Chapter one

Introduction of research
In this chapter you will be able to have basic foundation of;
1. What research?
2. How research is done?
3. Objectives of research1
4. Some of the reasons for doing research
5. How research can be used to gather evidence to inform your practice
6. Characteristics and requirements of the research process
7. Research types
8. An overview of Qualitative and Quantitative methods
What’s research?

• Research is Systematic investigative process employed to increase or revise current

knowledge by discovering new facts
• It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems
• Research is about search for the hidden truth. The use of the words how and what
essentially summarizes what research is
In other words;

• Research is a way of thinking

• Examining critically the various aspects of your day-to-day professional work
• Understanding and formulating guiding principles that govern a particular procedure
• And developing and testing new theories that contribute to the advancement of your
practice and profession.

Why research?
We do research;

1. To find out what is known

2. What is not and
3. What we can develop further

Environmental health officer. You may be in a team or working as an outreach community

health worker. You have been told there’s an industrial accident and you need to assess the
scale of the problem. To do your research and find answers some of the following questions
may come to your mind or someone else may ask you for their answers:

To make your lecture material easier to understand, I have collected various sources of information.
Please note that most of the material you will see in this chapter was compiled from various sources.

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 1. What was the industry’s work?
2. What kind of chemicals have been there?
3. In what numbers?
4. The scale of their spread?
5. What kind of impact they have on human and environmental health?
6. How can we reduce their impact?
7. What kind of steps that can be put in place to avoid such issues?
8. Why do some people use the service while others do not?
9. How effective is the intervention can be?
10. How can the service be improved?

WHAT ARE RESEARCH METHODS?

A research method is the process used to collect information and data for the purpose of
making right decisions. As a researcher, you will consider what method might be most
appropriate for answering the questions you want to investigate. Particular methods,
techniques must be employed to come up with appropriate solutions to problems.

In other words, research methods are the tools, instruments, practices, processes—insert
whatever making metaphor you prefer—that allow you to answer questions of interest and
contribute to a critical conversation, or a grouping of recognized ideas about that interest.

Considered with this in mind, research methods train researchers on the

available routes and pathways to generating new knowledge. Through writing and delivery
(circulation), researchers and the texts they produce both participate meaningfully in and also
continue to shape research conversations (i.e., what is known and what is knowable).

Very little research in the field is pure in nature. That is, very few people do research in
research methodology per se. Most research is applied research, which has wide application
in many disciplines. Every profession uses research methods in varying amounts in many
areas. They use the methods and procedures developed by research methodologists in order to
increase understanding in their own profession and to advance the professional knowledge
base. It is through the application of research methodology that they strengthen and advance
their own profession.

Examine your own field. You will find that its professional practice follows procedures and
practices tested and developed by others over a long period of time. It is in this testing
process that you need research skills, the developments of which fall in the category of pure
research. As a matter of fact, the validity of your findings entirely depends upon the
soundness of the research methods and procedures adopted by you.

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How research is done?

Research is done with the help of study, experiment, observation, analysis, comparison and
reasoning. For example, the data gathered from the field (communities) or secondary sources
(such as textbooks, journals, newspapers) needs to be interpreted to create meaning out of it.

BASIC STEPS OF A RESEARCH PROJECT

1. Find a topic - What,
2. Formulate questions - What, Why
3. Define population - Who, When
4. Select design & measurement - How
5. Interpret evidence - Why
6. Tell about what you did and found out

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 Fig: Ideal research
process
When you say that you are undertaking a research study/applied research methods to find out
answers to a question, you are implying that the process being applied:

1. Is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies;

2. Uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and
reliability;

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 3. Is designed to be unbiased and objective.

characteristics and requirements

From these definitions it is clear that research is a process for collecting, analyzing and
interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must
have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic,
valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.

Let us briefly examine these characteristics to understand what they mean:

Controlled – In real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. A particular event is
seldom the result of a one-to-one relationship. Some relationships are more complex than
others. Most outcomes are a sequel to the interplay of a multiplicity of relationships and
interacting factors. In a study of cause-and-effect relationships it is important to be able to
link the effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa. In the study of causation, the establishment
of this linkage is essential; however, in practice, particularly in the social sciences, it is
extremely difficult – and often impossible – to make the link.

The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, you set
up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship.
This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences, as most of the research is done
in a laboratory.

Rigorous – You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers
to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly
between the physical and the social sciences and within the social sciences.

Systematic – This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.

Valid and verifiable – This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

Empirical – This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered
from information collected from real-life experiences or observations.
Critical – Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from any
drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical
scrutiny.

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 Difference between research methods and research methodology

A research method tries to describe those techniques or procedures which the researcher has
deployed to answer the research questions, resolve the hypothesis, and ultimately solve the
research problem, irrespective of whether the research belongs to the natura or social sciences
or any other disciplines. It explains the procedures used to collect data as well as the
techniques for data analysis, among others.

In other words, a research method explains how a researcher identifies, collects, processes,
and analyzes data for his paper. A cogent explanation of these procedures and techniques is
necessary because it allows readers to critically examine the overall validity and reliability of
the empirical findings of the paper. The main purpose of a research method is to provide the
scientific steps that help to find solutions to the research problem.

On the other hand, Whenever a researcher chooses any particular research method, he or she
must justify or rationalize why such a method is preferred to others. Research methodology
seeks to answer this question. Research methodology refers to the underlying logic or reasons
behind the choice of methods for a research project. It involves studying the methods used in
any particular field as well as the views, beliefs, values, theories, or principles behind their
adoption in order to develop an approach that matches the objectives of the research.

In other words, research methodology is the rigorous analysis and evaluation of the methods
applied in conducting research to ensure that the conclusions drawn are valid, reliable, and
credible. Hence, research methods can be said to be a component of research methodology.

Longer or more complex research projects such as dissertations or theses will most likely
include a “Research methodology” chapter where the researcher carefully explains the
techniques and procedures he or she used to answer the research questions, test the
hypothesis and solve the research problem.

In both cases it depends on the approach and how we define the context. Below you can see
more simplistic approach of distinguishing both.

Types of research

Research can be classified based on the method chosen by the researchers, here you can find
more simplfied classsidication of research. Note this classification is based on making easy
for you to understadn research types but it can be interchangeable, it can depend on many
factors and also your research intgerrest can influence:

➢ Pure Research
➢ Applied Research

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 ➢ Quantitative Research and Qualitative Research:
• Correlational Research
• Explanatory Research
• Descriptive Research
• Exploratory Research
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually
challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present
time or in the future. Thus, such work often involves the testing of hypotheses containing
very abstract and specialized concepts.

Most of the research in the social sciences is applied. In other words, the research techniques,
procedures and methods that form the body of research methodology are applied to the
collection of information about various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon
so that the information gathered can be used in other ways – such as for policy formulation,
administration and the enhancement of understanding of a phenomenon.

1. The structured approach

2. The unstructured approach

In the structured approach everything that forms the research process – objectives, design,
sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents – is predetermined. The
unstructured approach, by contrast, allows flexibility in all these aspects of the process. The
structured approach is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or
phenomenon, whereas the unstructured approach is predominantly used to explore its nature

The structured approach to enquiry is usually classified as quantitative research and

unstructured as qualitative research

A study is classified as qualitative if the purpose of the study is primarily to describe a

situation, phenomenon, problem or event; if the information is gathered through the use of
variables measured on nominal or ordinal scales (qualitative measurement scales); and if the
analysis is done to establish the variation in the situation, phenomenon or problem without
quantifying it. The description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events,
an account of the different opinions people have about an issue, and a description of the
living conditions of a community are examples of qualitative research.

On the other hand, the study is classified as quantitative if you want to quantify the variation
in a phenomenon, situation, problem or issue; if information is gathered using predominantly
quantitative variables; and if the analysis is geared to ascertain the magnitude of the variation.

Examples of quantitative aspects of a research study are: How many people have a particular
problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?

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The use of statistics is not an integral part of a quantitative study. The main function of
statistics is to act as a test to confirm or contradict the conclusions that you have drawn on the
basis of your understanding of analysed data. Statistics, among other things, help you to
quantify the magnitude of an association or relationship, provide an indication of the
confidence you can place in your findings and help you to isolate the effect of different
variables.

A research study classified as a descriptive study attempts to describe systematically a

situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about, say,
the living conditions of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.

For example, it may attempt to describe the types of service provided by an organization, the
administrative structure of an organization, the living conditions of Aboriginal people in the
outback, the needs of a community, what it means to go through a divorce, how a child feels
living in a house with domestic violence, what kind of problem does the child have.

The main purpose of such studies is to describe what is prevalent with respect to the
issue/problem under study.

The main emphasis in a correlational study is to discover or establish the existence of a

relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.

What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product? What is the
relationship between stressful living and the incidence of heart attack? What is the
relationship between fertility and mortality? What is the relationship between technology and
unemployment? What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease, or the home
environment on educational achievement?

These studies examine whether there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a
situation or phenomenon and, therefore, are called correlational studies.

Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two
aspects of a situation or phenomenon. This type of research attempts to explain, for example,
why stressful living results in heart attacks; why a decline in mortality is followed by a
fertility decline; or how the home environment affects children’s level of academic
achievement.

Exploratory research. This is when a study is undertaken with the objective either to
explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a
particular research study. When a study is carried out to determine its feasibility it is also
called a feasibility study or a pilot study. It is usually carried out when a researcher wants to
explore areas about which s/he has little or no knowledge. A small-scale study is undertaken

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 to decide if it is worth carrying out a detailed investigation. On the basis of the assessment
made during the exploratory study, a full study may eventuate

correlational study

Pure Quantitative
explanatory study
Research types

descriptive study
Qualitative
applied

Exploratory
research

Ethnographic
study

This a simple graphical representation designed for your understanding. Note that this
categorization can be subject to change based on the interest of the research, the research goal
and type, and the objectives of the researcher.

Main Features of Quantitative Research

• In the quantitative research, respond are asked same questions

• Quantitative research requires large samples of individuals
• Quantitative research tends to analyze data accurately
• The data obtained are based on statistical analysis

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

· The research involves holistic inquiry carried out in a natural setting.

o This means that the researcher is a participant who is highly involved in
investigation.
· Humans are the primary data instruments
The qualitative researcher prefers to rely on human power of observation rather
than measurement instruments like paper and pencil tests.
· Emphasis on multiple realities
Qualitative data gathering procedures are preferred because they are considered
more amenable of the diversity of multiple realities one finds in a complex field

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situation.
· Purposive rather than random sampling
The qualitative research is more likely uncover the full array of “multiple
realities” relevant to an inquiry when the sampling of respondents is done
purposely rather than probabilistic sampling methodology.
Purposive means: this is where one select participants who have the required
information according to the objectives of his/her study.
Example religion sect, educational level, adult people, males only, ages 20 -25,
smokers and etc.
· Inductive data analysis
The qualitative researcher used complex reasoning that is multifaceted, interactive
and simultaneous. The thinking process is interactive, with a cycling back and
forth from data collection and analysis to problem formulation

Pros of qualitative method approach

• It enables more complex aspects of a person’s experience to be studied

• Fewer restriction or assumptions are placed on the data to be collected.
• Not everything can be quantified, or quantified easily, Individuals can be studied in
more depth
• Good for exploratory research and hypothesis generation
• The participants are able to provide data in their own words and in their own way

Cons of qualitative approach

• It is more difficult to determine the validity and reliability of linguistic data

• there is more subjectivity involved in analyzing the data.
• “Data overload” – open-ended questions can sometimes create lots of data, which can
take along time to analyse. Time consuming

Pros of quantitative approach

• Quantitative research allows the researcher to measure and analyze data.

• The researcher is more objective about the findings of the research.
• Quantitative research can be used to test hypotheses in experiments because of its
ability to measure data using statistics

Cons of quantitative approach

• The main disadvantage of quantitative research is the context of the study or

experiment is ignored.

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 • Quantitative research does not study things in a natural setting or discuss the meaning
things have for different people.
• A large sample of the population must be studied for more accurate results

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that
they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them.
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.
2. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible.
3. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
4. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
5. The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a
good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Mahbub Mohamed Abdillahi