DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

UNIT 1/MODULE 1
Chapter 1: Introduction to Operating System
Contents:

 What Operating Systems Do

 Operating-System Structure

 Operating-System Operations

1.1 What Operating Systems Do

 Operating system is software that controls and manages the computer hardware.

 Operating system acts as an interface between user and hardware of a computer

system.

 Operating system provides an environment for execution of a program in convenient

and efficient way.

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and the

computer hardware.

What Operating Systems Do: Goals

 User Computations

 Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier

 Utilization Efficiency

 To ensure good resource utilization efficiency and provide appropriate

corrective actions when it becomes low

 User Convenience

 Make the computer system convenient to use

Four Components of a Computer System

 Hardware

 provides basic computing resources

 CPU, memory, I/O devices

 Operating system

 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications

and users

 Application programs

 define the ways in which the system resources are used to solve the
computing problems of the users

 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video

games

 Users

 People, machines, other computers

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1.1.1 Operating System: Different Views

 User view

 Personal Computer: Ease of use, performance

 Mainframe: Resource utilization

System view
  Resource allocator

 Control program

System View

 OS is a resource allocator

 Manages all resources

 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use

OS is a control program

 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the

computer

Defining Operating System

 “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel.

 Everything else is either a system program (ships with the operating system) or an
application program

Computer System Organization

 Computer-system operation

 Storage Structure

 I/O Structure

1.2 Operating System Structure: Multiprogramming

 Needed for efficiency

 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times

 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute

 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory

 One job is selected and run via job scheduling

 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job and so on
  I/O routine is supplied by system to many programs.

 CPU scheduling: the system must choose one job among several jobs ready to run.

 Allocation of devices should be done efficiently and fairly.

1.2.2 Operating System Structure:

Timesharing (multitasking)

 Time-Sharing is a logical extension of Multiprogramming where many users share the

system simultaneously.

 The CPU executes several jobs that are kept in memory by switching among them.

 CPU switching is so fast that the user can interact with each program while it is
running.

 Response time is < 1 second

 Few processes should be available

 Several jobs are ready to be brought in memory à job scheduling

  Several jobs ready to run at the same time à CPU scheduling

 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out from the memory
à memory management

 Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory

1.3 Operating-System Operations

 OS is interrupt driven

 A trap or exception is a software generated interrupt

 Division by zero or invalid memory access

 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each other
or the operating system

 Request for operating system service

 For each type of interrupt, a service routine is responsible in OS

1.3.1 Dual mode Operation

 As OS and users share hardware and software, they should not interfere in each other
operations.

 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components

 User mode

 Kernel mode or system mode or privileged mode

 A bit, mode bit, is added to computer hardware to indicate the current mode

 Kernel (0)

 User (1)

 When a user process requests a service from OS via a system call, it transit from user
mode to kernel mode to fulfill the request

 At boot time, hardware starts in kernel mode, then OS is loaded (mode bit = 0)

 Then OS starts user applications in user mode (mode bit = 1)

 Whenever a trap or interrupt occurs, hardware switches from user to kernel mode
(mode bit = 0)
  When a user process requests a service from OS via a system call, it transit from user
mode to kernel mode to fulfill the request

 Mode bit provided by hardware

 Provides the means for protecting the OS from erroneous programs and
erroneous programs from each other.

 Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user mode or kernel

mode

 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode

 If any attempt is made to execute privileged instructions in user mode, hardware does
not execute these instructions and treats as traps

 MS-DOS written for Intel 8088 architecture which has no mode bit and
therefore no dual mode.

 A user program may wipe the OS by writing over it.

 Pentium provides dual mode; and Windows, Linux, Solaris make use of the feature
and provide protection to OS

Transition from User to Kernel Mode

1.3.2 Timer

 A user program should not stuck in infinite loop i.e. not returning to OS.

 Timer can be used to prevent infinite loop or process hogging resources

 A timer can be set to interrupt the computer after a specified period.

 The period may be fixed (1/60 sec) or variable (from 1 milisecond to 1 second)
 A variable timer is implemented by a clock and a counter

 At each click OS decrements counter

 At 0, an interrupt occurs

 Set up timer before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that
exceeds allotted time
 UNIT 1/MODULE 1
Chapter 2: System Structure
Contents:

 Operating System Services

 System Calls

 Types of System Calls

2.1 Operating System Services

 An operating system provides the environment within which programs are executed.

 Services provided by OS

 Interface to users and programmers

 Its components and their interconnection

 User Interface

 Program execution

 I/O operations

 File-system manipulation

 Communications

 Error detection

 Resource allocation

 Accounting

 Protection and Security

a. User Interface

 Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI)

 Command-Line Interface (CLI) uses text command

 Batch Interface uses files for execution containing commands and directives

 Graphics User Interface (GUI) is window and uses pointing device, keyboard, menus
etc.

 Some systems use two or all three types.

b. Program execution

(system capability to load a program into memory and to run it)

 Load the instructions and data into main memory

 Initialize I/O devices and required files

 Make resources available for execution

 End execution, either normally or abnormally (indicating error)

c. I/O operations

a. A running program may require I/O which may involve a file to load in memory
or an I/O device like keyboard

b. Since user programs cannot execute I/O operations directly due to efficiency and
protection purpose, the operating system must provide means to perform I/O.

c. A uniform interface to hide the hardware details

d. File-system manipulation

a. Programs need to read and write files and directories,

b. Create and delete files and directories

c. Search them, list file Information

d. Permission management to allow or deny access to files and directories based on

ownership and privileges

e. Communications

a. Exchange of information between processes executing either on the same

computer or on different systems tied together by a network.

b. Implemented via shared memory or message passing.

f. Error detection

a. OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors

b. OS ensures correct and consistent computing by detecting errors in the CPU,

memory hardware, I/O devices, or in user programs.

i. Illegal memory location

ii. Printer not ready and other I/O devices related

iii. Power failure and Connection failure in network

iv. Software errors like arithmetic errors, divided by zero

 c. Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s abilities to
efficiently use the system

Operating System Services (Additional)

a. Resource allocation

 Allocating resources to multiple users or multiple jobs running at the same time

 CPU cycle (CPU scheduling)

 Memory (Memory management)

 File storage (Disk scheduling)

 I/O devices (request and release)

 Registers (Job scheduling)

b. Accounting

 To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of computer resources

 This record keeping may be used for account billing or for accumulating usage
statistics.

 Usage statistics is a valuable tool for researcher to reconfigure the system to improve
computing services

c. Protection and Security–ensuring that access to system resources is controlled

 The owners of information stored in a multiuser or networked computer system may

want control use of that information

 Concurrent processes should not interfere with each other or with OS itself

 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled

 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends to

defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts

 If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be instituted throughout it.

 Important issues related to Protection and Security are:

 Authentication

 Controlled access of files

 Authorization & privileges

========================================================================
===
2.2 SYSTEM CALLS

 System calls provide an interface to the services provided by the OS

 These routines are written in a high-level language (C or C++), low level tasks may be in
assembly language

 System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

 System calls are mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application Program
Interface (API) rather than directly using system call.

 The API specifies a set of functions that are available to an application programmer, including
the parameters that are passed with each function.

 Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API for POSIX-based
systems (including all versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java
virtual machine (JVM)

 One benefit of using API is program portability.

 A program having APIs can be compiled and run on any system that support the same API.

 Actual system calls can be more detailed and it is difficult to work with them.

 A run-time support system for most of the programming languages provides a system call
interface that serves as the link to system calls made available by OS.

 A run-time support system provides a set of functions built into libraries included with the
compiler
 A number is associated with each system call.

 System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to these numbers.

 The system call interface invokes intended system call in OS kernel and returns status of the
system call with its return value.

 The programmers need not know about the system call implementation and just need to obey
API

 Most of the details of OS interface are hidden from programmer by API and managed by run-
time support library (set of functions built into libraries included with compiler)

 More information like parameters is required than simply identity of desired system call

 Three general methods are used to pass parameters between a running program and the
operating system.

 Pass parameters in registers (simplest)

 Store the parameters in a block of memory, and the memory address is passed as a
parameter in a register as in Linux, Solaris

 Push the parameters onto the stack by the program, and pop off the stack by operating
system.
2.3 TYPES OF SYSTEM CALLS

 Process control

 File management

 Device management

 Information maintenance

 Communications

2.3.1 Process control

 To halt the execution of a running program either normally (end) or abnormally (abort), OS
transfers the to command interpreter

 A process executing one program may load or execute another program

 For coordination of concurrent processes, system calls may be wait event, signal event

 Another set of system calls help in debugging the program

 end, abort

 load, execute

 create process, terminate process

 get process attributes, set process attributes

 wait for time

 wait event, signal event

 allocate and deallocate memory

MS DOS environment

FreeBSD Running Multiple Programs

2.3.2 File management

 Create and delete a file (or directory), need a file name and few attributes

 Open to read, write and reposition file

 Close the file

 Determine the values of various file attributes like file name, file type, protection codes

 Calls to move and copy files

 Some OS may provide API and system programs

 create file, delete file

 open, close

 read, write, reposition

 get file attributes, set file attributes

2.3.4 Device management

 A process needs several resources for execution like main memory, disk drives, files etc.

 All resources may be considered as devices which can be requested and released. (same as
open and close a file)

 request device, release device

 read, write, reposition

 get device attributes, set device attributes

 logically attach or detach devices

2.3.5 Information maintenance

 Many system calls exist for the purpose of transferring the information between the user
program and OS

 System calls to return time and date

 System calls to return information about the system such as number of current users, OS
version, amount of free memory or disk

 System calls to return to get and set the information for files, processes, devices

 get time or date, set time or date

 get system data, set system data

 get process, file or device attributes

 set process, file or device attributes

2.3.6 Communications

 Types of interprocess communication:

 Message passing

 Shared memory

 Message can be exchanged directly or indirectly

 Connection to be established

 communicators (processes) should be specified which may be identified by process-

ids on same or different computers identified by IP address

 Message transfer through read and write calls

 Communication can take place through shared memory

 Shared memory to be created

 Gaining access to regions of shared memory owned by other processes

 Processes can exchange the information by reading and writing the data in shared
memory

 Threads share the memory by default

 Message passing is useful for exchanging smaller amount of data

 Shared memory is faster and can be done in same computer but synchronization is the issue

 create, delete communication connection

 send, receive messages

 transfer status information

 attach or detach remote devices