditions.

+ Do not corrode or rot.

+ Are easy to splice. Relatively inexpensive.

+ The quality of the concrete can be checked before driving.

+ Stable in squeezing ground, for example, soft clays, silts and peats pile material can be
inspected before piling.

+ Can be re driven if affected by ground heave. Construction procedure unaffected by

ground water.

+ Can be driven in long lengths. Can be carried above ground level, for example, through
water for marine structures.

+ Can increase the relative density of a granular founding stratum.

-- Relatively difficult to cut.

-- Displacement, heave, and disturbance of the soil during driving.

-- Can be damaged during driving. Replacement piles may be required.

-- Sometimes problems with noise and vibration.

-- Cannot be driven with very large diameters or in condition of limited headroom.

Driven and cast-in-place concrete piles

Permanently cased (casing left in the ground)

Temporarily cased or uncased (casing retrieved)

+ Can be inspected before casting can easily be cut or extended to the desired length.

+ Relatively inexpensive.

+ Low noise level.

+ The piles can be cast before excavation.

+ Pile lengths are readily adjustable.

+ An enlarged base can be formed which can increase the relative density of a granular
founding stratum leading to much higher end bearing capacity.

+ Reinforcement is not determined by the effects of handling or driving stresses.

+ Can be driven with closed end so excluding the effects of GW

-- Heave of neighbouring ground surface, which could lead to re consolidation and the
development of negative skin friction forces on piles.

-- Displacement of nearby retaining walls. Lifting of previously driven piles, where the
penetration at the toe have been sufficient to resist upward movements.

-- Tensile damage to unreinforced piles or piles consisting of green concrete, where forces
at the toe have been sufficient to resist upward movements.

-- Damage piles consisting of uncased or thinly cased green concrete due to the lateral
forces set up in the soil, for example, necking or waisting. Concrete cannot be inspected
after completion. Concrete may be weakened if artesian flow pipes up shaft of piles when
tube is withdrawn.

-- Light steel section or Precast concrete shells may be damaged or distorted by hard
driving.
-- Limitation in length owing to lifting forces required to withdraw casing, nose vibration and
ground displacement may a nuisance or may damage adjacent structures.

-- Cannot be driven where headroom is limited.

-- Relatively expensive.

-- Time consuming. Cannot be used immediately after the installation.

-- Limited length.

Bored and cast in -place (non -displacement piles)

+ Length can be readily varied to suit varying ground conditions.

+ Soil removed in boring can be inspected and if necessary sampled or in- situ test made.

+ Can be installed in very large diameters.

+ End enlargement up to two or three diameters are possible in clays.

+ Material of piles is not dependent on handling or driving conditions.

+ Can be installed in very long lengths.

+ Can be installed with out appreciable noise or vibrations.

+ Can be installed in conditions of very low headroom.

+ No risk of ground heave.

-- Susceptible to "waisting" or "necking" in squeezing ground.

-- Concrete is not placed under ideal conditions and cannot be subsequently inspected.

-- Water under artesian pressure may pipe up pile shaft washing out cement.

-- Enlarged ends cannot be formed in cohesionless materials without special techniques.

-- Cannot be readily extended above ground level especially in river and marine structures.

-- Boring methods may loosen sandy or gravely soils requiring base grouting to achieve
economical base resistance.
-- Sinking piles may cause loss of ground I cohesion-less leading to settlement of adjacent
structures.

Steel piles (Rolled steel section)

+ The piles are easy to handle and can easily be cut to desired length.

+ Can be driven through dense layers. The lateral displacement of the soil during driving is
low (steel section H or I section piles) can be relatively easily spliced or bolted.

+ Can be driven hard and in very long lengths.

+ Can carry heavy loads.

+ Can be successfully anchored in sloping rock.

+ Small displacement piles particularly useful if ground displacements and disturbance

critical.

-- The piles will corrode,

-- Will deviate relatively easy during driving.

-- Are relatively expensive.

1.7 Classification of piles - Review

- Task

1. Describe the main function of piles

2. In the introduction, it is stated that piles transfer load to the bearing ground.
State how this is achieved.
3. Piles are made out of different materials. In short state the advantages and
disadvantages of these materials.
4. Piles can be referred as displacement and non-displacement piles. State the
differences and the similarities of these piles
5. Piles can be classified as end-bearing piles cohesive or friction piles.
Describe the differences and similarity of these piles.
6. Piles can be classified as bored or driven state the differences.
LOAD ON PILES
2.1 Introduction

This section of the guide is divided into two parts. The first part gives brief summary on
basic pile arrangements while part two deals with load distribution on individual piles.

Piles can be arranged in a number of ways so that they can support load imposed on them.
Vertical piles can be designed to carry vertical loads as well as lateral loads. If required,
vertical piles can be combined with raking piles to support horizontal and vertical forces.

often, if a pile group is subjected to vertical force, then the calculation of load distribution on
single pile that is member of the group is assumed to be the total load divided by the
number of piles in the group. However if a group of piles is subjected to lateral load or
eccentric vertical load or combination of vertical and lateral load which can cause moment
force on the group which should be taken into account during calculation of load
distribution.

In the second part of this section, piles are considered to be part of the structure and force
distribution on individual piles is calculated accordingly.

 Objective: In the first part of this section, considering group of piles with limited
number of piles subjected to vertical and lateral forces, forces acting centrally or
eccentrically, we learn how these forces are distributed on individual piles.

The worked examples are intended to give easy follow through exercise that can help quick
understanding of pile design both single and group of piles. In the second part, the
comparison made between different methods used in pile design will enable students to
appreciate the theoretical background of the methods while exercising pile designing.

 Learning outcome

When students complete this section, they will be able to:

 Calculate load distribution on group of piles consist of vertical piles subjected

to eccentric vertical load.
 Calculate load distribution on vertically arranged piles subjected to lateral and
vertical forces.
 Calculate load distribution on vertical and raking piles subjected to horizontal
and eccentric vertical loads.
  Calculate load distribution on symmetrically arranged vertical and raking piles
subjected to vertical and lateral forces

2.2 Pile arrangement

Normally, pile foundations consist of pile cap and a group of piles. The pile cap distributes
the applied load to the individual piles which, in turn,. transfer the load to the bearing
ground. The individual piles are spaced and connected to the pile cap or tie beams and
trimmed in order to connect the pile to the structure at cut-off level, and depending on the
type of structure and eccentricity of the load, they can be arranged in different patterns.
Figure 2.1 bellow illustrates the three basic formation of pile groups.

a) PILE GROUP CONSIST OF ONLY b) PILE GROUP CONSIST OF BOTH c) SYMMETRICALLY ARRANGED
VERTICAL PILES VERTICAL AND RAKING PILES VERTICAL AND RAKING PILES

Q = Vertically applied load

H = Horizontally applied load
Figure 2-1 Basic formation of pile groups

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

LOAD DISTRIBUTION
To a great extent the design and calculation (load analysis) of pile foundations is carried
out using computer software. For some special cases, calculations can be carried out
using the following methods?...For a simple understanding of the method, let us assume
that the following conditions are satisfied:

The pile is rigid

The pile is pinned at the top and at the bottom

Each pile receives the load only vertically (i.e. axially applied );

The force P acting on the pile is proportional to the displacement U due to compression

P = k.U ?????????????????3.1

Since P = E.A

E.A = k.U ?????????????????3.2

?????????????????3.3

where:

P = vertical load component

k = material constant

U = displacement

E = elastic module of pile material

A = cross-sectional area of pile

 Figure 3-1 load on single pile

The length L should not necessarily be equal to the actual length of the pile. In a group of piles, If all piles are
of the same material, have same cross-sectional area and equal length L , then the value of k is the same for
all piles in the group.

Let us assume that the vertical load on the pile group results in vertical, lateral and torsion movements.
Further, let us assume that for each pile in the group, these movements are small and are caused by the
component of the vertical load experienced by the pile. The formulae in the forthcoming sections which are
used in the calculation of pile loads, are based on these assumptions.

3.1 Pile foundations: vertical piles only

Here the pile cap is causing the vertical compression U, whose magnitude is equal for all members of the
group. If Q (the vertical force acting on the pile group) is applied at the neutral axis of the pile group, then the
force on a single pile will be as follows :

?????????????????3.4

where:

Pv = vertical component of the load on any pile from the resultant load Q

n = number of vertical piles in the group (see fig3.4)

Q = total vertical load on pile group

If the same group of piles are subjected to an eccentric load Q which is causing rotation around axis z (see
fig 3.1); then for the pile i at distance rxi from axis z:

?????????????????3.5

 is a small angle  tan   see figure3.4.)

Pi = force (load on a single pile i

Ui = displacement caused by the eccentric force (load) Q

rxi = distance between pile and neutral axis of pile group;

rxi positive measured the same direction as e and negative when in the opposite direction.

e = distance between point of intersection of resultant of vertical and horizontal loading with underside of pile (see
figure 3.8)

The sum of all the forces acting on the piles should be zero 

?????????????????3.6
 Figure 3-2 Moment

If we assume that the forces on the piles are causing a moment M about axis z-z then the sum of moments
about axis z-z should be zero (see figure 3.1 a& b)
 ????????3.7

from e.q. 3.2 we see that

MZ =  M Z

 ????????????????????..3.8

applying the same principle, in the x direction we get equivalent equation.If we assume that the moment MX
and MZ generated by the force Q are acting on a group of pile, then the sum of forces acting on a single pile
will be as follows:

??????????????3.9

if we dividing each term by the cross-sectional area of the pile, A, we can establish the working stream  :

Example 3.1
As shown in figure 3.2, A group of Vertical piles are subjected to an eccentric force Q, magnitude of 2600kN.
Determine the maximum and the minimum forces on the piles. Q is located 0.2 m from the x-axis and 0.15 m
from the z-axis.

Figure 3-3 Worked example

Solution

1. Calculate Moment generated by the eccentric force

Mx = 2600 (0.2) = 520 KN

Mz = 2600 (0.15) = 390 KN

2.Calculate vertical load per pile: = 2600/12 = 217 kN

 DIST.
r2xi rzi r2zi MX MZ
PILE rxi
2 2
m m m kN kNm
m

a1,4 0.9 0.81*2 1.35 1.823*2 520 390

a2,3 0.9 0.81*2 0.45 0.203*2 520 390

c1,4 0.9 0.81*2 1.35 1.823*2 520 390

c2,3 0.9 0.81*2 0.45 0.203*2 520 390

b1,4 0.9 0 1.35 1.823*2 520 390

b2,3 0.9 0 0.45 0.203*2 520 390

 6.48 12.153

Mxrzi/  r2zi
Q/n Mzrxi/  r2xi Pi
PILE
(520
kN (390* rxi)/ 6.48 kN
rzi)/12.153
a1 217 58 54 217-58-54 = 105** Minimum load 105 KN, carried by pile a1

a2 19 54 217-19-54 = 144

a3 19 54 217+19-54 = 182

a4 58 54 217+58-54 = 221

b1 58 0 217-58-00 = 157

b2 19 0 217-19-00 = 157

b3 19 0 217+19-00 = 236

b4 58 0 217+58-00 = 275

c1 58 54 217+58-54 = 221
 c2 19 54 217-19+54 = 252

c3 19 54 217+19+54=290

c4 58 54 217+58+54 = 329*** Maximum load 329 KN, carried by pile c4

Example 3.2

A pile trestle shown on figure 3-3 consists of four vertical piles surmounted by a 1.2m thick
pile cap. It carries a horizontal load applied to the surface of the cap of 400kN. The only
vertical load exerted on the pile group is the weight of the pile cup. Determine the loads on
the piles.

Figure 3-4 Example 3.2

Solution:
1. Determine the magnitude of the vertical force: For a pile cape 4.000m square, weight of pile cap is:

4 x 4 x 12 x 4 = 461kN  vertical load = 461kN

2. Determine the location of the N.A. for the vertical piles:

3 . resultant of vertical load and horizontal load cuts the underside of the pile cup at a point 1.06m from N.A.
pile group. This can be achieved graphically. E.g. On a millimetre paper, in scale, draw the pile cup. Taking
the top of the pile cup draw the vertical component downward as shown in figure 2-3 then taking the tip of the
vertical component as reference point draw the horizontal component perpendicular to the vertical
component. By joining the two components establish the resultant force R. Measure the distance from the
N.A to the cutting point of R at the underside of the pile cup.

4. Using the following formula, calculate the load on each pile:

=202kN max and 28kN minimum

3.2 Pile foundations: vertical and raking piles

To resist lateral forces on the pile group, it is common practice to use vertical piles combined with raking piles
(see figure3-5) The example below illustrates how the total applied load is distributed between the piles and
how the forces acting on each pile are calculated.
 Figure 3-5 Load distribution for combined vertical and raking piles

To derive the formulae used in design, we first go through the following procedures:-

1. Decide the location of the N.A of the vertical and the raking piles in plan position. (see example
below).
2. Draw both N.A till they cross each other at point c, this is done in Elevation and move the forces
Q, H& M to point c (see fig.3.5 elevation).
3. Let us assume that the forces Q &M cause lateral and torsional movements at point c.
4. Point c is where the moment M is zero. Y is the moment arm (see fig. 3.5)
Figure 3.6 shows that the resultant load R (in this case Q) is only affecting the vertical piles.

Figure 3-6

n = number of vertical piles

m = number of raking piles

Pv =

As shown in figure 3.6 the lateral force, H, is kept in equilibrium by the vertical and the raking piles.

 H = 0: H-m Pr sin = 0

 V = 0: m Pr cosine - n Pv = 0

where:

Pr = H/(m sin

Pv = H/(n tan )
 Figure 3-7

NB : The horizontal force, H, imposes a torsional force on the vertical piles.

Sum of forces on a single pile = Q + H + M

as a result of Q: Pvi = Q/n

as a result of H: Pvi = - H/(n tan )

as a result of H: Pri = + H/(m sin )

as a result of moment M:

ri measured perpendicular to the N.A of both the vertical and raking piles

Example 3.3

Figure 3.7 shows a pile group of vertical and raking piles subjected to vertical load Q = 3000 kN and lateral
load H = 250 kN. Determine the forces acting on each pile. The raking piles lie at an angle of 4:1.

Solution:

First we determine the location of the neutral axis, N.A, of both the vertical piles and the raking piles. From
figure 3.7 we see that the number of vertical piles = 8 and the number of raking piles = 4

1. N.A for the vertical piles is determined as follows:

Here we assume ¢ through piles a1, a2, a3, a4 as a reference point and start measuring in the positive
direction of the X axis, where it is denoted on figure 3.10 as X-X

(4) 0 m + (2) 1m + (2)2 m = n· n·eo ,  n·eo = = 0.75 m

 The neutral axis for the vertical piles is located at 0.75 m from the ¢ line of pile a1, a2, a3, a4.  (1.0 -0.75
)m = 0.25m  X = 0.25 m, the distance to the vertical load Q.

where:

n·eo = 8·eO and the numbers 4, 2, 2 are number of piles in the same axis

2. N.A for the raking piles:

Here we can assume that the ¢ for the raking piles b1and b4 as a reference line and calculate the location of
the neutral axis for the raking piles as follows:

(2) 0 m + (2)1m = (m)e1

where: (m )e1 = 4 e1, 4 is the total number of raking piles.

 4 e1  e1 = = 0.5 m  the location of neutral axis of raking piles at a distance of ( 0.25 + 0.5) m =
0.75m from eo or from the N.A Of the vertical piles.
 Figure 3-8 calculated positions of N.A

3. Draw both neutral axis till they cross each other at point c. (see figure 3.9) and establish the lever arm
distance, Y, so that we can calculate the moment M, about C.

Pile inclination 4:1  Y = (0.75)4 - 0.6 = 2.4m

where 0.75 m is the location of N.A of raking piles from eo or from the N.A Of the vertical piles.

  M =0 Q(X) - H(Y) = 3000(0.25) - 250(2.4) = 150kNm

4. Establish the angle  and calculate sin, cos, and tangent of the angle 

The inclination 4:1   = 14.04

tan = 0.25
sin = 0.24

cos. = 0.97

cos2 = 0.94
 Figure 3-9 Example 3.3

5. Calculate the forces acting on each pile:

Raking piles

ri measured perpendicular to the

neutral axis

Figure 3-10

b ,b , ri = -0.5(0.97) = -0.485 m

c ,c , ri = 0.5(0.97) = 0.485

Vertical Piles

ri measured perpendicular to the neutral axis

b ,b , ri = 0.25 c2,c3, ri = 1.25m

a  , a  , a  , a  , ri = -0.75m
 PILE (k N) a b2, b3 c2, c3 b1, b4 c1, c4

ri -0.75 m 0.25 m 1.25 m 0.485 m 0.485 m

Q (kN) 375 375 375 0 0

H (kN) -125 -125 -125 260 260

23.29(0-0.75 = 23.29(0.25) = 23.29(1.25) = 23.29(0.485) = 23.29(0.485) =

M (kN)
-17.47 5.82 29.11 -11.3 11.30

 force per pile

233kN* 256kN 279kN* 249 kN 27kN
Q+H+M

*As we can see the maximum load 279kN will be carried by pile c1 and the minimum load 233kN is carried by
piles in row a1

3.3 Symmetrically arranged vertical and raking piles

Just as we did for the previous cases, we first decide the location of the neutral axis for both the vertical and
raking piles.

Extend the two lines till they intersect each other at point c and move the forces Q & H to point C. (see fig.11)
 Figure 3-11symmetrically arranged piles

In the case of symmetrically arranged piles, the vertical pile I is subjected to compression stress by the
vertical component Pv and the raking pile Pr is subjected to tension (see figure 3.11 - 12)
 Figure 3-12 Figure 3-13

Pv = k (U)

pr = k (U cos. ) = PV cos.

 V = 0  Q - n Pv - m  Pr cos. = 0

Pr = Pv cos.  Pv =

The symmetrical arrangement of the raking piles keeps the lateral force, H, in equilibrium and it?s effect on
the vertical piles is ignored.

With reference to figure 3.13 Horizontal projection of forces yield the following formulae.

H=0

Figure 3-14

NB the lateral force H imposes torsional stress on half of the raking piles.
Example3.4

Symmetrically arranged piles:

Determine the force on the piles shown in figure 3.15. The inclination on the raking piles is 5:1, the vertical
load, Q =3600 kN the horizontal load, H =200 kN and is located 0.6 m from pile cutting level.
 Figure 3-15 Example 3.4

Solution

1. NA for the raking piles : 4 (0)+2 (0.9) = 6e  er = 0.3 m

2. NA for the vertical piles: 2 (0)+2 (1) = 4e  ev = 0.5 m

3. Establish moment arm Y

Inclination 5:1 Y = 5 (0.6+0.5) -0.6 = 4.9 m

 M = Q (X) - H(Y) = 3600(0.2) - 200(4.9) = -260 kNm

4. Establish the angle  and the perpendicular distance r, of the piles from the neutral axis.

slope 5:1   = 11.3

sin = 0.196

cos  = 0.98

cos2 = 0.96

tan = 0.20

Raking piles

For raking piles laying on axis a ,

-ri = 0.3 (cos  )

+ri = 0.6 (cos  )

= (0.32 cos2 )

 r2I = (0.32  0.96 )  4 = 0.346 m2

For raking piles laying on axis b and b ,

= (0.62  cos2 )

= (0.62  0.96) 2 (two piles) = 1.037 m2

 = (0.346+1.037)  2 = 2.07 m2

Vertical piles

ri =  0.5 m

vertical piles laying on axis b and c

 ( 0.52 2 + 0.52 2) = 1.0 m2

 = vertical and raking piles = 2.07 + 1.0 = 3.07 m2

5. Calculate load distribution on individual piles:

Q  PV =

Pr = Pv cos = 232 0.98 = 227kN

H  Pr = 

M

PILE ar br bv cv cr dr

Q (kN) 227 227 232 232 227 227

H (kN) -85 -85 0 0 85 85

-85  (-0.3 0.98) =

-50*** 43** -43** 50*** -25
25
M=

 force on Pi (kN) 167 91 275 189 313 287

ar = -85  (-0.3 0.98) = 25

br = -85 (0.6 0.98) = -50.0***

bv2, bv 3 = -85 (-0.5) = 42.5**

cv2, cv3 = -85 (0.5) = -42.5

where:
ar, br, bv, cv, cr, dr represent raking and vertical piles on respective axis.

3.3.1 Example on installation error

Until now we have been calculating theoretical force distribution on piles. However during installation of piles
slight changes in position do occur and piles may miss their designed locations. The following example
compares theoretical and the actual load distribution as a result of misalignment after pile installation.

Figure 3-16 Example on installation error

Before installation (theoretical position) see fig.3-16

Q = 500 kN  MX = 500 0.3 = 150

 MZ = 500 0 = 0

Q/n = 500/6 = 83.3 kN

Pi = Q/n  ( Mz  rxi)/  r2xi

 r2xi = 0.72  3 = 0.72 3 = 2.94 m2

 Pi = 83.3 - (150/2.94) rxi

P1,2,3 = 83.3- (150/2.94) 0.7 = 47.6 kN

P4,5,6 = 83.3 + (150/2.94)  0.7 = 119 kN

After installation

Displacement of piles in the X-X direction measured, left edge of pile cap as reference point (see figure 3.17)

Figure 3-17 piles after installation

 The new neutral axis (N A) for the pile group:

(0.5+0.6+0.4+2.0+2.1+1.7) 1 = 6 e  e = 1.22 m

The new position of Q = 0.29 m

 M = 500 (0.29) = 145 kNm

Measured perpendicular to the new N.A, pile distance, ri, of each pile:

ri1 = 1.22-0.5 = 0.72

ri2 = 1.22-2.0 = -0.79

ri3 = 1.22-0.6 = 0.62

ri4 = 1.22-2.1 = -0.88

ri5 = 1.22-0.4 = 0.82

ri6 = 1.22-1.7 = -0.49

  r2xi = 0.722 + 0.792 + 0.622 + 0.882 + 0.822 + 0.492 = 3.2 m

sum of forces on each pile

pile Q/N (kN) 45.3 (rxi)

Pi = Q/n  ( Mz  rxi)/  r2xi

1 83.3 45.3 (-0.72) 51

2 45.3 (0.79) 49

3 45.3 (-0.62) 55

4 45.3 (0.88) 123

5 45.3 (-0.82) 47

6 45.3 (0.49) 105

 Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

LOAD ON SINGLE PILE

4.1 Introduction

In this section, considering pile/soil interaction, we learn to calculate the bearing capacity of single piles
subjected to compressive axial load. During pile design, the following factors should be taken into
consideration:

pile material compression and tension capacity

deformation area of pile, bending moment capacity

condition of the pile at the top and the end of the pile

eccentricity of the load applied on the pile

soil characteristics

ground water level ..etc.

Nevertheless, calculation method that can satisfy all of these conditions will be complicated and difficult to
carry out manually, instead two widely used simplified methods are presented. These two methods are
refereed as geotechnical and dynamic methods. This section too has worked examples showing the
application of the formulae used in predicting the bearing capacity of piles made of different types of
materials.
Learning outcome

When students complete this section, they will be able to

 understand the theoretical back ground of the formulae used in pile design
 carry out calculation and be able to predict design bearing capacity of single piles
 appreciate results calculated by means of different formulae

4.2 The behaviour of piles under load

Piles are designed that calculations and prediction of carrying capacity is based on the application of ultimate
axial load in the particular soil conditions at the site at relatively short time after installation.

This ultimate load capacity can be determined by either:

 the use of empirical formula to predict capacity from soil properties determined by testing, or
 load test on piles at the site

Fig.4-1, When pile is subjected to gradually increasing compressive load in maintained load stages, initially
the pile-soil system behaves in a linear-elastic manner up to point A on the settlement-load diagram and if the
load is realised at any stage up to this point the pile head rebound to its original level. When the load is
increase beyond point A there is yielding at, or close to, the pile-soil interface and slippage occurs until point
B is reached, when the maximum skin friction on the pile shaft will have been mobilised. If the load is
realised at this stage the pile head will rebound to point C , the amount of permanent settlement being the
distance OC. When the stage of full mobilisation of the base resistance is reached ( point D), the pile plunges
downwards with out any farther increase of load, or small increases in load producing large settlements.


No end-bearing is mobilised up to this point. The whole of the load is carried by the skin friction on the pile shaft see figure 4-1 I)


The pile shaft is carrying its maximum skin friction and the pile toe will be carrying some load


At this point there is no further increase in the load transferred in skin friction but the base load will have reached its maximum value.
 Figure -1 axial compression of pile

4.3 Geotechnical design methods

In order to separate their behavioural responses to applied pile load, soils are classified as either
granular/noncohesive or clays/cohesive. The generic formulae used to predict soil resistance to pile load
include empirical modifying factors which can be adjusted according to previous engineering experience of
the influence on the accuracy of predictions of changes in soil type and other factors such as the time delay
before load testing.

(Fig 4-1II) the load settlement response is composed of two separate components, the linear elastic shaft
friction Rs and non-linear base resistance Rb. The concept of the separate evaluation of shaft friction and
base resistance forms the bases of "static or soil mechanics" calculation of pile carrying capacity. The basic
equations to be used for this are written as:

Q = Qb + Qs - Wp or

Rc = Rb + Rs - Wp

Rt = Rs + Wp

Where: Q = Rc = the ultimate compression resistance of the pile

Qb = Rb = base resistance

Qs = Rs = shaft resistance

Wp = weight of the pile

Rt = tensile resistance of pile

In terms of soil mechanics theory, the ultimate skin friction on the pile shaft is related to the horizontal
effective stress acting on the shaft and the effective remoulded angle of friction between the pile and the clay
and the ultimate shaft resistance Rs can be evaluated by integration of the pile-soil shear strength  a over the
surface area of the shaft:

 a = Ca +  n‫׼‬ tan a

Where:  n = Ks‫׼‬  v (refer geotechnical notes)

  a = Ca + KS ‫׼‬  v ‫׼‬ tan a

and

where: p = pile perimeter

L = pile length

 = angle of friction between pile and soil

Ks = coefficient of lateral pressure

the ultimate bearing capacity, Rb, of the base is evaluated from the bearing capacity theory:

Ab = area of pile base

C = undrained strength of soil at base of pile

NC = bearing capacity factor

……………………………………………4.1

Nevertheless, in practise, for a given pile at a given site, the undrained shear strength C a varies considerably
with many factors, including, pile type, soil type, and methods of installations.

Ideally, Ca should be determined from a pile-load test, but since this is not always possible, C a is correlated
with the undrained cohesion Cu by empirical adhesion factor  so that the general expression in e.q. (4-1)
could be simplified to the following expression:

……………………………………………4.2

Where: Ws = weight of soil replaced by the pile

=average value of shear strength over the whole shaft length

4.3.1 The undrained load capacity (total stress approach)

For piles in clay, the undrained load capacity is generally taken to be the critical value unless the clay is
highly over consolidated. If the undrained or short-term ultimate load capacity is to be computed, the soil
parameters C,  , ,  should be appropriate to undrained conditions and  v and  vb should be the total
stresses. If the clay is saturated , the undrained angle of friction  u is zero, and  a (angle of friction between
pile and soil) may also be taken as zero. In addition, Nq = 1, N = 1, so that the eq in(4-1) reduces to:

……………………………………………4.3

Where: Nc, Nq, N ,= bearing capacity factors and are functions of the internal angle of friction  of the soil,
the relative compressibility of the soil and the pile geometry.

4.3.2 Drained load capacity (effective stress approach)

For piles installed in stiff, over consolidated clays, the drained load capacity is taken as design criterion. If the
simplified assumption is made that the drained pile-soil adhesion C? a is zero and that the term in eq (4-1)…
involving Nc, N ignoring the drained ultimate bearing capacity of the pile may be expressed as :

……………………………………………4.4

Where: s ? v, and s ? vb = effective vertical stress at depth z respective at pile base

f ? a,= effective angle of friction between pile/soil and implied can be taken as f ? ,

Nq which is dependant up on the values of f ? may be taken to be the same as for piles in sand, and can be

decided using table 10-5 & 10-6

4.3.3 Pile in sand

If the pile soil adhesion Ca and term Nc are taken as zero in e.q (4-1)… and the terms 0.5 d N is neglected
as being small in relation to the term involving N , the ultimate load capacity of a single pile in sand may be
expressed as follows:

……………………………………………4.5

Where: s ? v, and s ? vb = effective vertical stress at depth z respective at pile base

Fw = correction factor for tapered pile ( = 1 for uniform diameter)

4.4 Dynamic approach

Most frequently used method of estimating the load capacity of driven piles is to use a driving formula or
dynamic formula. All such formulae relate ultimate load capacity to pile set (the vertical movement per blow of
the driving hammer) and assume that the driving resistance is equal to the load capacity to the pile under
static loading they are based on an idealised representation of the action of the hammer on the pile in the last
stage of its embedment.

Usually, pile-driving formulae are used either to establish a safe working load or to determine the driving
requirements for a required working load.

The working load is usually determined by applying a suitable safety factor to the ultimate load calculated by
the formula. However, the use of dynamic formula is highly criticised in some pile-design literatures. Dynamic
methods do not take into account the physical characteristics of the soil. This can lead to dangerous miss-
interpretation of the results of dynamic formula calculation since they represent conditions at the time of
driving. They do not take in to account the soil conditions which affect the long- term carrying capacity,
reconsolidation, negative skin friction and group effects.


specified load acting on the head of the pile
 Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

SINGLE PILE DESIGN

5.1 End bearing piles

If a pile is installed in a soil with low bearing capacity but resting on soil beneath with
high bearing capacity, most of the load is carried by the end bearing.

In some cases where piles are driven in to the ground using hammer, pile capacity can
be estimated by calculating the transfer of potential energy into dynamic energy .
When the hammer is lifted and thrown down, with some energy lose while driving the
pile, potential energy is transferred into dynamic energy. In the final stage of the pile’s
embedment,On the bases of rate of settlement, it is able to calculate the design
capacity of the pile.

For standard pile driving hammers and some standard piles with load capacity (FRsp,),
the working load for the pile can be determined using the relationship between bearing
capacity of the pile, the design load capacity of the pile described by: FRsp   n‫׼‬ FSd
and table 5-1

where: FSd = design load for end baring.

The data is valid only if at the final stage, rate of settlement is 10 mm per ten blow. And
pile length not more than 20 m and geo-category 2 . for piles with length 20 - 30 m
respective 30 - 50 m the bearing capacity should be reduced by 10 res. 25%.

Table 5-1 Baring capacity of piles installed by hammering

drop hammer (activated by rope and friction

hammer DROP HAMMER (released by trigger)
winch

cross-sectional area of pile cross-sectional area of pile

fall height 0.055m2 0.073m2 fall height 0.055m2 0.073m2

3 TON 0.3 420 kN 450 kN 0.4 390 kN 420 kN

 0.4 490 520 0.5 450 480

0.5 560 590 0.6 520 540

0.3 470 510 0.4 440 480

4 TON 0.4 540 590 0.5 510 550

0.5 610 680 0.6 550 610

0.3 580 640 0.4 550 600

5 TON 0.4 670 740 0.5 610 660

0.5 760 840 0.6 670 730

Example 5.1

A concrete pile with length 26 m and cross-sectional area (235)‫׼‬ (235) is

subjected to a vertical loading of 390 kN (ultimate) load. Determine appropriate
condition to halt hammering. Type of hammer Drop hammer activated by rope and
friction winch. Class 2, GC 2, pile length 20 m

solution:





vertical load 390 kN ޼ 

Pile cross-sectional area ޼ 0.2352 = 0.055 m2 ޼

type of hammer: Drop hammer activated by rope and friction winch ޼

***For piles 20m - 30m length, the bearing capacity should be reduced by 10%

 Table value (table 5-1): Hammer weight = 4 ton ޼ fall height 0.45m
(interpolation)

Hammer weight = 3 ton ޼ fall height 0.54 m

4 ton hammer with fall height 0.45m is an appropriate choice.

5.2 Friction piles

Load on piles that are driven into friction material, for the most part the weight is
carried by friction between the soil and the pile shaft. However considerable additional
support is obtained form the bottom part.

In designing piles driven into friction material, the following formulas can be
used

………………………… 5.1

where: qci = consolidation resistance

* can be decided using table 10-4

Ab = end cross-sectional area of the pile

Ami = shaft area of the pile in contact with the soil.

should be  1.5 for piles in friction material

qcs = end resistance at the bottom of the pile within 4

‫׼‬
 Figure 5-1 Friction Pile

Example 5.2

Pile length 22 m, steel pile, friction pile, external diameter 100 mm, GC2,

Determine the ultimate bearing capacity of the pile

solution:

qc
MPa
Z m( depth measured from ground
level to bottom of pile)

0m - 5 m 5.4

5 - 11 6.4

11 - 18 7.0

18 - 22 7.5

22 m 8.0
The values are slightly scattered then the usual while the rest of the condition is
favourable.

 Rd = 1.5 (the lowest value)

 n = 1.1

At the base where condition is unfavourable we get :

 s = 0.5

 m = 0.0025

Design bearing capacity of the pile is 62 KN.

5.3 Cohesion piles

Piles installed in clay: The load is carried by cohesion between the soil and the pile
shaft. Bearing capacity of the pile can be calculated using the following formula for
pile installed in clay.

………………………… 5.2

Where:

a i = adhesion factor for earth layer

cudci = undrained shear strength of clay.

Ami = area of pile shaft in contact with the soil.

The adhesion factor  is taken as 0 for the firs three meters where it is expected hole
room and fill material or week strata. For piles with constant cross-sectional area the
value of  can be taken as 1.0 and for piles with uniform cross-sectional growth the
value of  can be taken as 1.2 .

Figure 5-2 Cohesion Pile

Example 5.3

18 m wood pile is installed small end down in clay. Pile diameter is 125 mm at the end
and 10 mm/m increase in diameter. The undrained shear strength of the soil,
measured from the pile cut-off level is: 0-6 m = 12 kP 6-12 m = 16 kPa 12-18 m = 19
kPa. Determine the ultimate load capacity of the pile. Pile cut-off level is 1.5m from the
ground level.  Rd = 1.7
 Figure 5-3 Example 5-3

solution

decide the values for 

 = 0 for the first 3.0 meters

 = 1.2 for the rest of the soil layer

divided the pile into 3 parts (each 6.0 m in this case)

calculate Average diameter at the middle of each section:

Average diameter : Bottom (section) = 0.125+3.0‫׼‬ (0.01) = 0.15

Middle (section) = 0.155+6‫׼‬ 0.01 = 0.21

Top (section) = 0.215+(3+2.25)‫׼‬ (0.01) = 0.268

 Ultimate bearing capacity of the pile is 117kN

5.4 Steel piles

Because of the relative strength of steel, steel piles withstand driving pressure well and
are usually very reliable end bearing members, although they are found in frequent use
as friction piles as well. The comment type of steel piles have rolled H, X or circular
cross-section(pipe piles). Pipe piles are normally, not necessarily filled with concrete
after driving. Prior to driving the bottom end of the pipe pile usually is capped with a flat
or a cone-shaped point welded to the pipe.

Strength, relative ease of splicing and sometimes economy are some of the
advantages cited in the selection of steel piles.

The highest draw back of steel piles is corrosion. Corrosive agents such as salt, acid,
moisture and oxygen are common enemies of steel. Because of the corrosive effect
salt water has on steel, steel piles have restricted use for marine installations. If steel
pile is supported by soil with shear strength greater than 7kPa in its entire length then
the design bearing capacity of the pile can be calculated using the following formulas.
Use both of them and select the lowest value of the two:

………………………… 5.3

………………………… 5.4

Where: m = correction factor

ESC = elasticity module of steel

I = fibre moment

fyc characteristic strength of steel

A = pile cross-sectional area

Cuc = characteristic undrained shear strength of the soil.

Example 5.4

Determine the design bearing capacity of a Steel pile of external diameter 100 mm,
thickness of 10 mm. Treated against corrosion. pile. Consider failure in the pile
material. Cc of the soil is 18 kPa, favourable condition. S2

Steel BS 2172
solution :

 n = 1.1

 m = 0.9

Esc = 210 Gpa

for BS 2172 fyc = 320 MPa

==

The first formula gives us lower value, therefore, the design bearing capacity of the pile
is 0.3 MN

If we consider corrosion of 1mm/year ޼

==

5.5 Concrete piles

Relatively, in comparable circumstances, concrete piles have much more resistance

against corrosive elements that can rust steel piles or to the effects that causes decay
of wood piles, furthermore concrete is available in most parts of the world than steel.

Concrete piles may be pre-cast or cast-in place. They may be are reinforced, pre-
stressed or plain.

5.5.1 Pre-cast concrete piles

These are piles which are formed, cast to specified lengths and shapes and cured at
pre casting stations before driven in to the ground. Depending up on project type and
specification, their shape and length are regulated at the prefab site. Usually they
came in square, octagonal or circular cross-section. The diameter and the length of the
piles are mostly governed by handling stresses. In most cases they are limited to less
than 25 m in length and 0.5 m in diameter. Some times it is required to cut off and
splice to adjust for different length. Where part of pile is above ground level, the pile
may serve as column.

If a concrete pile is supported by soil with undrained shear strength greater than 7 MPa
in its entire length, the following formula can be used in determining the bearing
capacity of the pile :

………………………… 5.5

………………………… 5.6

Where: Nu = bearing capacity of the pile, designed as concrete column

Esc = characteristic elasticity module of concrete

Ic = fibre moment of the concrete cross-section ignoring the reinforcement

Cuc = characteristic undrained shear strength of the soil in the loose part of the soil
within a layer of 4.0 m

Example 5.5

Concrete pile (0.235) ‫׼‬ (0.235) cross-section installed in clay with characteristic
undrained shear strength of 12 kPa. In favourable condition. C50. Determine design
load of the pile. Consider failure in the material.

Solution:
 ef = 1.3

lc /h = 20

kc = 0.6, k = 0.24, ks = 0.62

fcc = 35.5 /(1.5‫׼‬ 1.1) = 21.5 MPa

fst = 410/(1.15‫׼‬ 1.1) = 324 MPa

Effective reinforced area:

FRd =  m‫׼‬ NU

 m = 0.9 ޼ FRd = (0.9)0.769 = 0.692 MN

Failure checking using the second formula:

Ecc = 34 GPa
The lowest value is 0.632 MN ޼ Design capacity =0.63 M

5.6 Timber piles (wood piles)

Timber piles are frequently used as cohesion piles and for pilling under embankments.
Essentially timber piles are made from tree trunks with the branches and bark
removed. Normally wood piles are installed by driving. Typically the pile has a natural
taper with top cross-section of twice or more than that of the bottom.

To avoid splitting in the wood, wood piles are sometimes driven with steel bands tied at
the top or at the bottom end.

For wood piles installed in soil with undrained shear strength greater than
7kPa the following formula can be used in predicting the bearing capacity of the
pile:

…………………………
5.7

Where: = reduced strength of wood

A = cross-sectional area of the pile

If the wood is of sound timber, (e.g. pinewood or spruce wood with a diameter >
0.13m), then (reduced strength) of the pile can be taken as 11MPa.

Increase in load per section of pile is found to be proportional to the diameter of the
pile and shear strength of the soil and can be decided using the following formula:

…………………………
5.8

where: Am, = area of pile at each 3.5 m section mid point of pile

Cm = shear strength at each 3.5m section mid point of pile

dm = diameter of pile at each 3.5 m section mid point of pile

Pmi = pile load at the middle of each section

Example 5.6

Determine the design bearing capacity of a pile 12m pile driven in to clay with
characteristic undrained shear strength 10KPa and 1.0kPa increase per metre depth.
Piling condition is assumed to be favourable and the safety class 2. The pile is cut at
1.5m below the ground level. Top diameter of the pile is 180mm and growth in
diameter is 9mm/m.

Figure 5-4 Example 5.6

*Often it is assumed that cohesive strength of the soil in the fires three meters is half
the values at the bottom.

solution:

First decide which part of the pile is heavily loaded. To do so, divide the pile which is in
contact with the soil in three parts or sections (see fig.4.1) in this example the pile is
divided into three 3.5m parts

Calculate and decide diameter of the pile at the mid point of each 3.5m section
(0.180+0.009(yi) ; yi growth per meter from the end point.

Calculate the shear strength of the soil at the mid point of each 3.5m section C mi = (22 -
1(yi) ). Shear strength at the end of the pile = (10MPa + 1MPa (12m))=22 MPa

Decide the values of the partial coefficients from table (10-1 - 10-4)
 ymi(see dmi= (0.180+0.009
fig. 5.4) ‫׼‬ Cmi = (22 - 1
Part
‫׼‬
m 

T(top) 8.75 0.259 13.3 16.9

section

M(middle) 5.25 0.227 16.8 18.7

section

B(bottom) 1.75 0.196 20.3 19.5

section

Pti = pile load at the top of each section

yti
Part m
m

T(top) 55.1 10.5 0.275 928 this part of the pile is highly loaded

M(middle) 38.2 7.0 0.243 824

B(bottom) 19.5 3.5 552

= stress at the top of the pile

 The bearing capacity of the pile is 55.1kN

Now using the equation in (6-7), we will check the pile for failure
fRed = 11MPa (see section 5.6)

 n = 0.9

 n = 1.1

 =

In consideration of failure in the pile material, the pile can be loaded up to 9.0 MPa

In consideration of cohesion force, the pile can be loaded up to 55 MPa

the bearing capacity of the pile is therefore, 55 MPa

5.6.1 Simplified method of predicting the bearing capacity of timber piles

Consider the previous case and use the following formula :

…………………………
5.9

regarded the pile in its full length

calculate average diameter of the pile ޼

calculate average shear strength of the pile޼

3. decide the values of  Rd,  m and  (table 10-1 - 10-4) :

 Rd, = 1.7

 m = 1.8‫׼‬ (0.8) = 1.44

 = 1.2

 the bearing capacity of the pile is 56 kN

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

DESIGN OF PILE GROUP

Introduction

Group action in piled foundation: Most of pile foundations consists not of a single
pile, but of a group of piles, which act in the double role of reinforcing the soil, and
also of carrying the applied load down to deeper, stronger soil strata. Failure of the
group may occur either by failure of the individual piles or as failure of the overall
block of soil. The supporting capacity of a group of vertically loaded piles can, in many
cases, be considerably less than the sum of the capacities the individual piles
comprising the group. Grope action in piled foundation could result in failure or
excessive settlement, even though loading tests made on a single pile have indicated
satisfactory capacity. In all cases the elastic and consolidation settlements of the group
are greater than those of single pile carrying the same working load as that on each
pile within the group. This is because the zone of soil or rock which is stressed by the
entire group extends to a much greater width and depth than the zone beneath the
single pile (fig.6-1)
 Figure 6-1 Comparison of stressed zone beneath single
pile and pile group

Learning out come

When students complete this section, they will be able:

o to calculate and predict design bearing capacity of pile group in different

soil types
o to appreciate the governing factors in design of group of piles
o to design pile groups with appropriate pile spacing

6.1 Bearing capacity of pile groups

Pile groups driven into sand may provide reinforcement to the soil. In some cases, the
shaft capacity of the pile driven into sand could increase by factor of 2 or more.

But in the case of piles driven into sensitive clays, the effective stress increase in the
surrounding soil may be less for piles in a group than for individual piles. this will result
in lower shaft capacities.

Figure 6-2 Under axial or lateral load, In a group, instead of failure of individual piles
in the group, block failure (the group acting as a block) may arise.
 Figure 6-2 Block failure

In general ,the bearing capacity of pile group may be calculated in consideration to

block failure in a similar way to that of single pile, by means of equation 4-1,but hear
As as the block surface area and Ab as the base area of the block or by rewriting the
general equation we get:

................................(6.1)

where:

As, surface area of block

Ab = base area of block (see fig.6-3)

Cb, Cs= average cohesion of clay around the group and beneath the group.

Nc = bearing capacity factor. For depths relevant for piles, the appropriate value of Nc is
9

Wp and Ws = weight of pile respective weight of soil

In examining the behaviour of pile groups it is necessary to consider the following
elements:

 a free-standing group, in which the pile cap is not in contact with the underlying soil.
 a "piled foundation," in which the pile cap is in contact with the underlying soil.
 pile spacing
 independent calculations, showing bearing capacity of the block and bearing capacity of
individual piles in the group should be made.
 relate the ultimate load capacity of the block to the sum of load capacity of individual piles in the
group ( the ratio of block capacity to the sum of individual piles capacity) the higher the better.
 In the case of where the pile spacing in one direction is much greater than that in perpendicular
direction, the capacity of the group failing as shown in Figure 6-2 b) should be assessed.

6.1.1 Pile groups in cohesive soil

For pile groups in cohesive soil, the group bearing capacity as a block may be calculated by mans of
e.q. 4-5 with appropriate Nc value.

6.1.2 Pile groups in non-cohesive soil

For pile groups in non-cohesive soil, the group bearing capacity as a block may be calculated by means
of e.q. 4-7

6.1.3 Pile groups in sand

In the case of most pile groups installed in sand, the estimated capacity of the block will be well in
excess of the sum of the individual pile capacities. As a conservative approach in design, the axial
capacity of a pile group in sand is usually taken as the sum of individual pile capacities calculated using
formulae in 4-8.

Worked Example 6-1

Calculate the bearing capacity and group efficiency of pile foundation installed in uniform clay of bulk
unit weight,  of 20kN/m3 and undrained shear strength of Cu of 50kN/m2. The foundation consists of 25
piles each 18m long ,0.4m in diameter and weight 60kN. The weight of the pile cap is 600kN and
founded 1m below the ground level. The adhesion factor  for the soil/pile interface has a value of 0.8
 Figure 6-3 Worked Example 6-1

SOLUTION

Calculate single pile bearing capacity:

Rs =  ‫׼‬ Cs ‫׼‬ As = 0.8 ‫׼‬ 50 ‫׼‬ 18‫׼‬  ‫׼‬ (0.4) = 904kN 

Rb = Nc ‫׼‬ Cb ‫׼‬ Ab = 9 ‫׼‬ 50‫׼‬  ‫׼‬ (0.2)2 = 56.6kN

 Rci = Rsi + Rbi = 904 + 56.6 = 960

(Wp +Wcap) - Ws = (60 25+(600-20 5.0 5.0 1.0)) - (20 18 ‫׼‬  ‫׼‬ (0.2)2 ‫׼‬ 25 =
469kN 

 total load capacity of 25 piles = Ruc25 = (Rci = Rsi + Rbi) ‫׼‬ 25 - {(Wp +Wcap) - Ws} = 960‫׼‬ 25
- 469 = 23531kN

calculate block load capacity :

= 4  (18 4.4 50‫׼‬ 0.8)+ 50‫׼‬ 4.4  4.4 ‫׼‬ 9 = 25650kN


surface area of pile group


weight of soil replaced by pile cap

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

Pile spacing and pile arrangement

In certain types of soil, specially in sensitive clays, the capacity of individual piles within
the a closely spaced group may be lower than for equivalent isolated pile. However,
because of its insignificant effect, this may be ignored in design. Instead the main
worry has been that the block capacity of the group may be less than the sum of the
individual piles capacities. As a thumb rule, if spacing is more than 2 - 3 pile diameter,
then block failure is most unlikely.

It is vital importance that pile group in friction and cohesive soil arranged that even
distribution of load in greater area is achieved.

Large concentration of piles under the centre of the pile cap should be avoided. This
could lead to load concentration resulting in local settlement and failure in the pile cap.
Varying length of piles in the same pile group may have similar effect.

For pile load up to 300kN, the minimum distance to the pile cap should be 100 mm

for load higher than 300kN, this distance should be more than 150 mm.

In general, the following formula may be used in pile spacing:

End-bearing and friction piles: S = 2.5‫׼‬ ...............7.1

Cohesion piles: S = 3.5‫׼‬‫׼‬ ...............7.2

where:

d = assumed pile diameter

L = assumed pile length

S = pile centre to centre distance (spacing)

Example 7-1

A retaining wall imposing a weight of 120kN/m including self-weight of the pile cap is to
be constructed on pile foundation in clay. Timber piles of 250mm in diameter and each
14m long with bearing capacity of 90kN/st has been proposed. Asses suitable pile
spacing and pile arrangement.

Solution:

1. recommended minimum pile spacing:

S = 3.5‫׼‬ (d) + 0.02 ‫׼‬ L = 3.5 ‫׼‬ (0.25) + 0.02 ‫׼‬ 14 = 1.16 m
2. try arranging the piles into two
rows:

vertical load = 120kN/M

single pile load capacity =

90kN/st

 = 1.33m

spacing in the two rows ޼

minimum distance to the edge of the pile = 0.1m ޼ B = 2‫׼‬ 0.1 + 0.25 + 1.10 = 1.55m


here because of the descending nature of the pile diameter a lesser value can be taken , say 1.10m

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

PILE INSTALATION METHODS

8.1 Introduction

The installation process and method of installations are equally important factors as of
the design process of pile foundations. In this section we will discuss the two main types
of pile installation methods; installation by pile hammer and boring by mechanical auger.

In order to avoid damages to the piles, during design, installation Methods and installation
equipment should be carefully selected.

If installation is to be carried out using pile-hammer, then the following factors should be
taken in to consideration:

 the size and the weight of the pile

 the driving resistance which has to be overcome to achieve the design
penetration
 the available space and head room on the site
 the availability of cranes and
 the noise restrictions which may be in force in the locality.

8.2 Pile driving methods (displacement piles)

Methods of pile driving can be categorised as follows:

1. Dropping weight
2. Explosion
3. Vibration
4. Jacking (restricted to micro-pilling)
5. Jetting

8.2.1 Drop hammers

A hammer with approximately the weight of the pile is raised a suitable height in a guide
and released to strike the pile head. This is a simple form of hammer used in conjunction
with light frames and test piling, where it may be uneconomical to bring a steam boiler or
compressor on to a site to drive very limited number of piles.

There are two main types of drop hammers:

 Single-acting steam or compressed-air hammers

 Double-acting pile hammers

1. Single-acting steam or compressed-air comprise a massive weight in the form of a

cylinder (see fig.8-1). Steam or compressed air admitted to the cylinder raises it up
the fixed piston rod. At the top of the stroke, or at a lesser height which can be
controlled by the operator, the steam is cut off and the cylinder falls freely on the
 pile helmet.
2. Double-acting pile hammers can be driven by steam or compressed air. A pilling
frame is not required with this type of hammer which can be attached to the top of
the pile by leg-guides, the pile being guided by a timber framework. When used
with a pile frame, back guides are bolted to the hammer to engage with leaders,
and only short leg-guides are used to prevent the hammer from moving relatively
to the top of the pile. Double-acting hammers are used mainly for sheet pile
driving.
 Figure 8-1 Pile driving using hammer

8.2.2 Diesel hammers

Also classified as single and double-acting, in operation, the diesel hammer employs a
ram which is raised by explosion at the base of a cylinder. Alternatively, in the case of
double-acting diesel hammer, a vacuum is created in a separate annular chamber as the
ram moves upward, and assists in the return of the ram, almost doubling the output of the
hammer over the single-acting type. In favourable ground conditions, the diesel hammer
provide an efficient pile driving capacity, but they are not effective for all types of ground.

8.2.3 Pile driving by vibrating

Vibratory hammers are usually electrically powered or hydraulically powered and consists
of contra-rotating eccentric masses within a housing attaching to the pile head. The
amplitude of the vibration is sufficient to break down the skin friction on the sides of the
pile. Vibratory methods are best suited to sandy or gravelly soil.

Jetting: to aid the penetration of piles in to sand or sandy gravel, water jetting may be
employed. However, the method has very limited effect in firm to stiff clays or any soil
containing much coarse gravel, cobbles, or boulders.
8.3 Boring methods ( non-displacement piles)

8.3.1 Continuous Flight Auger (CFA)

An equipment comprises of a mobile base carrier fitted with a hollow-stemmed flight

auger which is rotated into the ground to required depth of pilling. To form the pile,
concrete is placed through the flight auger as it is withdrawn from the ground. The auger
is fitted with protective cap on the outlet at the base of the central tube and is rotated into
the ground by the top mounted rotary hydraulic motor which runs on a carrier attached to
the mast. On reaching the required depth, highly workable concrete is pumped through
the hollow stem of the auger, and under the pressure of the concrete the protective cap is
detached. While rotating the auger in the same direction as during the boring stage, the
spoil is expelled vertically as the auger is withdrawn and the pile is formed by filling with
concrete. In this process, it is important that rotation of the auger and flow of concrete is
matched that collapse of sides of the hole above concrete on lower flight of auger is
avoided. This may lead to voids in filled with soil in concrete.

The method is especially effective on soft ground and enables to install a variety of bored
piles of various diameters that are able to penetrate a multitude of soil conditions. Still, for
successful operation of rotary auger the soil must be reasonably free of tree roots,
cobbles, and boulders, and it must be self-supporting.

During operation little soil is brought upwards by the auger that lateral stresses is
maintained in the soil and voiding or excessive loosening of the soil minimise. However, if
the rotation of the auger and the advance of the auger is not matched, resulting in
removal of soil during drilling-possibly leading to collapse of the side of the hole.
 Figure 8-2 CFA Process

8.3.2 Underreaming

A special feature of auger bored piles which is sometimes used to enable to exploit the
bearing capacity of suitable strata by providing an enlarged base. The soil has to be
capable of standing open unsupported to employ this technique. Stiff and to hard clays,
such as the London clay, are ideal. In its closed position, the underreaming tool is fitted
inside the straight section of a pile shaft, and then expanded at the bottom of the pile to
produce the underream shown in fig. 8-3.Normally, after installation and before concrete
is casted, a man carrying cage is lowered and the shaft and the underream of the pile is
inspected.
 Figure 8 -3 a)hydraulic rotary drilling equipment b) C.F.A, c)undrreaming tool open position

8.3.3 C.H.D.P

Figure 8-4, Continuous helical displacement piles: a short, hollow tapered steel former
complete with a larger diameter helical flange, the bullet head is fixed to a hallow drill pipe
which is connected to a high torque rotary head running up and down the mast of a
special rig. A hollow cylindrical steel shaft sealed at the lower end by a one-way valve
and fitted with triangular steel fins is pressed into the ground by a hydraulic ram. There
are no vibrations.

Displaced soil is compacted in front and around the shaft. Once it reaches the a suitably
resistant stratum the shaft is rotated. The triangular fins either side of its leading edge
carve out a conical base cavity. At the same time concrete is pumped down the centre of
the shat and through the one-way valve. Rotation of the fins is calculated so that as soil is
pushed away from the pile base it is simultaneously replaced by in-flowing concrete.
Rates of push, rotation and concrete injection are all controlled by an onboard computer.
Torque on the shaft is also measured by the computer. When torque levels reach a
constant low value the base in formed. The inventors claim that the system can install a\
typical pile in 12 minute. A typical 6m long pile with an 800mm diameter base and 350mm
shaft founded on moderately dense gravel beneath soft overlaying soils can achieve an
ultimate capacity of over 200t. The pile is suitable for embankments, hard standing
supports and floor slabs, where you have a soft silty layer over a gravel strata.

Figure 8 -4 C.H.D.P.

Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

LOAD TEST ON PILES

9.1 Introduction

Pile load test are usually carried out that one or some of the following reasons are
fulfilled:

 To obtain back-figured soil data that will enable other piles to be

designed.
 To confirm pile lengths and hence contract costs before the client is
committed to over all job costs.
 To counter-check results from geotechnical and pile driving formulae
 To determine the load-settlement behaviour of a pile, especially in the
 region of the anticipated working load that the data can be used in
prediction of group settlement.
 To verify structural soundness of the pile.

Test loading: There are four types of test loading:

 compression test
 uplift test
 lateral-load test
 torsion-load test

the most common types of test loading procedures are Constant rate of penetration
(CRP) test and the maintained load test (MLT).

9.1.1 CRP (constant rate of penetration)

In the CRP (constant rate of penetration) method, test pile is jacked into the soil, the
load being adjusted to give constant rate of downward movement to the pile. This is
maintained until point of failure is reached.

Failure of the pile is defined in to two ways that as the load at which the pile continues
to move downward without further increase in load, or according to the BS, the load
which the penetration reaches a value equal to one-tenth of the diameter of the pile at the base.

Fig.9-2, In the cases of where compression tests are being carried out, the following
methods are usually employed to apply the load or downward force on the pile:

A platform is constructed on the head of the pile on which a mass of heavy material,
termed "kentledge" is placed. Or a bridge, carried on temporary supports, is
constructed over the test pile and loaded with kentledge. The ram of a hydraulic jack,
placed on the pile head, bears on a cross-head beneath the bridge beams, so that a
total reaction equal to the weight of the bridge and its load may be obtained.

9.1.2 MLT, the maintained increment load test

Fig.9-1, the maintained increment load test, kentledge or adjacent tension piles or soil
anchors are used to provide a reaction for the test load applied by jacking(s) placed
over the pile being tested. The load is increased in definite steps, and is sustained at
each level of loading until all settlements has either stop or does not exceed a
specified amount of in a certain given period of time.
Figure 9-1 test load arrangement using kentledge

Figure 9-2 test being carried out

 Pile Foundation Design: A Student Guide

Limit State Design

Introduction

Traditionally, design resistance of foundations has been evaluated on an allowable

stress basis that piles were designed with ultimate axial capacity between 2 and 3
times than working load. However structural design is now using a limit state design
(LSD) bases whereby partial factors are applied to various elements of the design
according to the reliability with which the parameters are known or can be calculated.
LSD approach is the base of all the Eurocodes, including that for foundations design. It
is believed that Limit state design has many benefits for the economic design of piling.
The eurocode approach is particularly rigorous, and this guide adopts the partial
factors presented in the codes.

See Elements of Soil Mechanics (8th Edition) to learn how to design

piles (and other geotechnical structures) to Eurocode 7. Full details are
here....
Eurocode 7 divides investigation, design and implementation of geoconstructions into
three categories. It is a requirement of the code that project must be supervised at all
stages by personnel with geotechnical knowledge.

In order to establish minimum requirements for the extent and quality of geotechnical
investigation, deign and construction three geotechnical categories defined. These are:
Geotechnical Category 1, 2, 3.

10.1 Goetechnical category 1, GC 1

this category includes small and relative simple structures:

-for which is impossible to ensure that the fundamental requirements will be satisfied
on the basis of experience and qualitative geotecnical investigation;

-with negligible risk for property and life.

Geotechnical Category 1 procedures will be only be sufficient in ground conditions

which are known from comparable experience to be sufficiently straight-forward that
routine methods may be used for foundation design and construction. Qualitative
geotechnical investigations

10.2 Geotechnical Category, GC 2

This category includes conventional types of structures and foundations with no

abnormal risks or unusual or exceptionally difficult ground or loading conditions.
Structures in Geotechnical category 2 require quantitative geotechnical data and
analysis to ensure that the fundamental requirements will be satisfied, but routine
procedures for field and laboratory testing and for design and execution may be used.
Qualified engineer with relevant experience must be involved.

10.3 Geotechnical Category, GC 3

This category includes structures or parts of structures which do not fall within the
limits of Geotechnical Categories 1and 2.

The following are examples of structures or parts of structures complying with

geotechnical category 2:

conventional type of :

 spread foundations;
 raft foundations;
 piled foundations;
 walls and other structures retaining for supporting soil or water;
  excavations;
 bridge piers and abutments;
 embankment and earthworks;
 ground anchors and other tie-back systems;
 tunnels in hard, non-fractured rock and not subjected to special water tightness
or other requirement.

Geotechnical Category 3 includes very large or unusual structure. Structures

involving abnormal risks or unusual or exceptionally difficult ground or loading
conditions and highly seismic areas. Qualified geotechnical engineer must be involved.

The following factors must be considered in arriving at a classification of a structure or

part of a structure:

 Nature and size of the structure

 Local conditions, e.g. traffic, utilities, hydrology, subsidence, etc.
 Ground and groundwater conditions
 Regional seismicity…..

10.3.1 Conditions classified as in Eurocode 7

In the code, conditions are classified as favourable or unfavourable.

Favourable conditions are as such:

+ if experience shows that the material posses limited spreading characteristic

+ if large scale investigation was carried out and test results are reliable

+ the existence of well documented investigation carried out using reliable methods
which can give reproducible results

+ if additional tests, investigations and supervisions are recommend

+ high certainty in defining test results

+ failure is plastic

Unfavourable conditions are as such:

-- if experience shows that the material posses spreading characteres

-- if test results shows large spreading than the normal conditions

-- if the extent of investigation is limited

-- limited experience and methods lucking reproducibility

-- where there is no recommendation for additional test, investigations and supervision

-- uncertainty in analysing test results

-- if failure is brittle

Eurocode 7 refers to foundation loadings as action. The se can be permanent as In the

case of weights of structures and installations, or variable as imposed loading, or wind
and snow loads. They can be accidental, e.g. vehicle impact or explosions.

Actions can vary spatially, e.g. self-weights are fixed (fixed actions), but imposed loads
can vary in position (free actions). The duration of actions affections affects the
response of the ground. It may cause strengthening such as the gain in strength of a
clay by long-term loading, or weakening as in the case of excavation slopes in clay
over the medium or long term. To allow for this Eurocode 7 introduces a classification
related to the soil response and refers to transient actions (e.g. wind loads), short-term
actions (e.g. construction loading) and long-term actions. In order to allow for
uncertainties in the calculation of he magnitude of actions or combinations of actions
and their duration and spatial distribution, Euorcode requires the design values of
actions Fd to be used for the geotechnical design either to be assessed directly or to be
derived from characteristic values Fk :

Fd = Fk

10.4 The partial factors  m,  n,  Rd

The partial factor  m: this factor is applied as a safety factor that the characteristic
values of the material is divided by this factor. (m = material index) and covers :

 unfavourable deviation from the material product property

 inaccuracies in the conversion factors: and
 uncertainties in the geometric properties and the resistance
model.

In ultimate limit state, depending upon a given conditions, for Geotechnical Category 2,
the values of the  m may be decided using table 10-1& 10-2.

The partial co-efficient  n: in order to ensure stability and adequate strength in the
structure and in the ground, in the code, cases A, B, and C have been introduced.
Values of  n is given in table 10-3
Partial co-efficient  Rd: this co-efficient is applied in consideration of deviation
between test results and future construction. Values of the  n should be between 1.4 -
1.8
Table 10-1 partial factors on material properties for conventional design situations for ultimate limit states

Material property Partial factor  m

tan 1.1- 1.25

modules 1.2 - 1.8

other properties 1.6 - 2.0

Table 10-2 partial factors on material properties for conventional design situations for service limit state

Material property Partial factor  m

modules 1.2 - 1.8

other properties 1.6 - 2.0

Normally the design values, d , Ed, tan , can be decided using the following formulae:

fd = fk/( n‫׼‬

Ed = Ek /( n‫׼‬

tan d = tan k/( n‫׼‬

Where:

f = reaction force

 = internal angle of friction

E = elastic module

Table 10-3 partial factor  n

Class n
 A 1.0

B 1.1

C 1.2

Table 10-4 adhesion factor 

pile b s

Concrete piles 0.5 0.005

Steel piles 0.5 0.002

timber piles (wood piles) 0.5 0.009

The table is used for qc  10 Mpa

Table 10-5 Bearing factors N , Nq, NC

d N NC Nq

25 6.48 20.7 10.7

26 7.64 22.2 11.8

27 8.99 23.9 13.2

28 10.6 25.8 14.7

29 12.5 27.9 16.4

30 14.7 30.1 18.4

31 17.4 32.7 20.6

32 20.6 35.5 23.2

33 24.4 38.9 26.1

34 29.0 42.2 29.4

35 34.4 46.1 33.3

36 41.9 50.6 37.7

37 49.1 55.6 42.9

38 58.9 61.3 48.9

39 70.9 67.9 56.0

40 85.6 75.3 64.2

41 104 83.9 73.9

42 126 93.7 85.4

43 154 105 99.0

44 190 118 115

45 234 134 135