Chapter 1: Introduction

(OS Structure, Modes and Services)

 What is an Operating System?
 What is an Operating system?
 A program that acts as an intermediate/ interface between a
user of a computer and the computer hardware.
 Resource allocator (Managing the resources efficiently)
 Control Program

 Operating system goals:

 Execute user programs and make problem solving easier.
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Efficiently use available resources

 An operating system is the one program that is running

at all the times on the computer- usually called the
kernel.
 Kernel is a program that (allow) let the hardware to
recognize and read the program/process.
 Computer System Structure

 Computer system can be divided into four components:

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources

 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of resources among
various applications and users
 System/Application programs – define the ways in which
the system resources are used to solving user problems
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database
systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers
Four Components of a Computer System
 Computer System Organization
 Computer-system operation
 One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through
common bus providing access to shared memory
 Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for
memory cycles
 TYPES OF OS
Batch Systems
“Batch operating system. The users of a batch operating system
do not interact with the computer directly.
Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards
and submits it to the computer operator.
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched
together and run as a group”.

*[https://www.tutorialspoint.com/operating_system/os_types.htm]
 TYPES OF OS: Batch Systems

 There is no direct interaction between user and the

computer.
 The user has to submit a job (written on cards or tape)
to a computer operator.
 Then computer operator places a batch of several jobs
on an input device.
 Jobs are batched together by type of languages and
requirements.

Disadvantages:
 No interaction between user and computer.
 No mechanism to prioritize the processes
 TYPES OF OS: Batch Systems

 The common input devices were card readers and tape

drives.
 The common output devices were line printers, tape
drives, and card punches.

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sq2SE_GbZ34
 Multiprogrammed OS
Multiprogramming: When 2 or more processes reside
in memory at the same time
 Single user processes cannot keep CPU and I/O
devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data)
so CPU always has one to execute
 Multiprogramming assumes a single shared
processor. One job selected and run via job
scheduling
 Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization.
 It is mixture of I/O bound and CPU bound processes
 Multiprogrammed OS
 In this the operating system picks up and begins
to execute one of the jobs from memory.

 Once this job needs an I/O operation operating

system switches to another job (CPU and OS
always busy).

 Jobs in the memory are always less than the

number of jobs on disk(Job Pool).
 Multiprogrammed OS
 If several jobs are ready to run at the same time,
then the system chooses which one to run
through the process of CPU Scheduling.

 In Non-multiprogrammed system, there are

moments when CPU sits idle and does not do
any work.

 In Multiprogramming system, CPU will never be

idle and keeps on processing.
 Multitasking/Timesharing OS
 Timesharing (multitasking) when multiple
jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously
by switching between them.
 There is at least one program is executing
in memory process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same
time  CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping
moves them in and out to run
 Only one CPU is involved, but it switches
from one process to another so quickly that
it gives the appearance of executing all of
the processes at the same time.
 Multiprocessing OS
 A multiprocessor system consists of
several processors that share a common
physical memory.
 Multiprocessorsystem provides higher
computing power and speed.
 In multiprocessor system all processors
operate under single operating system.
 Multiprocessing OS
 Multi-processor systems; that is, they have
multiple CPU.

 Also known as parallel systems or tightly coupled

systems

 Such systems have more than one processor in close

communication, sharing the computer bus, the clock,
and sometimes memory and peripheral devices.
 Distributed Systems
 A network is a communication path between
two or more systems.
 Each system over the network keeps copy of
the data, and this leads to Reliability
(Because if one system crashes , data is not
lost).

 CLIENT SERVER SYSTEMS

 PEER TO PEER SYSTEMS
 Real Time Systems
 Time bound systems
 Real time systems are of 2 types:

 1. Soft Real time Systems: Process should complete in

specific time but May have some delay (Positive delay)
and will not harm the system.
Exp: Session expires but can be re-logged in.

 2. Hard Real Time Systems: Each process is assigned a

specific time instance, and Process must complete in
that time otherwise system will crash.
Real Time Embedded Systems

 is a computing environment that reacts to

input within a specific time period.

 Time Driven

 Task specific

 Exp: Microwave, Washing Machine…

 Operating System Views
OS can be explored from 2 view points:
1. User view:
 The goal of the Operating System is to
maximize the work and minimize the effort
of the user.
 Operating System gives an effect to the
user as if the processor is dealing only with
the current task, but in background
processor is dealing with several processes.
 Operating System Views
OS can be explored from 2 view points:
2. System View:
Operating System is a program involved with the
hardware.
 OS is a resource allocator
 Allocates and Manages all resources and their
sharing.
 Decides between conflicting requests for
efficient and fair resource use
 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent
errors and improper use of the computer
 It prevents improper usage, error and handle
deadlock conditions.
Operating-System Operations
 OS’s are Interrupt driven. If no process, no I/o
devices, No users then OS will sit quietly
waiting for some event to occur.

 Program or software send, Generate Events

by using system calls. Error or request by a
software creates exception or trap
 E.g. Division by zero

 To ensure proper execution of OS, we must

distinguish between execution of OS code and
user defined code.
Operating-System Operations
 To protect OS, Dual-mode operations exist:
 User mode (1) and kernel mode (0)
 A Mode bit is added to hardware to indicate
mode

Provides ability to distinguish when system

is running user mode or kernel mode

System call changes mode to kernel, return

from call resets it to user.
With this mode bit, we are able to distinguish
between a task that is executed on behalf of
the operating system and one that is
executed on behalf of the user.
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Operating System Structure

 Various ways to structure a

system
 Simple Structure -- MS-DOS

 MS-DOS – written to
provide the most
functionality in the
least space
 Not divided into
modules
 Although MS-DOS has
some structure, its
interfaces and levels
of functionality are
not well separated
 Non Simple Structure -- UNIX

The UNIX OS consists of two parts:

 System programs
 The kernel
Consists of everything below the system-
call interface and above the physical
hardware

Provides the file system, CPU scheduling,

memory management, and other
operating-system functions; a large
number of functions for one level
Traditional UNIX System Structure
Traditional LINUX System Structure
Kernel has many inbuilt modules
 Layered Approach
 The operating system is
divided into a number of
layers (levels), each
built on top of lower
layers. The bottom
layer (layer 0), is the
hardware; the highest
(layer N) is the user
interface.
 With modularity, layers
are selected such that
each uses functions
(operations) and
services of only lower-
level layers
 Operating System Services
 An operating system provides an environment for the
programs to run.
 It provides certain services to programs
 Operating System Services
 Operating-system services provides functions
that are helpful to the user:
 User interface - Almost all operating systems have a
user interface (UI)
 Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User
Interface (GUI).
 Program execution - The system must be able to load a
program into memory and to run that program, end
execution, either normally or abnormally (indicating
error)
 I/O operations - A running program may require I/O,
which may involve a file or an I/O device.
 File-system manipulation - read and write files and
directories, create and delete them, search them, list
file Information, permission management.
 Operating System Services
 Communications – Processes may exchange information, on
the same computer or between computers over a network
 Communications may be via shared memory or through
message passing (packets moved by the OS)

 Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible

errors
 May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices,
in user program
 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate
action to ensure correct and consistent computing
 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and
programmer’s abilities to efficiently use the system.

 Resource allocation – OS must ensure allocation of resources

to all programs running.
 Many types of resources - such as CPU cycle time, main
memory, and file storage, I/O devices
 Operating System Services
 Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what
kinds of
computer resources.

 Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a

multiuser or networked computer system may want to control use
of that information, concurrent processes should not interfere
with each other
 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system
resources is controlled
 Security of the system from outsiders requires user
authentication, extends to defending external I/O devices from
invalid access attempts
 If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be
instituted throughout it.
 A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.
 Kernel
 A kernel is a central component of an operating system.
 It acts as an interface between the user applications and the
hardware.
 The sole aim of the kernel is to manage the communication
between the software (user level applications) and the
hardware (CPU, disk memory etc).
 The main tasks of the kernel are :
 Process management
 Device management
 Memory management
 Interrupt handling
 I/O communication
 File system...etc..
 Kernel
 A kernel is the lowest level of software that
interfaces with the hardware in your
computer.

 It is responsible for interfacing all

applications that are running in “user mode”
down to the physical hardware, and allowing
processes, to get information from each
other using inter-process communication
(IPC).
 Kernel Types
kernels fall into one of three types:

 Monolithic
 Microkernel
 Hybrid
 Monolithic Kernel
 A monolithic kernel is an operating system
architecture where the entire operating system
(which includes the device drivers, file system,
and the application IPC etc.) is working in kernel
space, in supervisor mode.

 Monolithic kernels are able to dynamically load

(and unload) executable modules at runtime.

 Examples of operating systems that use a

monolithic kernel are - Linux, Solaris, OS-9, DOS,
Microsoft Windows (95,98,Me) etc.
Monolithic Kernel
 Monolithic Kernel
Pros:
 More direct access to hardware for programs
 Easier for processes to communicate between each
other
 If your device is supported, it should work with no
additional installations
 Processes react faster because there isn’t a queue
for processor time.
Cons:
 Large install footprint
 Large memory is needed
 Less secure because everything runs in supervisor
mode
 MicroKernel
 In a Microkernel architecture, the core functionality is
isolated from system services and device drivers.

 This architecture allows some basic services like

device driver management, file system etc. to run in
user space.

 This reduces the kernel code size and also increases

the security and stability of OS as we have minimum
code running in kernel.

 Examples of operating systems that use a microkernel

are - QNX, Integrity, PikeOS, Symbian, L4Linux,
Singularity, K42, Mac OS X, HURD, Minix, and Coyotos.
Types of Kernel
 MicroKernel
Pros
 Portability
 Small install footprint
 Small memory
 Security

Cons
 Hardware is more abstracted through drivers
 Hardware may react slower because drivers are in
user mode
 Processes have to wait in a queue to get information
 Processes can’t get access to other processes
without waiting
 HybridKernel
 Hybrid kernels have the ability to pick and
choose what they want to run in user mode and
what they want to run in supervisor mode.
 Device drivers and file system I/O will be run in
user mode while IPC and server calls will be
kept in the supervisor mode.
 This require more work of the hardware
manufacturer because all of the driver
responsibility is up to them.
 Hybrid Kernel
Pros
 Developer can pick and choose what runs in user
mode and what runs in supervisor mode
 Smaller install than monolithic kernel
 More flexible than other models

Cons
 Processes have to wait in a queue to get
information
 Processes can’t get access to other processes
without waiting
 Device drivers need to be managed by user
 Interrupts
 An interrupt is a signal from a device attached
to a computer or from a program within the
computer that causes the main program that
operates the computer (the operating system)
to stop and figure out what to do next.

 Interrupts can be of following type:

 Generated by Hardware (Hardware Interrupt)

 Generated by Software (Software Interrupt)

 Hardware Interrupt

1. Hardware interrupts are used by devices to

communicate that they require attention from
the operating system.
2. Hardware interrupts by sending signal to CPU
via system bus.
3. Hardware interrupts are referenced by
an interrupt number.
4. These numbers are mapped with hardware
that created the interrupt. This enables the
system to monitor/understand which device
created the interrupt and when it occurred.
 Software Interrupt/ Trap
 Interrupt generated by executing a
instruction.
 Software interrupts by a special
operation called a System Call or
Monitor Call.
Exp: 1. cout in C++ is a kind of interrupt
because it would make a system to
print something.
2. division by zero
 System Calls
 Allow user-level processes to request services of the
operating system.
 It provides a way in which program talks to the

operating system.
 It is a call to the kernel in order to execute a specific
function that controls a device or executes a
instruction.

Why system calls are required?

 It is a request to the operating system to perform
some activity.

 A system call looks like a procedure call

 Accessing System Calls
 System calls are accessed by programs via a high-
level Application Program Interface (API) (provides run
time environment)

 System calls are implemented via API, API’s interact

with kernel of OS.
 Example of System Calls
 System call sequence to copy the
contents of one file to another file
 System Call Implementation
 A number is associated with each system
call
 System-call interface maintains a table indexed
according to these numbers

 The system call interface invokes intended

system call in OS kernel and returns status
of the system call with a return value.
 The caller needs to know nothing about how
the system call is implemented
 Just needs to obey API and understand what OS
will do as a result call
 Most details of OS interface hidden from
programmer by API
API – System Call – OS
Relationship
Standard C Library Example
 C program invoking printf() library call,
which calls write() system call
 System Call Parameter Passing
Passing Parameters to System Calls:
 Information required for a system call vary
according to OS and call.
 Three general methods used to pass
parameters to the OS
1. Pass the parameters in registers
 When parameters are < 6.
2. Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and
address of block passed as a parameter in a register.
(6 or more)
 This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
3. Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the
program and popped off the stack by the operating
system.
Parameter Passing via Table
 Types of System Calls
5 Categories
 Process Control  File Management
 end, abort  create file, delete
 load, execute file
 create process,  open, close file
terminate process
 read, write,
 get process reposition
attributes, set
process attributes  get and set file
 wait for time
attributes
 wait event, signal
event
 allocate and free
 Types of System Calls (Cont.)
 Device Management  Communications
 request device, release  create, delete
device
communication
 read, write, reposition connection
 get device attributes, set  send, receive
device attributes messages
 logically attach or detach  transfer status
devices information
 Information Maintenance  attach and detach
 get time or date, set time or remote devices
date
 get system data, set system
data
 get and set process, file, or
device attributes
Storage Structure and Hierarchy