LAB Manual ECTE423 923 12 03 2018 FINAL PDF

Muhammad Ameer Hamza Janjua 5085706
Student Name: Student ID:
Laboratory Partners:
University of Wollongong
School of Electrical, Computer and

Telecommunications Engineering
ECTE423/ECTE823/ECTE923 Power System

Analysis
Laboratory Workbook
Last Updated March, 2018
Autumn 2018
ECTE423/ECTE823/ECTE923 Power System Analysis Autumn 2018
Office Use Only

Experiment Participation Grade Experiment Grade* Demonstrator Signature Date
Exp. 1
Exp. 2
Exp. 3
Exp. 4
Exp. 5
* - Please note the step-by-step processes associated with answering relevant lab related questions will be looked at
closely while determining the Experiment Grade.
Document Published in March 2018. The information in this publication is correct at the time of
printing and may be subject to change without notice.
Typeset using the thinking engineers’ software: LATEX
2
Contents
Introduction and Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3
Introduction and Assessment
Aim
The aim of the laboratory is to complement the theoretical aspects of the course with practical work. The
material presented in the lectures and tutorials are considered as separate entities to the material contained
in these laboratory notes. That is, there may not always be a direct alignment between the material
presented in lectures and that which is undertaken in the practical component.
The practical laboratory work is related to the theoretical material that will be presented in the ECTE423/
ECTE823/ECTE923 lectures and constitutes 20% of the overall grade (15% for the appropriate completion
of the laboratory logbook and 5% for the laboratory performance).
Experimental Work
There are 5 experiments in total. Students will work in groups of two and are expected to complete all
the 5 experiments. All of the experiments must be undertaken in the given order. At the completion
of each laboratory session, your results must be submitted to the laboratory supervisor for assessment of
performance. Students are expected to have read through the appropriate experiment and to
have performed any necessary preparation such as completing a series of questions under the
title ‘Test your knowledge’ prior to the start of each laboratory session. Failure to do so may
result in deduction of marks.
As a general rule, you should always have the lab demonstrator check your wiring prior to energisation.
If you have any doubts about how to connect equipment for any experiment, do not guess; ask the lab
demonstrator.
Laboratory Workbooks and Logbooks
A soft copy of the laboratory workbook is provided for students on the Moodle site. This workbook contains
all of the procedures and information required to complete the 5 experiments. Every student is required
to maintain a logbook to record all results and observations while running the experiments in the
laboratory environment. It is student’s responsibility to look after the logbook and maintain it very well till
the end. All results and observations are to be recorded in the logbook.
The laboratory workbook has been prepared with the assistance of the manufacturer of the equipment you
are using in the laboratory; Lab-Volt.
R Throughout the workbook, you may find blank sections or blanks
in the middle of paragraphs. This is a consequence of editing the Lab-Volt provided course notes.
The appendices of the workbook contain some useful information. Appendix A is a legend you can use to
help interpret the Lab-Volt circuit diagrams. Appendix B is a listing of all the impedances that are available
from the resistive, inductive and capacitive loads. Appendix C is a list of the modules required for each
experiment.
As indicated earlier, there are a series of questions under the title ‘Test your knowledge’ you are required
to answer, as a preparation for each experiment, before each laboratory session. Answer all of these questions
in your own words and record it in your logbook. Even though you will complete the laboratory as a group,
these questions are expected to be individual work and will be assessed accordingly.
4
Students should submit their logbook for assessment at the end of every laboratory session. Failure to do so
will result in a zero grade for the missed submission. The laboratory logbooks will be returned to students
after they have been graded. The logbooks will be available one week after they have been submitted. You
will be able to pick them up from the Stores Officer in Room 35.132A. It is the responsibility of the student
to retrieve their logbook.
At the conclusion of the final laboratory, the logbooks will be retained by the University.
The laboratory component of ECTE423/ECTE823/ECTE923 is 20% of your final grade for the subject (15%
for the appropriate completion of the laboratory logbook and 5% for the laboratory performance). The mark
you will be given for the laboratory logbook component will be determined on the basis of the quality of the
results and answers you provide in your logbook. The marks associated with the laboratory performance
will be determined based on the lab attendance and preparation, active participation in conducting the
experiments, and promptness and timely completion. Neatness is important. The accuracy of your results
is also important and correct preparation for the laboratory should ensure your results actually make sense.
Laboratory Neatness
You will appreciate that the laboratory is used by many students. It is therefore very important that you
leave the equipment in a neat and orderly manner. Please ensure that all leads are organised correctly and
all equipment is placed in the containers provided. Failure to do so will result in a mark deduction of 30%
for offending the laboratory. You need not concern yourselves with the Lab-Volt hardware, the University
will take care of the installation and removal of modules for each laboratory.
Plagiarism
The University’s policies on plagiarism extends to the results obtained for laboratory experiments. Students
who are found to be copying results from previous years or from other students undertaking the same
laboratory but at a different workstation will be reported for academic misconduct.
5
ECTE423/823/923 Power System Analysis Experiment 1
ECTE423/823/923
Power System Analysis
Experiment 1
6
7
Phase Sequence
this reason the desired sequence on power is thought out

in advance.
Multiple Outlets
In some installations (such as in a laboratory) a number of may be fed
from a common bus. receptacles may have terminals marked, say, 1-2-3
following the we have just outlined, the sequences can ever-
be in the order 1-2-3. Figure 2-2 shows how three rec:eptac:les
p, Q, R may be connected in this way to the main bus, whose phase sequence is in
the order The phase sequence of each is in the order 1·2·3 but is it
is obvious that if terminal 1 of receptacle P is connected to terminal 1 of
rec:epl[aCle R a short-circuit will result. In other words, correct sequence is not
a that similarly-marked terminals may be connected together.
A ----~--------------------~----------------------------.----~-------
B -----+----~---------------r----~-------------- __~--------~-------
C -----r----+---~~--------~--~,_--_.--------~----~----+_-------
3 1 2 3 1 2 3
P Q R
Figure 2-2.
The only way to be sure that the connections are identical for various receptacles is
to measure the voltage between similarly-marked terminals. If the is zero in
case, the and the connections are identical.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
DESCRIPTION MODEL
Resistive Load 8311

::>"""""'1\,<> Load 8331
AC Voltmeter 8426
Power Supply 8821
Connection Leads 9128
2-2
8
Phase Sequence
PROCEDURE
WARNING
High voltages are present in this Laboratory Experiment! Do

not make any connections with the power ani
1. Using your Resistive Load, Load and AC Voltmeter, connect the

circuit to the Power Supply as shown in Figure 2-3. Set the value of each
""Cleft" to 1200 fl, and set the capacitive reactance also to 1200 n. Note
that the three elements are connected in star to terminals 1-2-3 of the
. Power Supply.
0-500 V
1 }---4--I1200 n f--+-----,
0-500 V
415 V
3 PHASE 2 }---*--I1200 fl f--.....- - .
1200 n
3
2-3.
2. Measure the voltages and E2 .
= Vac
E2 = Vac
D 3. Determine the sequence (1-2-3 or 2-1-3) from the relative values of

and E2 •
The sequence is _ __
4. If the sequence is found to be 2-1-3 it is preferable to any

two of the phase wires of the wall receptacle to which the Power Supply is
connected.
Note: It is much easier to remember a phase sequence when it is 1-2-3, and in all
SU(ISe(JUe,m experiments we shall assume this sequence has been established.
2-3
9
Phase Seq
S. Connect the circuit of Figure 2-3 to terminals 4-S-6 of the Power Supply,
and determine the phase sequence.
The phase sequence is _ __
Note: If the sequence is 5-4-6 instead of 4-5-6 follow the procedure

dure step 4. It is much easier to recall a sequence of 4-5-6 and in all subse-
quent experiments we shall assume this sequence.
6. Connect the three voltmeters to Supply terminals 1 2-5 and 3-6

respectively. Rotate the control knobs of the variable autotransformer the
Power Supply completely in the clockwise direction, and turn on the Power
Supply. The three voltmeters read zero.
Next, rotate the same knob completely counterclockwise. The three voltme-
ters should read about the same and the voltago should be between 230
and 250 V.
E1 - 4 == ___ V ae
::::; _ _ _ Vae
= - - - Vac
The purpose of this test is to ensure that your Power Supply is operating
correctly.
7. In Figure 2-5, draw the phasor diagram to scale of the Power Supply vol·
, E 23 , E31 and N , and E3N , based upon the diagrams
given in Figure 2-4 showing the relationship for phase sequence
or 1,3,2.
1,2,3 and
PHASE SEQUENCE 1·2-3 PHASE SEQUENCE 1-3-2
Figure 2-4.
2-4
10
Phase Sequence
8, procedure may be carried out by two collaborating groups, In this pro-

we shall check that similarly-marked terminals at different student
positions are at the same
Connect two Power Supplies to two different wall receptacles, Switch on

the power and measure the voltage between similarly-marked terminals (1
to 1,2 to 2 and 3 to 3), If the is not zero, the three wires in one of the
wall receptacles must interchanged,
Repeat this procedure for in the laboratory, and

make the wiring if required, wiring check is
larly useful for future experiments where different consoles will be linked by
transmission lines,
I I
I I
I
I I tt-
I
,
I
I
I
I
,
I :
I
I
I
I
r I .
I
I
-
I
-
I I
Figure 2·5,
2·5
11
Experiment 3
Real Power and Reactive Power
OBJECTIVES
• To interpret the of negative, real and reactive power.
• To observe the flow of real and reactive power in three-phase circuits.
DISCUSSION
In direct current circuits the real power (in watts) supplied to a load is always equal to
the product of the voltage and the current. In alternating current circuits, however,
this product is usually greater than the real (or active) power which the load
consumes. For this reason, wattmeters are used to measure the real power (in
watts).
In three-phase, three-wire AC circuits two wattmeters are needed to measure the
real power while three-phase, four-wire circuits require three. These meters may be
combined into a wattmeter of special construction, which
the problem of the of two or three wattmeters to obtain the total
three-phase power. A typical three-phase wattmeter (Figure 3-1) has three input
terminals (1 and three output terminals (4,5,6).
THREE·PHASE WATTMETER
W
---+0 1 4 C>-I----
---f-O 2 50+---
- - + 0 3 L....-_--' 6 0 + - -
Figure 3-1.
If the wattmeter is connected into a three-phase line, as shown in 3-1, it will

show the total real power flowing in the line. if the power flows in the direction of the
input terminals to the output terminals (left to right in Figure 3-1) the meter
will be to the right and the will be positive.
However, if power flow is from right to left, that is, from the output terminals to the
input terminals, the meter pointer will be deflected to the left and the will be
Real power, therefore, is positive or negative according to its direction of flow. The
direction of power flow can be found when the "input" terminals have been
identified.
3-1
12
Real Power and Reactive
Reactive is the power associated with the and discharge of condens-

ers and the increase and decrease of the magnetic of inductors when they are
part of an alternating current circuit. Because the energy (joules) in a coil merely
builds up and as the magnetic field increases and decreases in response to
the alternating current which it carries, it follows that there is no flow of real power in
a coil. On the other hand, a current flows through the coil and a voltage appears
across it, so a casual observer is apt to believe that power of some kind is involved.
The product of the and current in a coil is the reactive power, and it is
expressed in var or in kilovar (kvar). Reactive power is needed to produce an
alternating field.
In the same way, the alternating electric field in a also requires reactive
power. Owing to the of electromagnetic devices
opposed to electrostatic devices), we consider that reactive power, whenever it
appears, is the kind of power which has the ability to produce a magnetic field.
Reactive power, just like real power, can be measured with appropriate meters
called varmeters. In circuits, the two or three varmeters which would
ordinarily be needed can be combined into a single instrument to give one reading of
the total reactive power flow in the circuit. Such a shown in Figure 3-2, pos-
sesses three input (1.2,3) and three output terminals
THREE·PHASE VARMETER
--+0: ~T~I :0-+--

var
I
--+0 3 60-+--
Figure 3·2.
When reactive power the input to the output the meter will
a positive reading. Conversely. if the flow of reactive power is from the output termin-
als to the input terminals, a negative reading will result. For example, if a three-
phase source and a coil are connected as shown in Figure 3-3. the flow
of reactive power is from left to right, and the varmeter will give a positive
reading. Just as with a wattmeter, the direction of reactive power flow can readily be
found when the input terminals of the varmeter are ,r1ont.t.Of1
VARMETER
1 4 o-t-----'
THREE·PHASE THREE-PHASE
f------..-....+<l2 1---'---1 5 o-t---..........f INDUCTIVE LOAD
SOURCE
"------+03 6 o - t - - - -......
Figure 3·3.
3-2
13
Three-phase alternating circuits may involve many types of circuits and devices, but
the flow of active and reactive power can always be determined by introducing watt·
meters and varmeters. The example of Figure 3-4 will illustrate how some typical
readings can be interpreted. An impedance Z forms part of a larger circuit (not
shown), and wattmeters W 1 , W 2 and varmeters var, ,var2 are connected on either
The input terminals are assumed to be on the left-hand side of each instru-
ment. The meters give following
w, var,
+70 -60 -40 -80
Figure 3-4.
W1 ::::: +70 W var1::::: 60 var

W2 ::::: -40W var2 ::::: - 80 var
How are we to interpret results? First, we must recognize that real power and
reactive power flow independently of each other. One does not affect the
other. Consequently, we must never add or subtract real power reactive power.
Consider first the active power. Because W 1 is positive, real power is flowing to the
right. Because W 2 is negative, real power is flowing to the It follows, therefore,
that the impedance Z must be absorbing 70 + 40 =
110 W.
Next, let us look at the power; 80 var are flowing to the left, towards the
impedance Z, while 60 var are flowing to the left, away from it. It follows that Z is
absorbing (80 - 60) 20 var, and this reactive power creates a magnetic field.
This example shows that when wattmeters and varmeters are connected on either
side of an electrical circuit or we can determine the real and the reactive
power which it produces or absorbs.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
DESCRIPTION MODEL
Three-Phase Wound-Rotor Induction Motor 8231

Resistive Load 8311
Inductive Load 8321
Capacitive Load 8331
AC Ammeter 8425
AC Voltmeter 8426
Three-Phase WatlmelerlVarmeter 8446
Power Supply 8821
3·3
14
Power and Reactive Power
PROCEDURE
WARNING
High voltages are present in this Experiment! Do

not make any connections with the power on!
The following involve a source, three Voltmeters, three

Ammeters, one Three-Phase WattmeterNarmeter, and a balanced three-phase
star-connected load, The source is taken from terminals 4,5,6 of the Power Supply,
and to provide a of about 415 V.
D 1, Using a load of 1200 n from each of the three Resistive Loads star-
connected as shown in Figure measure E, I, Q and record your
results in Table 3-1.
0-500 V
0-0,25/1,5 A
1200 n
4
1200 n
0-415 V
3 5
1200 n
6
8311
FIgure 3-5.
2. Replace the Load by three Inductive Loads having a reactance of

1200 n, star-connected. Record your results in Table 3-1 ,
Note: The leads coming from the source must be connected to terminals 1, 2, 3 of
the Three-Phase WattmeterlVarmeter in the order of their sequence. If the
phase sequence of the Power Supply is 1-2-3, the varmeter will the correct
reading when terminals 1, 2, 3 o( the Power Supply are connected to terminals 1, 2,
3 of the instrument.
In this experiment the varmeter reading should be positive, if it is negative,

the sequence is incorrect and two leads of the source should be
interchanged.
D 3. procedure step 2, using three Capacitive Loads having a reactance

of 1200 star-connected, Record your results in Table 3-1,
3-4
15
4. Repeat procedure 3, but add three Resistive of 1200 n

nn,,,,,t.,,,rll in parallel with the Loads. Record your results in
Table 3-1. Is the real power affected when the Capacitive are
switched on and off?
DYes 0 No
Is the reactive power when the Resistive Loads are switched on

and off?
Yes No
5. Repeat procedure step 1, but place the Inductive Load of procedure 2

in with the Loads. Record your results in 3·1.
Why is the real power slightly affected when the Inductive Loads are
switched on and off?
Is the reactive power when the Resistive Loads are switched on

and off?
Yes No
o 6. Repeat procedure step 1, but use an Inductive Load of 1200 n in parallel

with a Load of 1200 n.
all star-connected. Record your results in
Table 3-1. Do you agree to all intents and purposes, the l,.;apa(~ItI\fe
Load is supplying most of the reactive power required by the Inductive
Load?
Yes No
Would you agree that the Capacitive Load can be considered to be a source
of reactive power?
Yes No
7. "Repeat procedure step 1, but use a Three-Phase Wound-Rotor Induction

Motor *at no load of the Resistive Load. your results in
3-1. Does the motor absorb both real and reactive power?
Yes No
What does the real power accomplish?
* - Run the motor as a squirrel cage induction motor by connecting the stator winding in a star (wye) configuration and short-circuiting the rotor terminals. 3-5
16
Real Power Power
What does the reactive power accomplish?
• This procedure is optional.
8. Knowing that the power in volt-amperes (VA) is the

expression
calculate the apparent power in Table 3-1.
PROCEDURE LOAD E I P Q S
STEP No. S::::: E I
V A W var VA
R
1 0---1 t---o
Xl
2 ~
Xc
3 0---1 ~
H
4
I~~ R
..-
5
lo-Gv~
Xl
Xc
6
~
Xl
Table 3-1.
3·6
17
D 9. Knowing that the apparent power of a balanced three-phase circuit is given

by the equation S calcu late the apparent power. and compare with
the value found in procedure 8.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE (To be completed before the laboratory session)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. An load Z is connected to the terminals of a 240 V ac source. Show
the direction of real and reactive power flow if Z is a) a an inductor,
c) a capacitor. d) a resistor and inductor. e) a resistor and f) a single-
phase motor Figure 3-6).
+
SOURCE
S ,
240 V ac
LOAD
Z
Figure 3-6.
2. Calculate the real and power delivered by single-phase source in

the two single-phase circuits shown in Figure 3-7.
S R = 160 n S
(a) (b)
Figure 3-7.
3. A three-phase source having a line-to-line voltage of 69 kV ""1-'1-1'":;''' a star-

connected resistive load having an impedance of 100 n per Calculate
the real power delivered.
3-7
18
4. Explain what is meant by the statement than an inductor absorbs reactive power
while a capacitor supplies reactive power.
5. A three-phase power shown schematically in delivers real and

reactive power as in Table 3-2. the real and reactive power
absorbed by the line.
SENDER 1 - - - '--_~ k~V2 ~_~ RECEIVER
POSITIVE POSITIVE
POWER FLOW POWER FLOW
Figure 3·8.
+100 +10 + 95 + 5
+ 100 +10 + 95 -10
+100 10 + 95 -25
-100 +10 -105 + 5
Table 3-2.
3-8
19
6. A three-phase line operating at a line-to-line voltage E supplies power to a star-

connected load whose is Z ohms per that the total
apparent power S is given by the equation.
S :::-
Z
3·9
20
Experiment 4
Power Flow and Voltage Regulation
of a Simple Transmission Line
OBJECTIVES
• To observe the flow of real and reactive power in a three-phase transmission
line with known, loads.
• To observe the voltage regulation at the receiver end as a function of the type of
load.
DISCUSSION
Transmission Lines
A transmission line which delivers electric power heat owing to the resist-
ance of its conductors. It therefore, as a resistance which, in some cases, is
many miles long.
The transmission line also behaves like an inductance, because each conductor is
surrounded by a magnetic field which also extends the full length of the line.
Finally, the transmission line behaves like a capacitor, the conductors acting as its
more or less widely-separated plates.
The resistance, inductance and capacitance of a transmission lien are uniformly dis-
tributed over its the field around the conductors side by
side with the electric field created by the potential difference between them. We can
picture a transmission line as being made up of thousands of elementary resistors,
inductors and capacitors as shown in Figure 4-1.
R l
4-1.
In high frequency work this is preCisely the circuit required to explain the behavior of
a transmission line. Fortunately, at low frequencies of 50 Hz or 60 we can sim-
plify most lines so that comprise one inductance, one resistance and one (or
sometimes two) capacitors (for each phase). Such an arrangement is shown in
Figure 4-2.
4-1
21
Power Flow and Voltage Regulation
of a Transmission Line
A L
Figure 4-2.
In Figure 4-2, the inductance L is to the sum of the inductances of

and the same is true for the resistance R. The C is
sum of the capacitors shown in 4-1 The inductance Land
can be replaced by their equivalent reactances XL and Xc as shown in
Figure 4-3.
The relative values of XL and upon the type of transmission line.

Short, low-voltage lines such as in a house wiring are mainly resistive, and the
inductive and capacitive reactances can be (Figure 4-4 a)).
Medium-voltage and medium-length lines operating, say, at 100 KV and several kil-
ometers long, will have negligible resistance and capacitive reactance
with the inductive reactance. Such lines can be represented by a single reactance
XL , shown in Figure 4-4 b).
Finally, very high voltage lines which run for many kilometers have
capacitive and inductive reactance and may be designated by a circuit similar to
4-4 c).
Most transmission lines can be by 4-4 b) or 4-4 and a
good understanding of their behavior can be obtained by the simple inductance
of 4-4 b). It is this circuit which will be used in this experiment.
As a matter of interest, typical 50 Hz lines have a series reactance of about 0.4 n
per kilometer per phase. The shunt reactance is about 400 000 n per
kilometer.
4-2
22
Power Flow Regulation
of a Simple Line
o----------------~o
(a) (0) (c)
Figure 4-4.
REQUIRED
DESCRIPTION MODEL
Four-Pole Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor 8221

Three-Phase Wound-Rotor Induction Motor 8231
Resistive Load 8311
Inductive Load 8321
Three-Phase Transmission Line 8329
AC Voltmeter 8426
Three-Phase Wattmeter/Varmeter 8446
Power Supply 8821
Phase-Shift Indicator 8909
PROCEDURE
WARNING
High voltages are present in this Laboratory Do

1. Connect two WattmeterlVarmeters in series to the variable Three-Phase

415 V section of the Power Supply and a Inductive Load
of 1200 11, star-connected, as shown in 4-5. Adjust the Power Sup-
ply output to 415 V. Particular care be taken in connecting so that
the proper phase sequence is applied to the WattmeterlVarmeters.
a 1200 n
4 1 4 4
0-415 V
3 5
b
c 28@5 2 5
6 3 6 3 6
8821 8321
8446 8446
Figure 4-5.
4-3
23
Power Flow and Voltage
of a Simple Transmission
If the meters are connected as shown, both varmeters should read positive
(pointers to the right). If the reading is negative, the phase sequence is
incorrect and any two leads a, b or c should be interchanged.
Note: Although both meters should give the same readings, the one on the left may
show a owing to the load which the right-hand meter
= ___ W = ___ W
_ _ _ var ::: _ _ _ var
2. AC source, connect the circuit as shown in

and set the of the transmission line to 400 .n. Con-
nect an Inductive Load of 1200 H in star and power. All meters should
if the check your for
sequence. We are now with the the cir-
cuit of 4-6.
0-500 V 0-500 V
4 1-*---+-+0 1 4 <>+--c...... 4 0-+-'---+-+-0

0-415 V
3 phase 5 }------t>-+-o 2
}------+-o3
G 5<>+--C>-'
6O+--oJ,rY~~+03
2 5 0 + - -.....+0 LOAD
6 6<>+---+0
8821 8446 8329 8446 8311

8321
8331
8231
4-6.
D 3. With the line on open adjust the voltage of the source so that the
line-Io-line voltage is 350 V. this voltage constant for the remain-
der of the experiment.) Measure ,P1, Q 1 and ,Q2 ,and record in
Table 4-1.
4. Connect a Inductive Load of 1200 n per take readings

and record in Table 4-1.
5. Apply a Resistive Load of 1200 n per take readings

D 6. Apply a 11"'1">,,,_,,1"'1 Load of 1200 n per take readings

4-4
24
Flow Voltage Regulation
of a Simple Transmission Line
7. 'Connect a Three-Phase Wound-Rotor Induction Motor*to the receiver end

of the line, take readings and record in Table 4-1 .
* - Run the motor as a squirrel cage induction motor by connecting the stator winding in a star (wye) configuration and short-circuiting the rotor terminals.
• This procedure is optional.
8. Short-circuit the load end of the transmission line, take readings and record
in Table 4-1.
9. Calculate the real and reactive power absorbed by the transmission line in
procedure steps 4, 6 and in Table 4-1.
10. Calculate the voltage regulation of the transmission Une from the formula:
x 100
%
in which is the open-circuit voltage and is the under both

at the load (or receiver end). Record your results in Table 4-1.
I PROCEDURE
STEP No.
3
LOAD
OPEN
CIRCUIT
I v
E1
350
£d 01
var
Ez
v
Pz
w
O2
var
LINE
W
LINE
var
REGULATION
I
4 INDUCTIVE 350 i
5 RESISTIVE 350
6 CAPACITIVE 350
7 MOTOR 350
SHORT-
8 CIRCUIT
350
I
Table 4-1.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. A transmission line having a reactance 01120 ohms per phase is
connected to a load whose resistance is 160 ohms per If
the supply voltage is 70 kV Hne-to-line, calculate:
a) The line-la-neutral voltage per phase.
4-5
25
and
Transmission
b) The line current per phase.
c) The real and reactive power supplied to the load.
d) The real and reactive power absorbed by the line.
e) The line-la-line voltage at the
f) The voltage drop per in the line.
The total the source.
h) The total real and reactive power supplied by the source.
2. A transmission line 500 kilometres long has a reactance of 200 ohms per phase
and a line-to-neutral capacitance of 800 ohms per phase. Its equivalent circuit
can be approximated the circuit shown on 4-7. If the line-to-
\l ..... lt"'1110 at the sender end S is 330 what is the line-to-line at the
end R when the load is disconnected?
100 n 100 n
s R
FIgure 4-7.
the reactive power of the source in kvar. Is this power supplied or

by the source?
4·6
26
27 4-7
ECTE423/823/923
Experiment 2
28
Power Flow Simulation Studies

Figure 6.2 (on the next page) shows a single line diagram of a five-bus power system. The input
data are given in Tables 6.1, 6.2, and 6.3 (on the next page). Determine the unknown variables at
each bus (i.e. P1 and Q1 at Bus 1, V2 and δ2 at Bus 2, Q3 and δ3 at Bus 3, V4 and δ4 at Bus 4, and
V5 and δ5 at Bus 5) using Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson power flow program. Use
MATPOWER* (MATLAB based power system simulation package) or DIgSILENT* (power
system analysis software) for computing the results. Verify the results with the Solved Case
(Example 6.9 from Chapter 6 of the book titled ‘Power System Analysis and Design’ by Glover,
Sarma and Overbye) in the PowerWorld* simulator (power systems simulation package).
Tabulate the results obtained using MATPOWER / DIgSILENT and PowerWorld.
Please note all the software tools such as MATPOWER, DIgSILENT and PowerWorld can be
accessed on the computers in the power labs using the following procedure:
 All the relevant files associated with MATPOWER are located at C:\Program
Files\MATLAB\R2010b\toolbox\matpower4.1. Similarly, the MATPOWER manual is
available under C:\Program Files\MATLAB\R2010b\toolbox\matpower4.1\docs.
 DIgSILENT can be accessed using the ‘PowerFactory 14.1’ icon on the desktop or under
the folder ‘DIgSILENT Software’ in the list of All Programs. Alternatively, DIgSILENT
can be accessed by running the ‘digpf.exe’ file located at C:\DIgSILENT\pf141. The
DIgSILENT PowerFactory 14.1 User’s Manual can be accessed using the ‘help’ option
available in the DIgSILENT interface.
 PowerWorld can be accessed using ‘Simulator 16 GSO’ under the folder ‘PowerWorld’
in the list of All Programs. The requisite case files can be opened from the PowerWorld
sample cases (chapter wise) available at C:\PowerWorld Sample Cases\GSS Sample
Cases 5th Ed. Alternatively, ‘PowerWorld’ can be accessed by running ‘pwrworld.exe’
file from C:\Program Files\PowerWorld\SimulatorGSO16. The requisite case files are
available in the folder ‘5th Ed. Book Cases’ under C:\Program
Files\PowerWorld\SimulatorGSO16. The PowerWorld simulator manual can be accessed
using the ‘Window’ option available in the PowerWorld interface.
* Note: All the students should get conversant with the above mentioned software tools (i.e.,
MATPOWER / DIgSILENT and PowerWorld) before the lab class. The detailed
information, including operating procedures, highlighting software capabilities can be
obtained from the following web-links:
1. MATPOWER: http://www.pserc.cornell.edu/matpower/
2. DIgSILENT: http://www.digsilent.com.au/
3. PowerWorld: http://www.powerworld.com/
29
50 km
15.75 kV
200 km
100 km
30
Include the Findings of Newton-Raphson Power Flow Program

(Compare and tabulate the results obtained using MATPOWER / DIgSILENT and PowerWorld)
31
Include the Findings of Gauss-Seidel Power Flow Program

(Compare and tabulate the results obtained using MATPOWER / DIgSILENT and PowerWorld)
32
Provide your comments related to the Newton-Raphson and Gauss-Seidel power flow simulation
studies:
For lab demonstrators:

Whether the student was able to demonstrate strong understanding about power flow analysis and its utility in real
world? Whether the student was able to conduct the simulation studies independently? YES/NO
33
ECTE423/823/923
Experiment 3
34
Experiment 5
Phase Angle and Voltage Drop
between Sender and Receiver
OBJECTIVES
• To regulate the receiver end vu •• tlU,.,.,
• To observe the angle between the voltages at the sending and the
receiving end of the transmission line.
• To the line voltage when the and ro{"'on'In" end vOltacles
have the same magnitude.
DISCUSSION
In the previous experiment we saw that a resistive or inductive load at the end of a
transmission line produces a very voltage drop, which would be quite intolera-
ble under practical conditions. Motors, relays and electric lights work properly only
under stable voltage conditions, close to the for which these devices are
rated.
We must, therefore, regulate the voltage at the end of the transmission line
in some way so as to it as constant as possible. One approach which appears
promising, is to connect capacitors at the end of the line because, as we saw in
Experiment 4, these capacitors produce a very significant voltage rise. indeed,
is one way which the end is in some practical
instances. Static capacitors are switched in and out the day, and their value is
adjusted to keep the receiver end constant.
For inductive loads, the capacitors should deliver reactive power equal to that
consumed the inductive load. produces a parallel resonance effect in which
reactive power required by the inductance in effect, supplied by the capacitance
and none is furnished by the transmission line.
For resistive loads, the reactive power, which the must supply to "''-1'' ,0.',0:;;
the voltage, is not easy to calculate. In this experiment, we shall determine the react-
ive power by trial and errOf, adjusting the capacitors until the receiver end voltage is
equal to the sender end voltage.
for which draw both real and reactive power (they are the most com-
mon) the capacitors must be tailored to compensate for the inductive compo-
nent of load and for the resistive component.
5-1
35
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
DESCRIPTION MODEL
Resistive Load 8311

Three-Phase Transmission Une 8329
Load 8331
AC Voltmeter 8426
Three-Phase WatlmeterlVarmeter 8446
Phase Meter 8451
Power Supply 8821
PROCEDURE
WARNING
voltages are in this Do

1. Set the impedance of the transmission line to 200 n and connect the Volt-
meter and as shown in 5-1. The load will be
modified during the course of the The circuit should be con-
nected to the three-phase variable voltage supply.
8451
0-500 V 0-500 V
~--++O1 "-0-+*+-0 1
0-415 V 4
3 PHASE 5 }---++o2G) '-0__+02
LOAD
6 }----t-03 '-0-+-03 60-+-----1
8821 8446 8329 8446 8311

8331
Figure 5-1. Note: Load to be connected
in STAR configuration
o 2. Using a three-phase Resistive

for the remainder of the
keeping all balanced. Take
and the phase angle between
Note: E, is chosen as the reference for the JnH;,EH'IfHIIB meter.
5-2
36
VOLTAGE REGULATION WITH RESISTIVE LOAD ONLY

R El PI 01 E2 P2 O2 ANGLE
n V W var V W var 0
00
4800
2400
1600
1200
•
960
800
686
Table 5-1.
Record your results in Table 5-1, and draw in Figure 5-2 a graph of E2 as a
function of the load power , in watts.
On this curve, indicate the angle /"'I"\'·ro" .... " to the various real
power loads .W2 .
CAUTION
Always remove the capacitive load to removing the

resistive load. A severe overload is otherwise to be
expected.
3. Now, connect a three-phase balanced Capacitive Load in parallel with the

Resistive Load. Repeat procedure step 2 but for each Resistive Load adjust
the Load so that the load is as close as to
350 V. must be kept constant at 350 V.) Record your results in
Table 5-2.
Draw a graph of as a function of and superimpose it on the previous
I
which you drew in procedure step 2. Note that the addition of static
has yielded a much more constant voltage, and furthermore, the
which can be delivered has increased.
On this curve, indicate the between and

"""".lIvt: power used for the individual resistive load
5-3
37
Angle Voltage Drop
400
350 300
300 250 -+---!--!--I--
250 200 -+--+--
200 150 -+--+--+--!--!--!--I--I--
150 100
100 50 -+--+--+--+-+-+-+--+--I-I---+--+-+--
75
25 100
50 125
75 150
100 175
125 200
150
[W]
Figure 5-2.
4. In this experiment, we shall observe a voltage a trans-

mission line even when the voltages El and at the sender and receiver
ends are equal in magnitude. How is it possible to have a voltage drop when
the at the two ends are The answer is that the drop is due to
between the two
Using the circuit shown in Figure 5-3, set the load resistance per phase at
686 and with ::. 350 adjust the reactance until the load
is as close as 350 V
to 300 V. Measure , P1 ,Q1 ,
E3 and the phase angle.
5-4
38
::::: V ::::: ___ v ___ v

P1 ::::: W P2 == ___ W
0 1 == var O2 ::::: _ _ _ var
Phase ==
0
AND CAPACITIVE
VOLTAGE REGULATION WITH RESISTIVE LOAD *

R
n
v
n -H- Pl
W
0,
var
E2
V
P2
W
O2
var .
ANGLE
00 I
4800
i
2400 I
!
1600
1200
.
960
800
I
686
*For each resistive load, adjust the capacitive load as outlined in step 3.
Table 5-2.
8451
3
2 4
0-500 V
4 1 4
0-415 V
3 phase
5
6
28
3
8 5
6
8329
8446
8311
0-250 V 8331
Figure 5·3.
*
5. Using the results of procedure step 4, calculate the voltage, current, real
power and reactive power per phase. Draw a phasor diagram of the sender
and receiver-end voltages, and verify the voltage drop against the meas-
ured value. sample calculation#further in this experiment).
*Please complete all the relevant calculations associated with step 5 on page no. 43 before the next laboratory session (experiment 4).
5-5
39
#
Sample Calculation
To understand the results of 4, we shall make a brief analysis
the tnll,,,.,,,\,.,
::::; 350 V 350 V = 165 V
P1 ::::; +600 W +510 W
0, ::::; + 170 var 280 var
Phase 48°
We shall reduce all and powers to a per-phase basis, assuming a star-

connection. Since and are the line-la-line voltages, the corresponding line-to-
neutral voltages are 0.577 (1/ times the line-to-line voltages.
P22 is smaller than P1 because of the
Real power O loss in the transmission line.
Furthermore, the source is 170 var to the right, while the load (owing to
the negative sign) is 280 var to the left. As a result, the transmission line is
(170 + 450 var.
The real and reactive powers per phase are 1/3 of the values indicated above. The
per-phase values are therefore as follows:
E1/V3 == 202 V
== 350/V3 202 V
== 165 V
Pl /3 ::::; +200W
= +170 W
== +57 var
= 93 var
Phase 48°
202 V
202 V
-
= 164 V
5-6
40
ROTATION
E 20~
164V
= 202V
Figure 5-4.
If we draw phasor 48 behind E 1/V3, we can off the

of the vector (E l/Y3) - It is found to be 164 V which is very close to
the measured voltage drop E3 in the line.
The reactive power received by the line (per-phase) is + 57) = 150 var.
The real consumed by the line due to its is (200 - 170) = 30 W.
The apparent power absorbed by the line is = 153 VA.
Since the voltage drop across one line is 164 V, the current in the line must be
s 153
1= :::: 164 :::: 0,933 A
We could, of course, have measured this current directly, but a measurement of the
real and reactive power and a knowledge of the voltages is sufficient to enable us to
calculate everything about the line.
CALCULATIONS OF PROCEDURE STEP 5

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. A transmission line has a reactance of 100 n per The
sender voltage is 100 kV and the receiver voltage is also regulated to be 100 kV
by placing a bank of static capacitors in parallel with the receiver load of
500 MW. Calculate *
a) The reactive power furnished by the capacitor bank.
b) The reactive power supplied by the sender.
* Hint: Use the information provided in the NOTES on 'REGULATION OF A TRANSMISSION LINE' (please refer to page no. 44). 5-7
41
c) The voltage drop in the line per phase.
d) The phase angle between the sender and receiver voltages.
e) The apparent power supplied by the sender.
2. If the 50 MW load in Question 1 were suddenly disconnected calculate the

receiver voltage which would appear across the capacitor bank. What precau-
tion, if any, must be taken?
3. If a transmission line were purely resistive, would it be possible to raise the

receiver end voltage by using static capacitors?
[J Yes 0 No
Explain _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
5-8
42
As indicated earlier (on page no. 39), please complete the calculations for step 5 before the next laboratory session
43
subsequently.
44
Experiment 6
Parameters which affect Real
and Reactive Power Flow
OBJECTIVES
• To observe reactive power flow when sender and receiver are differ-
but in phase.
• To observe real power flow when sender and receiver voltages are but
out of
• To study the flow of real and reactive power when sender and receiver voltages
are different and out of
DISCUSSION
Transmission lines are designed and built to deliver electric power. Power flows
from the (sender end) to the load end} but, in complex intercon-
nected the sender and receiver ends may become reversed. Power in
such a line may flow in either direction upon the load conditions
which, of course, vary throughout the day. The character of the load also changes
from hour to hour, both as to kVA and as to power factor. How, then, can we
",ttl>"""I' to understand and solve flow of electric power under such variable con-
ditions further by the reversal of source and load at
the two ends of the line?
We can obtain meaningful answers by turning to the voltage at each end of the line,
In 6-1 a transmission line having a reactance of X n. phase) has
and receiving end at and V respectively. If we allow these to
have any magnitude or phase relationship, we can any loading condition
we please. In other words, by letting E, and take any values and any relative
phase we can cover all possible loading conditions which may occur.
SENDER
+
II - I ~,2 RECEIVER
Figure 6-1.
to Figure 6-1, the voltage drop the line is consequently, for

a line having a reactance X, the current I can be found by the equation:
I :::
X
6-1
45
difference between the sending and end vol-

tage to It should be borne in mind that we are dealing with
and that these have both an angle and a magnitude.
Note: A transmission line is both resistive and reactive, but we shall assume that the react-
ance is so much that the resistance may be neglected.
1= 150 A
E, - :::: 15 kV
Figure 6-2.
Note: When the sine and cosine of the angle between

rl<>t,,,rmrinir.n and current, the
current is chosen as the reference phasor. Consequently, because E1 behind I
by 27", the is
If we know the value of and , and the phase angle between them, it is a
matter to find the current I, knowing the reactance X of the line. From this knowledge
we can calculate the real and reactive power which is delivered by the source and
received by the load.
Suppose, for that the properties of a transmission line are as follows:
Line reactance per 100 n
Sender 20 kV
Receiver = 30 kV
Receiver UrIlT<ln,C behind sender
These line conditions are in Figure 6-3. From the
diagram, on we find that the voltage drop (El - E2 ) in the line has a
value of 15 kV. The current I has a value of 15 kV/100 n :::: 150 A and it lags behind
0
(El - E2) by 90 From the • of the figure, we find that the current leads
by 27". The active and reactive power of the sender and the receiver can now be
found.
The real power delivered by the sender is
150 A x 20 kV x cos ( :::: +2670 kW.
6-2
46
The real power received by the receiver is

150 A x 30 kV x cos ( :::::: +2670 kW.
The reactive power delivered the sender is
150 A x 20 kV x sin ( :::::: 1360 kvar.
The reactive power received the receiver is
150 A x 30 kV x sin ( -3610 kvar.
X :::::: 100 n == 20 kV
-y-y
...
S I R
El :::::: 20 kV = 30 kV
E2 : : : 30 kV
6·3.
Based upon the results calculated if wattmeters and varmeters were placed
at the sender and receiver ends they would give readings as shown in Figure 6·4.
This means that active power is flowing from the sender to the and owing to
the absence of line resistance, none is lost in transit.
150 A
+2670 1360 3610

S R
kW kvar kvar
REAL
POWER
.. REACTIVE
'"POWER
REAL
POWER
REACTIVE
OIl
POWER
FLOW FLOW FLOW FLOW
6-4.
However, reactive power is flowing from receiver to sender and, during

3160 -1360 == 2250 kvar are consumed in the transmission line. This reactive
power can be checked
2250 kvar.
It will be noted that this is not the first time that we have found real power and react-
ive power in directions.
6-3
47
Parameters which Real
Reactive Power
When the voltages at the sender and receiver ends are in phase, but unequal, react-
ive power will flow. The direction of flow Is always from the higher to the
lower voltage.
a transmission line in which the voltage at the sender and receiver ends
are 30 kV and 20 kV respectively and the line reactance is 100 n
x == 100 n
~
...
S I R
:::: 30 kV :::: 20 kV
:::: 20 kV == 30 kV
... ...
Figure 6-5.
in the line is 10 and the current is 10 kV/100 :::: 100 A as shown
1== 100 A
6-6.
The real power delivered by the sender end is

100 A x 30 kV x cos (+ 90°) :::: 0 W.
The real power received by the receiver is
100 A x 20 kV x cos (+90°) = 0 W.
The reactive power delivered by the sender end is
100 A x 30 kV x sin (+ 90°) == + 3000 kvar.
The power received by the receiver is
100 A x 20 kV x sin (+90°) == +2000 kvar.
If wattmeters and varmeters were at each the would be as
shown In 6-7.
6-4
48
+3000
100 A
.
+2000
S OkW '--
kvar
~ OkW r--- kvar R
REACTIVE
..
POWER
REACTIVE
POWER
..
FLOW FLOW
Figure 6-7.
Reactive power flows from the sender to the receiver, and 100 kvar are absorbed in
the transmission line during transit. As can be seen, reactive power flows from the
high-voltage to the low-voltage side.
Real power
Real power can only flow over a line if the sender and receiver voltages are out of
phase. The direction of power flow is from the leading to the lagging voltage end.
Again, it should be noted that this rule applies only to transmission lines which are
principally reactive.
The phase shift between the sender and receiver voltages can be likened to an elec-
trical "twist", similar to the mechanical twist which occurs when a long steel shaft
delivers mechanical power to a load. Indeed, the greater the electrical "twist" the
larger will the real power flow become. However, it is found that it attains a maximum
when the phase angle between the sender and receiver ends is 90°. If the phase
angle is increased beyond this (by increased loading) it will be found that less real
power is delivered.
Consider a transmission line in which the voltages at each end are equal to 30 kV
and the receiver voltage lags behind the sender by 30°. The line reactance is 100 n,
and the circuit is shown in Figure 6-8.
X :::: 100 n E, = 30 kV
~
S I
.. R
E, :::: 30 kV E2 = 30 kV
E2 :::: 30 kV
Figure 6-8.
6-5
49
and Reactive Flow
The voltage drop in the line - E2 ) is found to be 15.5 kV, so the current
I :: 15 550/100 :: 155 A and lags 90° behind, as shown in Figure 6-9.
E, == 30 kV
15.5 kV
Figure 6-9.
the current as the we can find the real and reactive power
with the sender and the receiver end as shown in
"''';:'Vvll''''<:;'U 6-10.
155 A
...
+4500 - + 1200 ~ +4500 r-- -1200 R
S
kW kvar kW kvar
REAL REACTIVE REAL REACTIVE

... ...
POWER POWER POWER
FLOW FLOW FLOW FLOW
Figure 6-10.
Sender End
Real power delivered :::::: 30 kV x 155 A x cos (+ 15°) :::::: + 4500 kW.
Reactive power delivered == 30 kV x 155 A x sin (+ 1 : : : + 1200 kvar.
Receiver End
Real power received = 30 kV x 155 A x cos (-15°) :::::: + 4500 kW.
Reactive power received :::::: 30 kV x 155 A x sin (-15°) == - 1200 kvar.
The sender delivers both active and reactive power to the line and the receiver
absorbs active power from it. the receiver delivers reactive power to the
so that the total reactive power received by the line is 2400 kvar.
This shows that a shift between sender and receiver voltages
causes both real and reactive power to flow. However, for smaller than 45°
the real power considerably exceeds the reactive power.
6·6
50
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
DESCRIPTION MODEL
Resistive Load 8311

Inductive Load 8321
Three-Phase Regulating Autotransformer 8349
AC Voltmeter 8426
Three-Phase WatimeterlVarmeter 8446
Phase Meter 8451
Power Supply 8821
PROCEDURE
Note: These experiments may be carried out by two groups.
WARNING
High voltages are present in this laboratory Experiment! Do

In to convey a sense of realism to the terms "sender" and "receiver", two con-
the experiment willmanned
soles be conducted
by twoconsidering Sender will
student groups andbeReceiver
used involtages unequal,experiments.
the following and out of phase.
A
transmission line will connect the two consoles A and and the active and
reactive power flow between them will be studied. The wiJl be conducted
in three parts.
1. Sender and Receiver unequal, but in
2. Sender and Receiver equal, but out of
3. ....Olnf"1l'r and Receiver unequal, and out of
SAlnl1l~r and Receiver unlit .. ' ... ., but in

1. Connect a three-phase transmission line between terminals 4, 5, 6 (varia-
ble AC output) of two one of which is designated as station A and
the other, station B. Connect the two Three-Phase WattmeterlVarmeters at
each end as well as a Phase Meter as shown in Figure 6·11.
6-7
51
Reactive Power Flow
In the following steps, the passive loads (resistive, inductive and capacitive) need to be connected at the receiving end of the line. The
main objective of this experiment is to show that a phase shift between sender and receiver voltage occurs only when real power is
being delivered to the load. show that a phase shift between sender and receiver voltage occurs only when real
power is being delivered to the load.
D 14. Set
set up the experiment as shown in 6-15,
using a star-connected Resistive Load of 1200 n
per and a 200 n Transmission Line. Take and record your
results in Table 6-3.
0-500 V ao 0-500 V ao
8451
4 0
0-415 V
3 phase 5
6 0
0
G@ '------'
8329
'-+--------I@ @ LOAD
8446 8446
8821
6-15.
D 15. 14 using an Inductive Load of 1200 Take

your results in Table 6-3.
D 16. Repeat procedure 14 using a Capacitive Load of 1200 !1/phase. Take

readings and record your results in Table 6-3.
PROC. PHASE
STEP
lOAD E, P, 0, Ea P2 O2 SHIFT
0
V W var V W var
14 RESISTIVE
15 INDUCTIVE
16 CAPACITIVE
I
Table 6-3.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. A three-phase transmission line has a reactance of 100 n and at different times
throughout the day it is found that the sender and receiver voltages have magni-
tude and phase angles as in Table 6-4.
In each case calculate the real and reactive power of the sender and receiver
and indicate the direction of the power flow. The voltages given are line-to-line.
6-12
52
Parameters which
and Reactive Power
SENDER RECEIVER
Es ER
PHASE ANGLE
P a P a
MW Mvar MW Mvar
100 100 60 0
Es LEADS ER
120 100 60° Es LEADS ER
100 120 60° Es LEADS Ell
30° Es LAGS fR
0°
Table 6-4.
2. In Question 1 assume that Es EA = =

100 kV at all times but that the phase
angle between them changes in steps of 30° according to the Table 6-5. Calcu-
late the value of the real power in each case as well as its direction of flow, know-
that ER lags Es in each case.
SENDER RECEIVER
q, P a
0
MW MW
30
60
90
120
150
180
Table 6-5.
Plot a graph of real power vs on 6-16.
Is there a limit to the maximum power which such a line can deliver under the
static voltage conditions?
Yes 0 No
6-13
53
P
(MW) ------ --- --,-,--,---,--,---,---,----;;--,---,---,---,---,----,-,---,---,-----,
100~-r-+~-~+-~-r-+~-~+-~~-+-+~~~~~~~
30 -t--t--+--+--+---I!---f---t---t---t--------+---t--+--+--+--+---I;--f---t---t---t
1800 (degrees)
Figure 6·16.
6-14
54
Experiment 8
The Alternator
.. To understand the basic operation of an alternator.

.. To measure the synchronous reactance of an alternator.
.. To measure the regulation of an alternator.
DISCUSSION
Electric power is produced in generating stations which contain one or more
alternators (or alternating current and a mechanical means of driving
them. The mechanical power is usually steam turbines in turn,
derive their energy from the heat given off by burning oil, gas or coal or from the heat
of a nuclear reaction. In areas where water power is plentiful, hydraulic turbines pro-
vide the mechanical power to drive the alternators.
generated by the alternator depends upon the flux per pole which, in
NO,,,,,,,,,,;,, upon the DC excitation current which flows in the pole windings. The
voltage per can therefore be varied by adjusting the DC excitation.
At no load, the voltage measured at the terminals is the same as the
generated
If the alternator is loaded, its voltage will even though the DC exci-
tation is kept constant. This is because the alternator has an internal impedance,
{'('ltYln,nC::~l('1 of the resistance and reactance of the stator windings. An alternator can,
tho.YQt.nro be by a circuit such as shown in 8-1, in which X is the
stator reactance, R the winding resistance and the stator generated as
the poles sweep past the stator conductors.
X R
8·1.
8-1
55
The resistance R is always much smaller than the reactance X, so we can simplify
the circuit to that shown in Figure without introducing a significant error. The
terminal of the generator (per phase) is and X is its so-called synchro-
nous reactance.
Figure 8-2.
The value of the reactance can be found by the

on open circuit and then measuring the current when the terminals are
short circuit.
8-3 shows how the short-circuit current I == from which the
nous reactance X can be found. This reactance is not but depends upon
the degree of saturation in the machine. However, we can obtain a good idea of its
magnitude by the method just described.
:::
Figure 8-3.
"""'!lenT circuit of an alternator is, therefore very simple, and with it we can
explain all the major properties of this machine. For example, we would expect that if
a or an inductive load is connected to the terminals, the terminal
8-2
56
The Alternator
will drop. On the other hand, if a capacitive load is connected to the terminals, a
voltage rise is to be expected owing to the resonance effect.
The reactance of an alternator is very large, so that even under
short-circuit conditions, the current rarely exceeds 1,5 times the normal full-load
current. It should be mentioned, however, that for the first few cycles following a
short-circuit, the current can be much higher owing to the transient properties of the
machine which we need not go into at this point.
In the following experiment, a DC motor will be used to drive the three-phase
alternator, replacing the steam turbine which would usually be employed in a real
generating station.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
DESCRIPTION MODEL
DC Motor/Generator 8211
Three-Phase Synchronous Motor/Generator 8241
Resistive load 8311
Inductive Load 8321
Cal)aci,live Load 8331
DC Voltmeter/Ammeter 8412
AC Ammeter 8425
AC Voltmeter 8426
Three-Phase WattmeterIVarmeter 8446
Power 8821
Stroboscope 8922
Timing Belt 8942
PROCEDURE
WARNING
High voltages are present in this laboratory Experiment! Do

not make any connections with the power onl
o 1. In this experiment we shall determine variation of the

, as the DC current is increased. Set up the circuit as shown in
Figure 8-4, and mechanically couple the DC Motor/Generator to the Three-
Phase Synchronous Motor/Generator by means of a Timing Belt. Connect
AC Voltmeter from line to neutral of one of the Syn-
chronous Motor/Generator and connect a DC Voltmeter/Ammeter to meas-
ure the exciting current IF .
Apply power using the Stroboscope adjust the of the DC Motor/

Generator to 1500 r/min exactly. This speed must be constant for the
remainder of the OV'''Of'lrnont
8-3
57
The Alternator
Vary the current IF and note the effect upon the generated voltage Eo . Take
readings of IF and and record your results in 8-1 .
0-250 V ae (L-N)
DC MOTOR/GENERATOR
8
5
THREE-PHASE
SYNCHRONOUS
"-
"- . "-
."
MOTOR/GENERATOR
A..---I---------,
."
0-0,3/1,5 A de
8
N
8-4.
TablelH.
2. Find the phase sequence of the voltage, with to termin·

1,2,3.
The phase sequence is _ __
Note: If the phase sequence is not 1-2-3-1-2-3, etc, reverse rotation of the DC
Motor/Generator.
3. the same as in 8-4, the

to 240 V. Then short-circuit the stator terminals through three
ters and take their average I (see Figure 8-5).
8·4
58
Alternator
0-1,5 A
1 4
Figure 8-5.
the value of the synchronous reactance from the formula

II.
= 240 V I= _ _ _ A X= _ __
D 4. Repeat procedure 3 with Eo = 260 V and then with = 220 V.

::::;; 260 V I= _ _ _ A X= _ _ _ il
= 220 V 1= A X~ il
Voltage Regulation
In this experiment we find the of various loads upon the terminal
of the alternator.
5. Using the same as in Figure 8-4, connect a Load to the

terminals of the Three Phase Synchronous
terminals of the Motor/Generator and introduce a WattmeterlVarmeter
and a Voltmeter in Figure 8-6.
Adjust the exciting current IF of the Three-Phase Synchronous Motorl

Generator so that open-circuit voltage EL =
415 V. Then, the
speed and the current IF constant, vary the Resistive Load and record your
results in Table 8-2. Be sure to keep the load resistance balanced so that all
phases are equally loaded.
59 8-5
The Alternator
8211
DC MOTOR/GENERATOR
0-240 V de
N 0
ae (L-L)
y \
0-500 V
8
240 V de LOAD
N
THREE·PHASE 8446 8311
8821 SYNCHRONOUS 8321
MOTOR/GENERATOR 8331
8241
Figure 6-6.
00
4800
2400
1600
1200
960
800
686
Table 6-2.
6. Repeat 5, using an Inductive Load in of the Resistive

Load, and record your results in Table 8-3.
8-6
60
The Alternator
VOLTAGE REGULATION WITH INDUCTIVE LOAD
XdPHASE IF El
I
P Q s= +Q 2
n A V I W var I
VA
00
4800
2400
~
1200
960
dtt
Table 8·3.
7. Repeat step 5, a Capacitive Load instead of the resist-

ance, and record your results in Table 8-4. (If the goes off you
may connect two voltmeters in series and take the sum of their readings.)
VOLTAGE REGULATION WITH CAPACITIVE LOAD
XdPHASE El P Q S rpz + az
n A V W var VA
00
4800
2400
1600
1200
960
I
Table 8-4.
8·7
61
The Alternator

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. A 150 MW alternator an open-circuit line-to-line voltage of 12 kV
at nominal excitation. When the terminals are placed in short-circuit the
resulting current per phase is 8000 A.
a) Calculate the approximate value of the synchronous reactance per phase.
b) Draw the equivalent circuit of the alternator per phase under the DC field
excitation conditions given above.
c) What is the nominal full load current phase?
2. a) If the Three-Phase Synchronous Motor/Generator in Question 1 a

resistive load of 120 MW at a voltage of 12 kV, what must be the induced
voltage ?
b) What is the phase angle between and the terminal voltage?
8-8
62
63 8-9
ECTE423/823/923
Experiment 4
64
Experiment 10
The Synchronous Capacitor
and Long High Voltage Lines
OBJECTIVES
• To study how a synchronous capacitor can regulate the receiver voltage.
• To study the distributed capacitance and the long, high-voltage line.
DISCUSSION
In A load is able either to absorb
or to deliver power. In essence, it acts wither as a three-phase inductor or as a three-
phase capacitor depending upon whether it is under-or over-excited. The fact that
such a machine can change gradually from an inductance to a capacitance makes it
very useful to regulate the voltage at the end of transmission lines.
When used in this way, the synchronous motor is termed a synchronous capacitor.
A better term might have been "synchronous capacitor/inductor", but because these
machines must usually supply reactive power to a power system rather than absorb
it, the term "capacitor" is appropriate.
We saw, in Experiment 5, how the receiver voltage can be regulated by static
capacitors. We shall see how the same result can be obtained much more smoothly
with a synchronous capacitor.
Long high-voltage transmission lines have significant capacitance in addition to
their inductance. Typically, the capacitive reactance per kilometer is 400000 fl and
the inductive reactance is 0,4 fl on a 50 cycle line. This means that for a line which is
250 kilometers long, the inductance per phase is 100 n and the capacitive react-
ance is 1600 fl. The simplified circuit of such a line may be represented by
Figure 10-1, in which the line capacitance is "lumped" in the center of the line
instead of being distributed over its entire length. When such a line is fed by a sender
voltage Es , the open-circuit receiver voltage ER will be considerably higher.
50 fl 50 fl
Figure 10-1.
10-1
65
The Synchronous Capacitor and
Long High Voltage Lines
in the simplified circuit of Figure 10-1, if the sender voltage = 300 kV, the
voltage will be about 310 kV, a result which can readily be calculated. a
\I".T<:>I"O rise at the receiver end of a line can be excessive, and it can be prevented
QI"I... n('\m;I"~II\J by connecting an inductive load at the receiver terminals. The syn-
chronous capacitor is ideally suited to this purpose, for it behaves as an inductance

when capacitor underexcited.
REQUIRED
DESCRIPTION MODEL

Resistive Load 8311
DC Voltmeter/Ammeter 8412
AC Voltmeter 8426
Three-Phase WattmeterlVarmeter 8446
Power Supply 8821
WARNING

1. .nnnt:>I~T the Three-Phase Motor/Generator which is used as

a synchronous capacitor to the end a three-phase 400 n transmission
line and, with no DC excitation on the apply power to the
end the 3-phase Power 10415 V. the
is up to
Vary the DC excitation and note effect upon the transmission line vol-
2. Take readings of P, , 0, , and , O2 , as the DC excitation IF is

varied from zero to 0,50 A. Record your results in Table 10-1, and draw a
graph of E2 as a function of O 2 on 10-3. What is the effect upon 0 1 as
the excitation is varied?
10-2
66
0-500 V ac 0-500 V ac
THREE-PHASE
MOTOR/GENERATOR
14
0-415 V
25 0
3 phase
(Fixed) 36 0
8329
8446 8446 8421
8241
7
0-240 V de
N
8821
Figure 10-2.
VOLTAGE REGULATION 400 fl LINE
~E
IF E1 Pz O2 E2
A V W var V
0
I
0,10
0,15
0,20
0,25
0,30
I
0,35
I
0,40
I
I
0,50
Table 10-1.
3. Repeat procedure step 2 with a line of 200 n. Record your results in

Table 10-2, and draw a graph of as a function of Q 2 on Figure 10-4. You
will note that the voltage cannot be regulated over as a range when the
transmission line impedance is lower.
10-3
67
500 400
400
300 200
200
100 o -t--t--t-t-
120 -100 - 80 - 60 - 40 - 20 0 + 20 + 40 + 60 + 80 + 100 + 120 + 140 + 160
[var]
Figure 10-3.
P,
A W
0
0,05
0.10
0.15
0,20
0,25
0.30
0,35
0,40
Table 10-2.
10·4
68
500 400
400 300
300 200
200 100
100 o ~~~-r-r-r-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-4-4-4-4-4-4~~~~~~~~+-+-+-~
-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 o + 20 + 40 + 60 + 80 + 100 + 120 + 140 + 160
Figure 10-4.
400 U LINE AND

VOLTAGE REGULATION
RESISTIVE LOAD
R/PHASE IF P, 0,
11 A w var v
00
4800
2400
1600
1200
800
686
Table 10-3.
10-5
69

(in parallel with the Three-Phase Synchronous Motor/Generator, which is used as a synchronous capacitor)
D 4. Connect a balanced Resistive Load at the receiving end of the 400 n line
and maintain the receiver end voltage at 415 V, while the resistance is
being varied.* Take readings of P1 ,0 1 , E1 and P2 ,0 2 , E2 and record your
results in Table 10-3. Is there a limit to the ability of the synchronous capaci-
tor to regulate the line voltage?
DYes D No
On Figure 10-5 draw a graph of real power to the load vs 0 of the synchro-
nous capacitor at a receiver voltage of 415 V.
*Please note all other circuit connections will be the same as that of Figure 10-2.
240~--+--r~--+--r~--+--r~--+--r~--+--r-+--+--r-+--+--r-+--+--r~
200-+--+--r-+--+--r-+--+--r-+--+--r-+--~-r-+--r--r-+--r--r-+--r--r~
120-+--+--r~--+--+--~~-+--+--r~--+--+--r-~-+--+--r~r-+--+--+--r~
SO~--+--r-+--+--r-+--+--r-+--+--r-+--+--r-+--+--r-+--+--r-+--+--r~
40~--+--+--r--r-+--+--r-1--+--+--r--r~--+--r~--+--+--+--r~--+--r~
0--+-~-+--+--r~--+--+--+-~-+--+--r~--4--+--~~-+--+--+~~1--+~
- 400 - 360 - 320 - 2S0 - 240 - 200 - 160 - 120 - SO - 40 o +40 +SO
Q 2 [var]
Figure 10-5.
D 5. Using two transmission lines in series, each set at 200 n, connect a Capaci-
tive Load of 4800 n to simulate a long 3-phase line. See Figure 10-6. (The
circuit per phase is shown in Figure 10-7.)
Apply power to the sending end using the variable 3-phase supply adjusted
to 415 V and measure Es and ER on the open-circuit.
Es = ______ V ER = ______ V
10-6
70

200n 200 n
s R
Figure 10-6.
0-500 V ac 0-500 V ac
SYNCHRONOUS
Es MOTOR/GENERATOR
8329 8329
4 0
0-415 V 5 0 1-----t>---+~I"""\.._l_--4I-__+_rvv""'4-~ ~ Q f----H
3 phase 200n 200n V\J
6 0
1 4800n
8446 8241
8331
0-0,3 A de
8 0
240 V de
N 0
8821
Figure 10-7.
o 6. Connect the synchronous capacitor to the receiver terminals and observe

that the terminal voltage can readily be varied by changing its DC excitation.
Determine the reactive power which the synchronous capacitor must
absorb to make the receiver voltage equal to the sender voltage.
Q = var
o 7. Set up the circuit of a line twice as long as the one studied in procedure
step 5 using two 400 n lines in series, and a capacitive reactance (Iine-to-
neutral) of 2400 n. Use the same set-up as in procedure step 5.
71 10-7
Synchronous Capacitor
Apply power to the end using the fixed and meas-

ure and on open-circuit.
= ___ V ER = ___ V
Then connect the synchronous capacitor to the receiver end and note that
the voltage can readily be lowered so that Es :::: ER by under-excitation.
Measure the reactive power when Es = ER .
Q = var
TEST YOUR (To be completed before the laboratory session)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. What are some of the of a synchronous capacitor over static
itor to regulate transmission line voltage?
2. An over-excited synchronous machine delivers reactive power to a

sion line. Explain this statement and what is meant by the term "over-excited".
3. An under-excited synchronous machine absorbs reactive power from a trans-

mission line. Explain this and what is meant by the term "under-
excited".
4. A 200 300 50 Hz transmission line has a reactance of 0,4 n per

kilometer and a distributed of 400 000 n per kilometer. Draw an
equivalent circuit of the line per Calculate the line current per phase at
the sender end when the receiver is open. What is the reactive power supplied
to the sender?
5. A 150 MW generator having a nominal of 12 kV and a synchronous

reactance of 4 n is connected to the transmission line of Question 4 via a
step-up transformer having a ratio of 12 kV/300 kV. If the excitation voltage
10-8
72
is to 12 kV (Iine-to-line) calculate the voltages ET and ER at the termin-

als of the and at the end of the transmission line (see Figure 10-8).
there any associated with the resonance effects of distributed line

and the synchronous reactance of a generator?
12 kV/300 kV 12000 n
Figure 10-8.
10-9
73
Experiment 11
Transmission Line Networks and
the Three-Phase Regulating Autotransformer
OBJECTIVES
• observe the division of power between two lines in parallel.
.. To learn the properties of a autotransformer.
.. To modify the power division between two parallel lines using a regulating auto·
DISCUSSION
So far, we have observed the behavior of a single line. However. in a
practical electric power system there are hundreds of interconnected lines which
link the power stations and their widely-dispersed loads.
This grid of transmission of which 11-1 is a simplified example, is far
more complex than a circuit. The flow of active and reactive
power over the lines depends not only upon their but also upon the
relative magnitude and phase angles of the sender and receiver voltages. In such a
system, the power flow in a particular line may be too high (or too low), in
mind the capacity of the line and/or the economics of transmission.
Figure 11·1
Under these circumstances, the flow of real power can be modified by shifting the
phase of either the receiver or the sender-end voltage. Similarly, reactive power flow
can be modified by raising or lowering one of these two voltages.
To raise or lower the voltage is a simple matter which can be by an automatic
tap-changing autotransformer, located at either end of the transmission line.
111-1
74
Transmission Line Networks and the Three-Phase
Regulating Autotransformer
A phase shift can be by a rotatable transformer similar to a wound-rotor

induction motor. However, in most large installations static
transformers are the degree of shift depending upon the tap setting.
The of the regulating autotransformer can be understood by referring to
Figure 11 which shows the primary windings a1 . . C1 of a star-
connected transformer. windings a2 ,b2 I C2 are also but
secondary windings a3 , , C3 are not yet connected tf'lr.<>Tt1<>r
windings a1 a2 • a3 will all be in phase as will be the
I
b1 , and c, , C2 , C3 .
8,
Figure 11-2.
However, these three groups of voltages are respectively 120 out of

0
with
each other, as shown in Figure 11-3.
If windings a2 a3 I and C2 C3 are connected in series, the voltage between
terminals X, Y and Z will be in phase with the voltage between terminals A, Band
C as shown in 11-3. However, if we connect in series windings a2
b 2 C3 , and C2 a3 , the phasor diagram will be as shown in Figure 11 and the
voltage between terminals X, Y and Z will be out of with the
between terminals Band C. The degree of phase shift upon the rela-
tive magnitudes of the a2 b2 C2 and a3 b3 C3 . (If these are all
equal, the phase shift will be 60°.)
With transformer, and a selector it is
voltage with respect to the primary by as much as
nr"""""rln can be made so that the phase angle can be progres-
to and vice versa.
11-1, suppose we wish to modify the real power flow in line
. If we wish to increase the real power, the phase angle between the
and will have to be increased. On the other hand, should we wish to reduce
the real power to zero, the two will have to be brought in Such
11-2
75
changes can be by a phase-shift transformer located at either

end of the line L2-L3 .
I a,
I a,
C2
z / ~ y
a,
c, b,
C B
Figure 11-3.
y
a2 ~
I
I
I
X I
b2
C2
a3
z
Figure 11·4.
will affect the real power in the other

those lines which at nodes and . This is often the reason
for modifying the power in line lrl3 in the first place.
power can similarly be controlled by boosting (raising) or bucking (lower·
ing) the voltage at either end of the line. if the VOltage at is raised, reactive
power will flow towards L3 . The same result will be obtained if the voltage is reduced
at station L3 . In this regard, we should note that the voltage is only boosted or
bucked on the transmission line itself we must not change the voltage level of the
which are connected to paints and
11·3
76
In the following experiment we shall study the load distribution between two parallel
transmission lines and how this distribution is modified by a Three-Phase
Regulating Autotransformer ..
EQUIPMENT
DESCRIPTION MODEL
Resistive Load 8311

Inductive Load 8321
Three-Phase Autotransformer 8349
AC Voltmeter 8426
Three-Phase WattmelerlVarmeler 8446
Phase Meter 8451
Power Supply 8821
PROCEDURE
WARNING
High voltages are present in this Laboratory Do

1. With the variable three-phase AC source set at 415 V connect the Three-
Phase Regulating Autotransformer as shown schematically in 11-5.
8451
0-500 V 8 0-500 V
E, REGULATING E2
AUTOTRANSFORMER
4
0-415 V
5
3
6
8349
8821
Figure 11·5.
Change the setting of the buck-boost selector tap switch and record the vol-
tages and the phase angle between them. Then change the setting of the
tap switch and note the effect upon the and the
angle. l\Iote that by changing both tap the phase angle and the
voltage can be varied independently. Record your results in Table 11-1,
11-4
77
Line Networks Three-Phase
Note the effect of an incorrect phase sequence upon the operation of the
transformer. what happens.
READING
LAG
LEAD
v
0 0
0 + 15
0 -15
-15 0
-15 +15
-15 -15
+15 0
+15 +15
+15 -15
Table 11·1.
2. Set up the circuit of 11-6, using two transmission lines in parallel

feeding a star-connected resistive-inductive load of 1200 0. both trans-
mission line impedances at 200 0 and adjust to 415 V. Note that each
line carries the same amount of real and reactive power when there is no
phase-shift of buck-boost of the autotransformer.
the selector switch and note the

of real power in each line. Note that the reactive power
Now, change the of the selector switch and note the

large effect upon the reactive power distribution between the two lines. Note
that the real power is only moderately affected. Record your results in
Table 11-2.
3. Repeat procedure 2 with line 1 set to zero impedance and record your
results in Table 11-3. Note that under normal circumstances this corre-
sponds to a very short line, which naturally would tend to carryall the active
and reactive load. that by the phase-shift and the
ratio (buck-boost) of the the flow of power can be
ally modified.
11·5
78
0-500 V
REGULATING
AUTOTRANSFORMER
0-500 V
8329 1200 n
4 0 8349 6446
0-415 V 0-500 V
3 phase 5 1200 n
6
8311
8821 8321
8329
8446
Figure 11-6.
SETTING MEASUREMENTS
LINE 1 LINE 2 BUCK PHASE Pl Q1 P2 Q,2 E1 E,2 Es
IMP IMP BOOST SHIFT
fi H % 0
W var W var V V V
200 0 0 415
•
200 200 0 +15
I
200 200 0 -15
200 200 +15 0
200 200 1-15 + 0
200 200 +15 +15
200 200 -15 -15
Table 11-2
4. Repeat step 2 using two lines of 600 n each. Nole that the
power flow is not modified as much as before, owing to the high
of the lines. To obtain a large change in power division between the two
lines, a larger phase-shift would be required, as well as a larger buck-boost
range.
11·6
79
Transmission Line Networks and the
E2 E3
V
415
0 200 0 -15
0 200 +15 0
0 200 -15 +
0 200 +15 +15
0 200 -15 -15
Table 11·3

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. On Figure 11-7 two transmission lines having reactances per phase of 100 n
and 200 n are connected in A transformer is introduced
into the 200 n line, close to the so that the real power be divided
equally between the two lines. If the sender and receiver voltages are both
100 kV line-to-line, calculate the maximum real power delivered, and the phase
angle needed for the transformer.
s R
100 n
Figure 11-7.
2. In Question 1 if there were no phase-shift transformer, what would be the maxi-

mum power which could be delivered over both lines?
11-7
80
3. Does the phase-shift transformer in Question 1 increase the maximum power

the 200 H line can deliver?
Yes 0 No
* 4. In the circuit of 11-8 comprising two transmission lines in parallel, the

sender and receiver are bolh 100 kV line-la-line. A phase-shift
transformer and a buck-boost transformer T 2 are adjusted so that the sender
delivers the same amount of real and reactive power to each line. If the receiver
absorbs 50 MW, calculate
a) the phase-shift of T1
b) the ratio of
T,
s R
Figure 11 -6 .
• This is an engineering problem.
11-8
81
11-9
82
ECTE423/823/923
Experiment 5
83
Experiment 7
Parallel Lines, Transformers
and Power-Handling Capacity
OBJECTIVES
• Study of the real power vs angle curve of a transmission line.
e Use of transformers to increase the power-handling capacity of a line.
e lines in
DISCUSSION
The real power which can be delivered by a transmission line depends upon the
voltages at the sender and receiver ends and the phase between them.
real power P of a three-phase line is given by the equation:
*
P ::::: - - - sin</:>
X
in P ::::: power delivered by the sender to the ""'l',<>",.;;" in watts.
::::: sender end line-to-line voltage, in volts.
::::: receiver end line-to-line voltage, in volts.
x ::: reactance per in ohms.
</:> ::::: phase angle between and E2 .
If E2 , </:> is
If leads , </:> is negative.
The use of this equation is best illustrated by a simple example. On Figure 7-1, a line
having a reactance of 100 n per phase has a line-to-line sender voltage of 120 kV
and a corresponding receiver of 150 kV. If the receiver voltage lags the
sender by 30°, calculate the total delivered by the line.
Solution:
x ::: 100 n ::::: 120 kV

y y
S R
E1 = 120 kV E2 :::: 150 kV

:::: 150 kV
7-1.
7-1
84
and Power-Handling
Because the sender voltage leads the receiver voltage, the <I> is positive,
hence:
*
P ::::: - - - sin <I>
X
120 kV x 150 kV
100
:= 90 000 000 W
::::: 90 MW
voltages are held constant (a situation which is closely
the power delivered will be dependent on the <1>. This
between the power P and the angle <I> is in Figure 7-2.
Pmax
I
I
0,866 Pmax ---r-----
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I
I I
I
I I I
0,5Pmax --r- -t - - - - - , - - - - - -
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I : I I
I I I I
I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
o
0" 30" 60"
lags behind E1
7-2.
As the increases from zero, the power, too, increases gradually, and
attains a maximum value Pmax for an angle of 90°. One-half of this maximum power
is attained when 30" behind
As we can see from the figure, if the phase angle exceeds 90", power will still be
delivered from the sender to the but it decreases with
the power to zero when the phase angle is 180°.
When the exceeds 90 0 , the transmission line is in an unstable condi-
and the power will either fall to zero or it will move to another point 0
and 90°) on the power vs curve.
7-2
85
Parallel Lines,
Consequently, reliable power can only be transmitted from sender to

receiver when the is between zero and 90". The maximum power which
can be transmitted is
Pmax sin 90" =

x x
It should be noted that can exist between zero and 360" or, which is
0
the same thing, between 0" and 180" and 0" and 180 lead. If the power vs phase
curve is extended to cover all possible we obtain the curve shown in
Figure 7-3.
Pmax
leads
+90" + 180"
lags E,
Figure 7·3.
If the angle is between zero + 180 0 the sender is delivering power to the
receiver, but when the is between zero and - 1800 , the receiver is deliv-
ering power to the sender. Note that an of - 90° merely indicates that E2 is
leading E1 . The stable is between - 90 and + 90"; it is the only region of
interest to us at this time.
In most cases, the sender and receiver are about equal in magnitude,
so that if we let = E, where E is the transmission line voltage, we find
that the maximum power
Pmax :;;;: - W
X
7-3
86
Line Voltage
U"',",CH''''''' the maximum power which a line can deliver depends upon the square of
the transmission line voltage E. it is not that high voltages are employed
when blocks of power have to be transmitted. Thus, if the line voltage is dou-
the maximum power is
'1(.IT;;''''';;' can be raised by a transformer at the sender
end and a similar step-down transformer at the receiver end. As a result, by using a
transformer at each end of a transmission line its power-handling capacity can be
significantly improved.
In 7-4 a), a sender and a receiver are connected by a line having a reactance
of 100 fL The maximum power which can be transmitted is
100 kV x 100 kV
Pmax :::::::::: 100 MW
X 100
But if we introduce transformers at each end so that the transmission line is

doubled to 200 kV, (Figure 7-4 b)) the maximum power becomes
200 kV x 200 kV
::::: ::::: 400 MW
X 100
100 n
5 R
E ::::: 100 kV E 100 kV
(a)
100 n
5
II II R
(b)
Figure 7-4.
Lines in Parallel
Another way by which increased power can be transmitted from a sender to a
receiver is to employ two 3-phase lines in The two transmission lines may
be on the cross-arms of the same transmission towers, or two entirely
separate lines may be employed.
7-4
87
Two similar which are in parallel can obviously carry twice the maximum power
of one line alone. Figure 7-5.) The power curves for one line and for two lines
are shown in 7-6. If both lines are in service and the power transmitted is
0,5 Pmax, the angle between the sender and receiver voltages is only 3~'',
which corresponds to a very stable operating point. The link between Sand R is said
to be "stiff".
X
--v-v-
tE
S X R
-v-v---
tE
Figure 7-5.
P
TWO LINES
Pmax
0,5 Pmax
Figure 7·6
However, if one of the lines is suddenly switched out, either by error or due to a
fault-clearing action, the power has 10 be carried by the remaining line. But as we
can see from Figure Pmax corresponds, on the transmission line, to
an angle of 90 0 which is on the edge of unstability, In all likelihood the remaining
line will be unable to carry the load and its breakers will open, unless the other line is
quickly brought back into service.
7·5
88
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
DESCRIPTION MODEL

Three-Phase Transformer 8348
Three-Phase Regulating Autotransformer 8349
AC Voltmeter 8426
Power Supply 8821
Inertia Wheel 8915
PROCEDURE
WARNING

The first part of this experiment involves a number of problems while the second is a
laboratory experience.
o 1. 7-7, stations A and B are linked by a transmission line having a

certain reactance X. From the value of the line-to-line voltages, in the
Table 7·1, determine the real power and the direction of its flow.
A E, B
Figure 7-7.
2. Referring to procedure 1, calculate the maximum power which could

transported at the given voltages and and write your results in
7-1.
3. Either by trigonometry or by diagrams, calculate the

line current in parts 2 to 6 of procedure
Note: The line current is equal to the line drop per divided by the
reactance. In this calculation it is to use the line-la-neutral voltages to
determine the voltage drop. Write your results in Table 7-1.
7-6
89
LINE CURRENT
N° E, E2 X e LAG OR LEAD
P DIRECTION OF A
POWER FLOW
- kV kV n ° kW kW -
1 4 4 80 30 E, LEADS E2 + 100 A--->-B +200 15
2 8 8 80 30 E, LEADS E2
3 8 6 80 45 E, LAGS E2
4 8 6 80 45 EE,2 E1
LAGS E2
5 8 6 80 120 E, LEADS E2
6 4 12 80 60 E, LEADS E2
Table 7-1.
o 4. Two parallel transmission lines operating at a three-phase line-to-line vol-

tage of 120 kV each, have a line reactance of 60 D. If the total power deliv-
ered is 84 MW, calculate the phase angle between the sender and receiver
voltages. If one of the lines is suddenly opened, will the remaining line be
able to carry the load? If so what will its new phase angle become?
0-500 V 0-500 V
STATION A REGULATING STATION B

AUTOTRANSFORMER
4 0 0 4
415 V
0-415 V
3 phase 5 0 G)G) 0 5 3 phase
6 0 0 6
8349 8446 8446
8821 8821
Figure 7-8
o *5. Using two independent Power Supplies and a Three-Phase Regulating

Autotransformer, set the line reactance to 600 D and measure the real
power flow when the phase-shift is + 15° (Figure 7-8). (E2 lags E1 by 15°.)
Adjust the voltage of the Power Supply to 415 V.
E1 = V
E2 = V
P1 = W
P2 = W
7-7
90
and Power-Handling
7. It is one of the inescapable nature that when we increase the size of

an the ratio of its volume to its external surface area In the
same way, the inertia of a motor more rapidly than its power rat·
Consequently, large motors accelerate much more slowly than small
motors do. A 0,2 kW motor can reach top speed in a fraction of a second
when power is applied, whereas a 10 000 kW motor may take several
In order for a 0,2 kW machine to exhibit the mechanical properties of a

much larger machine, we must increase its inertia artificially. This we can do
by an inertia wheel. The inertia wheel used in this electric power
transmission the kW machine an inertia to
that of a machine in the The whole subject of will be
seen in more detail in Experiment 13.
a) a)Connect 600 n transmission line in series with a WattmeterlVarmeter

Connectaa400
as shown
to the fixed Power Supply terminals as dotted
showninon Figure on Figure
box7-10. 7-10.
Measure
Measure P, Q in open circuit.
E= V
P= W
Q == var
E
SYNC MOTOR
415 V
0 I
I',. ) INERTIA WHEEL
3 phase 2 0 I I~
3 0
8329
L ____ J '0
8446 8241 8915
8821
Figure 7-10.
b) Turn off the Power Supply and connect the stator of the
Synchronous Motor/Generator (to with the
the inertia
end wheel
of the on the rotor)
transmission line. Add
to the
the end of
Inertia the transmission
Wheelan the rotorline
of(Figure 7-10).
the Three-Phase Synchronous Motor/
Generator. Turn on the Power and observe the of the
motor. How long does it take before the motor comes up to
Acceleration time T :::::; s
P, Q at the end of acceleration period.
E= V
P= W
Q = var
7-9
91
Lines, Transformers
8. Now,8.at the
Now,sender and receiver
at the sender endend
and receiver ofofthe 600 n transmission
the400 line, insert
step-up and step-down transformers connected in delta-star and star-delta
respectively (see 7-11). Repeatthe same as in procedure
step 7.
0-500 v
Y6
II~ I~I ~II 80
415 v 2
3 phase I
3 I
L_
8329 8348
8446 8241
8821 8915
7-11.
a) Open circuit
E::: V
p= W
Q ::: var
b) Starting of the Three-Phase Synchronous Motor/Generator.
Acceleration time T = s
E= V
P= W
Q = var
your results with the values found in nrr,('o,(1, 7.
Explain why the motor starts more quickly in procedure 8, although the
open circuit voltages are about the same.
YOUR KNOWLEDGE (To be completed before the laboratory session)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. a) A 3-phase transmission line operating at 300 kV has a line reactance of
200 n per phase. Calculate the maximum total power which this line can
deliver, in MW.
1·10
92
and Power-Handling
b) What is the angle between the sender and receiver voltages when
the line delivers 100 MW?
c) What is the total amount of power if the phase angle is 1",2",4°,8°, 16°, 32"?
2. a} In 1, if the between sender and receiver increases

from 15" to 20° by how much is the real power flow increased?
b) If the increases from 75" to 80", is the increase in power the

same as before?
Yes No
3. If the transmission line voltage in '-"U''';:>''UI 1 were raised by 20%, by how much
would of the line be increased?
4. a) Two transmission lines having reactances of 100 nand 200 n are con-
nected in parallel between sender and stations. What is the maxi-
mum real power which both lines can deliver if the operating voltage is
100 kV?
b) If the line delivers 75 MW, what is the angle between sender and
receiver VOlltam3S'{
If 200 n line is taken out of what will the new phase

be?
c) In Question 4 (b), if the 100 n line is suddenly opened, what will happen?
7-11
93
5. A high transmission line voltage reduces copper and permits the trans-
mission of more power. this statement briefly.
6. What is the purpose of step-up and step-down transformers at the sender and
receiver ends of a transmission line?
7-12
94
95
96
97
(with the inertia wheel on the motor shaft)
Inertia Wheel
8915
98
What is the frequency of oscillation?
400
8329
99
(To be completed before the laboratory session)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
100
Experiment 14
Power System Transients
OBJEC"rlVES
• variations under abnormal transmission line
To observe voltage and power fluctuations
conditions.
• variations due to line switching.
To observe voltage and power fluctuations
DISCUSSION
Transmission line disturbances include a) short circuits, b) unforeseen open cir-
cuits, and c) switching surges. Such disturbances may be caused by many different
factors and are usually of short duration. For example an accidental short-circuit
requires immediate opening the relevant circuit which are imme-
diately reclosed, on the assumption that the short-circuit has been cleared. Such a
rapid opening and will produce a local electrical disturbance and cause
variations but will not result in loss of synchronism of the syn-
voltage and power fluctuations,
chronous motors which form part of load. In other the system will con-
tinue to function because its limit has not exceeded.
The and closing of circuit breakers according to a planned schedule will
similarly produce temporary disturbances in a interconnected system. Such is
the case for two parallel transmission lines when one of them is suddenly opened (or
closed).
Because large synChronous motors are an important of a total system load, the
importance of maintaining stability cannot be over-emphasized. Thus, as soon as
the poles of a synchronous motor approach the critical 90 0 point (on the power vs
angle curve) there is an imminent of losing which may
cause the complete of the system in the vicinity of the disturbance. In it
may be prevent the disturbance from spreading throughout the entire intercon-
nected Circuit breakers play an important part in maintaining stabil-
ity, and they must respond to command
The of synchronous machines to a in synchronism, and, in
some cases, the inertia of a machine is increased beyond design consider-
ations, for the sole reason of enhancing stability. Large machines have a relatively
higher inertia than smaller machines.
An disturbance is accompanied by a significant drop mani-
fested by the dimming lights of a brown-out. The lighting often rises and falls in inten-
sity, which reflects the rising and falling voltage of a system which is hunting.
14-1
101
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
DESCRIPTION MODEL
DC Motor/Generator 8211
Three-Phase Synchronous Molar/Generator 8241
Resistive Load 8311
AC Voltmeter 8426
Power Supply 8821
Inertia Wheel 8915
8922
Timing Bell 8942
PROCEDURE
WARNING
High are present in this Laboratory Do

1. Connect the Three-Phase Synchronous Motor/Generator to the end of two

transmission lines in parallel which, in turn, are connected to a 415 V varia-
ble AC source. Couple a DC shunt generator to the motor and provide for
resistance loading. Introduce metering for power and and add the
Inertia Wheel to the Three-Phase Synchronous Motor Figure 14-1).
0-500 V 0-500 V
0-415 V SYNC MOTOR
3 phase 240 V de
4 8
8329
5
6 o N
8446 8446
8821
8329 ",;
... ... ""
'" 8241
'Y" 8821
DC MOTOR GEN //]" INERTIA WHEEL '0

8915
8311 8211
Figure 14-1.
14-2
102
o 2. With zero line impedance and minimum loading (shunt field rheostat control
* start up the system. Then set each transmission line to an
knob fully ccw),
impedance of 400 n. Set the load resistance to 1200 n and adjust the shunt
field rheostat so that W 2 ::::: 175 W. Adjust the DC excitation of the synchro-
nous motor so that E2 ::::: E1 ::::: 415 V. Vary the load suddenly by switching
the 1200 n load resistance of the DC generator. Observe the power and
variations and, with the Stroboscope, the position of the poles.
voltage fluctuations
*CCW- Counter ClockWise
Try to switch the load in step with the natural frequency of the system. By so
doing you may be able to make the system lose synchronism with a load
smaller than normally required.
o 3. While
Once the the system
systemisisrunning
runningstably,
stablyif one
(withofEthe
2 :::::parallel transmission
El ::::: 415 V and
W 2 ::::: 175 W), open one of the parallel transmission lines and observe
lines is opened to variations.
observe power
power and voltage fluctuations.
and voltage variations and then
The system should not lose synchronism in
reclosed to again
this experiment. observe
Explain power and
the behavior andvoltage
estimatevariations,
the frequency whether the
of oscilla-
tion.
frequency of oscillation will change? If so, in which case will the
frequency of oscillation will be higher and why?
Then reclose the open line and again observe power and voltage variations.
fluctua-
tion. Why is the frequency of oscillation higher than before?
o 4. Repeat procedure step 3, but adjust the load so that W 2 ::::: 250 W. Open the
circuit breaker of one of the parallel lines; the system should lose synchro-
nism and come to a halt.
Start it up again, and this time open and quickly reclose one transmission
line breaker. For about how long can the breaker be left open without the
system losing synchronism?
o 5. With conditions again normal and E2 ::::: El ::::: 415 V, and V 2 ::::: 75 W),
momentarily short-circuit two of the three wires feeding the synchronous
motor. Observe what happens and record your results.
For how long can this short circuit be sustained without the system losing
synchronism?
14-3
103
Power System
YOUR KNOWLEDGE (To be completed before the laboratory session)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. The circuit breaker of a power to a system
opens suddenly and, in a fraction of a <:'(:>('("\1'111 reclosed. what
nJ:>lnn.>n<:. while the circuit breaker is open "n"<:.111<> .. of
Ynt,:ltll"l,n b) phase-shift between the alternator terminal
voltage.
2. If breaker in 1 were open for one second it would be to

reclose it without creating a serious overload on the alternator and a corre-
sponding serious disturbance of the system. Explain why.
14-4
104
14-5
105
ECTE423/823/923 Power System Analysis Appendix A
Appendix A
Circuit Diagram Symbols
Introduction
Various symbols are used in many of the circuit diagrams given in the DISCUSSION
and PROCEDURE sections of this manual. Each symbol is a functional
representation of a device used in power electronics. For example, different symbols
represent a variable-voltage single-phase ac power supply, a three-phase thyristor
bridge, and a synchronous motor/generator. The use of these symbols greatly
simplifies the circuit diagrams, by reducing the number of interconnections shown,
and makes it easier to understand operation.
For each symbol used in this and other manuals of the Lab-Volt Power Electronics
series, this appendix gives the name of the device which the symbol represents and
a diagram showing the equipment, and in some cases the connections, required to
obtain the device. Notice that the terminals of each symbol are identified using
encircled numbers. Identical encircled numbers identify the corresponding terminals
in the equipment and connections diagram.
SYMBOL EQUIPMENT AND CONNECTIONS
A-1
106
A-2
107
A-3
108
A-4
109
A-5
110
A-6
111
A-7
112
A-8
113
A-9
114
A-10
115
A-11
116
A-12
117
ECTE423/823/923 Power System Analysis Appendix B
Appendix B
Impedance Table for the Load Modules
The following table gives impedance values which can be obtained using either the
Resistive Load, Model 8311, the Inductive Load, Model 8321, or the Capacitive
Load, Model 8331. Figure B-1 shows the load elements and connections. Other
parallel combinations can be used to obtain the same impedance values listed.
IMPEDANCE (Ω) SWITCH POSITIONS FOR LOAD ELEMENTS

120 V 220 V 240 V 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
60 Hz 50 Hz 50 Hz
1200 4400 4800 I
600 2200 2400 I
300 1100 1200 I
400 1467 1600 I I
240 880 960 I I
200 733 800 I I
171 629 686 I I I
150 550 600 I I I I
133 489 533 I I I I
120 440 480 I I I
109 400 436 I I I I
100 367 400 I I I I I
92 338 369 I I I I I
86 314 343 I I I I I I
80 293 320 I I I I I I I
75 275 300 I I I I I I I
71 259 282 I I I I I I
67 244 267 I I I I I I I
63 232 253 I I I I I I I I
60 220 240 I I I I I I I I
57 210 229 I I I I I I I I I
Table B-1. Impedance table for the load modules.
B-1
118
Impedance Table for the Load Modules (cont'd)
Figure B-1. Location of the load elements.
B-2
119
Appendix C
A
Cross-reference List of Required Equipment vs Experiments
LABORATORY EXPERIMENT
I
MODEL DESCRIPTION
1 2 3 4 5 6 .. I ., 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
8110 Mobile Workstation 1

1 121 1 11 11 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I 1
8211 DC Motor/Generator 1
I
8231
8241
0'>'
v,",
8321
Three-Phase Wound-Rotor Induction Motor
Three-Phase Synchronous Motor/Generator

1">,
Inductive Load
1
,jW,if
1
1 1 1
1
1 1
1
1
8329 Three-Phase Transmission Line 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
8331 r."'1 ,:.;

Load 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r---I
21
8348 Three-Phase Transformer I 1
8349 Three-Phase J:lAnulating Autotransformer 1 1 1
8412 DC Voltmeter/Ammeter 1 1 1
~
8425 AC Ammeter 1 1 1 1
8426 AC Voltmeter 11,11 1 1 1 1

21 1 1 1 1 1 ,
1 1
8446 Three-Phase WattmeterNarmeter 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
8451 Phase Meter 1 1 1 1 i
1 1 1
~
8821 Power Supply 1 2' 1 1 1 2' 2' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
8909 Phase-Shift Indicator 1
8915 Inertia Wheel 1 1 1
8922 Stroboscope 1 1 1 1 1
8942 Timing Belt 1 1 1 1
9128 Connection Leads 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1
21 1 1 1 1 1
1 Two groups collaborate

2 Optional
C-1
A-I
120

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Muhammad Ameer Hamza Janjua 5085706

Student Name: Student ID:

School of Electrical, Computer and

ECTE423/ECTE823/ECTE923 Power System

Oﬃce Use Only

Introduction and Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Introduction and Assessment

Laboratory Workbooks and Logbooks

this reason the desired sequence on power is thought out

Resistive Load 8311

High voltages are present in this Laboratory Experiment! Do

1. Using your Resistive Load, Load and AC Voltmeter, connect the

2. Measure the voltages and E2 .

D 3. Determine the sequence (1-2-3 or 2-1-3) from the relative values of

4. If the sequence is found to be 2-1-3 it is preferable to any

The phase sequence is _ __

Note: If the sequence is 5-4-6 instead of 4-5-6 follow the procedure

6. Connect the three voltmeters to Supply terminals 1 2-5 and 3-6

PHASE SEQUENCE 1·2-3 PHASE SEQUENCE 1-3-2

8, procedure may be carried out by two collaborating groups, In this pro-

Connect two Power Supplies to two different wall receptacles, Switch on

Repeat this procedure for in the laboratory, and

Real Power and Reactive Power

If the wattmeter is connected into a three-phase line, as shown in 3-1, it will

Real Power and Reactive

Reactive is the power associated with the and discharge of condens-

--+0: ~T~I :0-+--

Real Power and Reactive Power

+70 -60 -40 -80

W1 ::::: +70 W var1::::: 60 var

Three-Phase Wound-Rotor Induction Motor 8231

Power and Reactive Power

High voltages are present in this Experiment! Do

The following involve a source, three Voltmeters, three

2. Replace the Load by three Inductive Loads having a reactance of

In this experiment the varmeter reading should be positive, if it is negative,

D 3. procedure step 2, using three Capacitive Loads having a reactance

Real Power and Reactive Power

4. Repeat procedure 3, but add three Resistive of 1200 n

Is the reactive power when the Resistive Loads are switched on

5. Repeat procedure step 1, but place the Inductive Load of procedure 2

Is the reactive power when the Resistive Loads are switched on

o 6. Repeat procedure step 1, but use an Inductive Load of 1200 n in parallel

7. "Repeat procedure step 1, but use a Three-Phase Wound-Rotor Induction

What does the real power accomplish?

Real Power Power

What does the reactive power accomplish?

• This procedure is optional.

8. Knowing that the power in volt-amperes (VA) is the

calculate the apparent power in Table 3-1.

Real Power and Reactive Power

D 9. Knowing that the apparent power of a balanced three-phase circuit is given

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE (To be completed before the laboratory session)

2. Calculate the real and power delivered by single-phase source in

3. A three-phase source having a line-to-line voltage of 69 kV ""1-'1-1'":;''' a star-

Real Power and Reactive Power

5. A three-phase power shown schematically in delivers real and

SENDER 1 - - - '--_~ k~V2 ~_~ RECEIVER

Real Power and Reactive Power

::::: V ::::: _ v _ v