Q. What is the history and culinary imagination of India.

Introduction

Unity in diversity, is a maxim which is not only justified owing to the variety of cultures and
languages that flourish and partake in the rich cultural heritage of India, but also in the
diverse food habits and tastes of the people that are shaped by their ancestral traditions and
most importantly their geographical terrain, besides other factors.
Food presents a way to comprehending everyday Indian culture as well as the complexities
of identity and interaction with other parts of the world that are both veiled and visible.

Culinary history of India: The Evolution of Indian Gastronomy

Indian food styles and culinary patterns can be attributed as being a product of various
historical and cultural influences and developments, spanning over thousands of years.
Indian cuisine can be best described as palimpsest i.e something which contains multiple
layers with each layer exerting an unalterable impact upon the whole. Cultural exchanges
occurring as a result of trade, travel, conquests and invasions, have all contributed towards
its culinary heritage.

Prehistoric antecedents: Agricultural Beginnings

The earliest evidence of beginning of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent comes from the
North Western part of India.
Archaeological evidence found in North Rajasthan suggests that forests were cleared and
crops were grown in the region as early as 8000 BCE. One of the most important pre-historic
sites that is significant in terms of development of agriculture is Mehrgarh, in Baluchistan.
Wheat and Barley were grown in the region as early as 6500 BCE. By around 3 rd millennium
BCE, settlements also came up in the river valleys of Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri, in the
Southern part of the subcontinent.
The evidence of large open bowls and pots suggest that probably some form of porridge and
gruel-like food might have been eaten during this period. It also hints towards the probable
practice of community dining.

Indus Valley Civilization: Cities and Surplus

Harappan Civilization or Indus Valley Civilization is one of the oldest civilizations of the world
dating back to about 3000 BCE- 1300 BCE approximately, which emerged along the fertile
river valleys of Sindh and Punjab.
The number and varieties of crops greatly diversified during this period. Archaeological
evidence suggests that wheat, barley, lentils, peas, and sesame where some of the principal
crops grown.
Although bread was the staple, rice was also eaten. Symbols of fish were widely found on
the seals, suggesting that they may have formed a part of their diet. Archaeologists have
discovered an agricultural field in Kalibangan (Rajasthan). The field contains scrapes in a
criss-cross pattern that have been identified as furrows caused by ploughing.
In Kalibangan, several thousand charred grains of barley have also been identified indicating
that it might have been the staple of the region during these times. Small oven plastered in
mud, closely resembling modern tandoors, have also been found at the site. As the principal
sites of Indus Valley were engaged in a brisk trade with Mesopotamia, culinary influences
from the latter, especially in terms of cooking bread and meat might have travelled to the
Harappan cities.

Vedic period: Primacy of Yajnas and Sacrificial rites

During the Vedic period (1500 BCE- 500 BCE), important developments took place in the
society that influenced the growth of culinary habits.
Later Vedic Period (1000 BCE-500 BCE) involved performing yajnas or sacrifices which
involved offering cooked food to gods by a householder on the domestic hearth, elaborate
public sacrifices and drinking of soma (intoxicating liquid).
Cow was central to the society, economy and polity of the Vedic Age, which entailed the
wide prevalence of dairy products. A preparation of milk with grains and parched barley was
called odana. Barley was the principal grain. Oilseeds such as sesame and mustard were also
used.
Among fruits and vegetables, one finds mention of bilva (bael), amalaka (myrobalan fruit)
and mangoes in the Vedic Literature.

Food as a cosmic principle

The period that began from 6thcentury BCE, in India is known as the phase of second
urbanization, which witnessed the growth of various urban centres in the Gangetic Valley of
India. This period also saw the rise of major philosophical schools of the Indian subcontinent
such as Jainism and Buddhism.
Food was considered as the life-giving source of living beings and hence was equated with
the being itself.
Both Buddhism and Jainism, stressed on the ideal of Ahimsa or non-injury to living beings.
Scholars argue that this encouraged vegetarianism among the common people.

Classical Age: Growth of Trade, States and orthodoxy

The period 1st -5th century CE, witnessed the rise of strong empires like Guptas which
provided a further impetus to trade. Traces of cultural exchange via trade can still be found
in the Indian cuisine. Spices formed a major commodity of commerce.

Puranic Hinduism and the Concept of food as Naivedya and Prasad

Beginning from around 5th century CE, an important class of religious texts called Puranas
were composed. This period marked the growth of personal gods in Hinduism. These deities
could be appeased by offering puja which included offering specific food items as bhoga or
naivedya. Each deity in popular Hinduism has his/her culinary preferences. Example: Vishnu
is generally offered ghee and milk-based foods. Ganesha is known for his love of sweets,
especially a variety called modaka.
After food is offered to the deity, the leftover called prasada is distributed among the
devotees and is believed to be endowed with deity’s blessings.
Another important development was the growth of tantricism which considered mamsa
(meat) and madya (wine)to be worthy offerings to God and encouraged their use among
devotees.

Islamic contributions and influences

Influences from Middle East have over time, made Indian cuisine rich in flavours and variety.
It is fascinating that samosa, a popular snack in North India, probably had origins in the Arab
world. The Arab cookbooks of 10th and 11th century CE mention meat-filled patties called
sambusas. Some of the important contributions of Middle East to the Indian cuisine are the
introduction of rich gravies with nuts, saffron, aromatic herbs and various kinds of bread.
The Ain-i-Akbari of Abul Fazl mentions dishes such as yakhni (a meat stock), musamman and
stuffed roasted chicken and also cooking techniques such as dampukht (a slow cooking
technique) and biryani. Breads such as sheermal, roomali and tandoori rotis are also a gift of
Mughals to Indian cuisine. It is also believed that kulfi, a popular Indian dessert, also
originated in Mughal India.

The culinary patterns shaped by European presence in India and Arrivals from the New
World

The Europeans who began arriving to the Indian subcontinent by the 16th century brought
many novel items of food to the Indian subcontinent. The Portuguese introduced potatoes,
chillies, papayas, pineapples, peanuts, guavas and tabacco to the culinary basket. The
potatoes in India came to be known as aloo, a generic Sanskrit term for tuber.
Portuguese influence enriched the cuisine of Goa, which was their capital. Similarly, the
cuisine of Pondicherry reflects the legacy of French colonial influence.
The British who ruled India for 200 years introduced the cultivation of tea to the Indian soil
in the form of large plantations. Many vegetables which were initially grown in India by the
British for their use, were harmoniously incorporated into Indian cuisine such as cauliflower,
cabbage, spinach and carrots. They also introduced new ingredients and cooking techniques.
For instance, tea became a popular beverage and was added to Indian cooking as a
flavouring agent.

Globalization and Modern Trends: Vibrant world of Cafes, Dhabas and Online Apps

Indian cuisine has evolved considerably over time. The restaurant culture is a product of
modern times.
Traditionally the caste norms associated with commensality prevented Indians of different
social groups from dining together. However, taverns and inns that served a variety of food
items existed since ancient times. A category of restaurants called dhabas have become
quite popular during the present times. Originally patronized by lorry drivers, these eating
spaces have become popular among the urban youth of today.
The intermingling of culinary cultures of India and China have resulted in a new genre of
Chinese food, which has gained widespread affinity among the people that is, the Indo-
Chinese. The Tibetan momos have also gained widespread popularity among the masses.
Another essential development that has gained prominence is the flourishing of the street
foods to an extent that they have been taken over by large food chains. With the recent
introduction of mobile-based applications associated with food, the access to a variety of
cuisine from the comfort of one’s home has been facilitated.
The era of globalization ushered in many transformations in the food habits of the people by
the introduction of new varieties to their usual diet like Italian, Mexican, Continental,
Chinese. Many restaurants have now incorporated the delicacies of these varieties in their
menus.
Despite some resistance in recent years, the entry of multinational food corporations and
their mimicking by Indian food giants, the industrialization of agriculture, the ubiquity of
standardized food crops, and the standardization of food and tastes in urban areas have
stimulated a flattening of the food terrain. In the recurring identity crises that globalization
seems to encourage, one would expect that food would play a significant part in dialogues
about nationalism and Indian identities. But food in India has been virtually absent from the
academic discourse because of the diversity and spread of the gastronomic landscape.
Things are different on the Internet. In response to the forces of globalization and Indian
food blogs both teaching cookery and commenting on food, are mushrooming in
cyberspace.