Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13202-021-01326-8

ORIGINAL PAPER-PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

A new assessment of perforation skin factor for vertical perforated

wells in near‑wellbore region
Ekhwaiter E. R. Abobaker1 · Abadelhalim Elsanoose1 · Faisal Khan1 · Mohammad Azizur Rahman2 ·
Amer Aborig1 · Khalid Noah3 · Stephen Butt1

Received: 17 July 2021 / Accepted: 11 October 2021 / Published online: 25 October 2021
© The Author(s) 2021

Abstract
The perforating technique is one of the well completion methods and a final stage that helps connect reservoir formation to
wellbore during hydrocarbon production. The present work aimed to determine the effect of the perforated casing comple-
tion on the pressure gradient and perforation skin factor in the vertical near-wellbore region. This work presented a novel
experimental approach for studying the effect of perforation parameters on hydrocarbon production by creating a prototype
representing the near-wellbore region. The study conducted extensive laboratory testing to create two prototype artificial
samples for a cylindrical near-wellbore region, open hole, and perforated casing sample. An experimental test was carried out
using a geotechnical radial flow setup to measure the differential pressure in the two samples; the single-phase (water) was
radially injected into the core sample within the same flow boundary conditions. Numerical simulation and statistical analysis
were used to expand the investigation of the effect of the dimensions and distribution of perforations on the perforation skin
factor and the pressure gradient in the cylindrical near-wellbore region. The results showed a clear view of the effect of the
perforations’ parameters on the pressure gradient in the vertical near-wellbore region. In addition, two novel correlations
were produced from statistical analysis that simplified the estimation of the perforation skin factor in the perforated casing
completion. This study will help to clarify and understand the effect of perforation parameters on well productivity.

Keywords Radial flow cell · Artificial sandstone sample · Near-wellbore region · Perforation skin factor
List of Symbols kv Vertical permeability
⃗ f Body force
B Jd Productivity index for a well with skin factors
C2 Inertial resistance factor Jo Productivity index for an ideal open hole
D Diameter of sample Ld Damaged zone length
dp Perforation diameter lp Perforation length
H Sample height lw′ Modified perforation length
h Formation thickness Q Flow rate
hp Perforation space Pr Penetration ratio
kd Permeability of damaged zone pe Pressure at the external boundary of reservoir
kf Formation permeability pw Pressure inside wellbore
kh Horizontal permeability re Reservoir radius
Kr Permeability ratio rp Radius of perforation tunnel
Rr Radius ratio
rs Skin zone radius
* Ekhwaiter E. R. Abobaker rw Wellbore radius
eera48@mun.ca
rw′ Modified wellbore radius
1
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, Memorial Sh Horizontal perforation skin factor
University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, NL A1C 5S7, Sp Skin due to ideal perforations
Canada Sv Vertical perforation skin factor
2
Petroleum Engineering, Texas A&M University at Qatar, Swc Wellbore skin factor
23874 Doha, Qatar v⃗ Velocity
3
Faculty of Engineering, University of Tobruk, Tobruk, Libya γ Porosity

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118 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133

𝛾f Porosity of formation zone 2011). Perforations can be created using a variety of meth-
𝛾s Porosity of skin zone ods (Behrmann et al. 2002), and their success is related to a
𝜃 Perforation angle number of characteristics, including radius, phasing angle,
𝜃d Ratio of perforation angle to 180° density, and length of perforation (Economides, 2013).
𝜇 Fluid viscosity Here, a flow path is generated between the wellbore and
𝜌 Fluid density pay zone that affects the efficiency of the well’s operation
𝜏 Stress tensor related to viscous flow (Economides & Nolte, 2000). For the mentioned factors
Δp Pressure drop (radius, phasing angle of perforations, etc.), the total and
combined effect can typically be attributed to one parameter
Abbreviation
only, which is the total skin factor. In general terms, the total
ANOVA Analysis of variance
skin factor measures the productivity of a well. Skin factor
BBD Box–Behnken design
may also provide a measure for pressure drop in perforated
CFD Computational fluid dynamics
completion in comparison with the ideal pressure drop that
DQ Data acquisition
is predicted using the radial flow theory for similar flow
DoE Design of experiments
rates. Perforation skin models for vertical wells have been
IPR Inflow performance relationship
presented in various studies for more than 50 years (Harris
PD Perforation by drilling
1966; Klotz et al. 1974; Locke 1981; Karakas and Tariq
PR Productivity index
1991; Yildiz 2006). Klotz et al. (1974) employed a 2-D finite
PSD Pore size distribution
element model to examine how perforations and formation
RSM Response surface methodology
damage at the crushed zone affect well productivity, while
Locke (1981) looked at a novel way (nomograph) to estimate
skin for perforated completions. Nomographs can take skin
Introduction factors into account by considering rock compaction and
formation damage at perforation tunnels. Using a finite ele-
The last stage in well construction is known as well com- ment simulator, Karakas and Tariq (1991) formulated sev-
pletion, which is also the first stage to move the reservoir eral empirical equations for predicting the total skin factor
toward production status. To finish a well, an appraisal of at fully perforated vertical wells. Yildiz (2006) proposed a
the reservoir’s quality must be made. The appraisal consid- novel way to assess the total skin factor that accounted for
ers aspects such as the properties of the reservoir rock (e.g., a large number of other factors, including compaction zone
permeability and porosity) as well as saturation and type skin, perforation skin, drill-damaged skin, and the impact
of interstitial water and hydrocarbon fluids. Therefore, the of partial formation perforation. In particular, the model of
production engineers must have a variety of tools available Karakas and Tariq (1991) has been commonly used in the
for designing an appropriate completion plan in accordance industry for the past three decades.
with reservoir fluid characteristics, the production rate for There have been significant improvements in computa-
casting, and rock formation type. Because the process of tional fluid dynamics (CFD) and computers during the last
well completion is costly, the majority of these wells must two decades. The improvements permit the running of sig-
be able to quickly produce large amounts of hydrocarbon to nificantly larger models and finer meshes for significantly
ensure an attractive and rapid return on investment. How- lower cost and time expenditures. As well, the improvements
ever, the process of drilling itself impairs the reservoir rock include revisions to field development strategies in relation
permeability, decreasing the reservoir’s natural productiv- to horizontal and deviated wells and upgrades to perforat-
ity. This phenomenon is called “formation damage” and is ing technology in relation to increased penetration depths.
mainly caused by the completion process, drilling, stimu- Several recent studies have used CFD for simulating flows
lation, and other activities (Yuan & Wood, 2018). One of in porous media, especially near perforations and wellbore
the main contributing factors to well components is forma- regions, which is becoming more widespread, due largely to
tion damage, which may significantly affect productivity. In improvements in computer technology. CFD technology can
general, well productivity has been documented as being easily and quickly model complex interactions’ flow occur-
affected by a number of interacting elements, including the ring in a near-wellbore region (Wood et al. 2020), including
diameter of the casing entrance hole, the depth and density formation damage and completion geometry. Using CFD,
of perforations, and boundary flow conditions. Perforation the well’s completion is expedited by formatting the well
is used to connect reservoir formations to wellbores during as a grid and dealing with each small section individually.
hydrocarbon production stages. Although the primary pur- Reservoir heterogeneity and formation damage can also be
pose of using perforation is to boost production, its applica- captured for a well, which allows for a significantly more
tion can also cause issues with virgin reservoirs (Renpu, detailed examination of the well and near-wellbore area,

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Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133 119

resulting in improved estimations for inflow performance. describes open-hole well production in steady-state flows
For example, Byrne et al. (2009) used CFD to model well (Darcy, 1956):
inflow at a perforated vertical well. Also, Byrne et al. (2010 ( )
and 2011) demonstrated how CFD could resolve asymmetric 2𝜋kf h pe − pw
Q= ( ) (1)
distribution formation damage near the well and capture the r
𝜇ln r e
cross flow in the layered reservoir with a heterogeneous. A w

few years later, the same researchers developed a model for The flow rate ( Q ) for a vertical well in a cylindrical
a perforated horizontal well (Byrne et al. 2014). Addition- near-wellbore region with perforations, anisotropy perme-
ally, Molina and Tyagi (2015) applied CFD on a near-well ability and Darcy flow perpendicular to the wellbore is
model to examine how a perforated gas well performs, look- expressed as (Economides, 2013):
ing in particular at various types of completion techniques
( )
and how these strategies might have erosive effects at the 2𝜋kf h pe − pw
wellbore. This study is an extension of the works (Zheng, Q= [ ( ) ] (2)
r
et al. 2016; Ahammad, et al. 2018, 2019; Abobaker et al. 𝜇 ln r e + Sp
w
2021a, 2021b) for investigating single fluid flow occurring
in perforated porous substances numerically and experimen- Hydrocarbon wells can be affected by a number of skin
tally. The researchers' model was able to predict the pressure factors. These effects include perforation skin factor ( Sp );
gradients of petrophysical characteristics within perforation any difference between an actual well’s performances com-
tunnels and the near-wellbore regions. The present research pared to that of an ideal vertical open hole is expressed as
attempts to determine how the dimensions and distribution the perforation skin factor. The perforation skin factor can
of perforations affect skin factors by conducting four main be obtained after the pressure drop is calculated from the
investigative procedures of the sample preparation, experi- equation:
mental method, numerical simulation, and statistical analy- ( ) ( )
2𝜋kf h pe − pw r
sis. Also considered in this work is how skin factor and Sp = − ln e (3)
other completion characteristics affect the productivity ratio. Q𝜇 rw
The experimental and numerical studies were carried out
To better understand how skin factors can affect the
to present a better understanding of the fluid flow dynam-
productivity of a well, the productivity index for an ideal
ics in both perforations and casing and to determine how
open hole ( Jo ) is compared to that for a well with skin fac-
important design is in flow distribution near a wellbore. This
tors ( Jd ) (Economides, 2013):
approach allows for pressure drop in various completion
configurations to be studied and analyzed and allows flow Q𝜇 [ ]
convergence-affected corresponding skin to be measured.
Δp =
2𝜋kf h
ln(re ∕rw ) + Sp (4)
In addition, the study also develops simple correlations for
predicting the perforation skin factor for perforated vertical
Q 2𝜋kf h
wells and compares the validity of the correlations with the Jd = = [ ( ) ] (5)
available model of Karakas and Tariq (1991) for the speci- Δp 𝜇 ln re ∕rw + Sp
fied reservoir and perforating parameters.
To quantify the comparison, the productivity ratio (PR)
is applied, as expressed (Economides, 2013):
( )
Jd ln re ∕rw
Methodology PR = = ( ) (6)
Jo ln re ∕rw + Sp
In porous media, fluid flow at low velocities typically obeys
In the literature, some studies calculate the total skin
Darcy’s law. However, as the flow velocity increases, a non-
factor by adding together all of the above-mentioned skin
Darcy flow regime begins to develop, caused by the increas-
factors. Karakas and Tariq’s model is commonly applied
ingly nonlinear relationship between the local pressure gra-
when estimating how a well’s productivity is influenced by
dient and in situ fluid velocity. Open-hole well completion is
perforation. There are two scenarios: the perforation tun-
both the simplest and most popular completion strategy used
nel exceeds the formation damaged zone, or the perfora-
in the oil and gas hydrocarbon industry today. Constructing
tions remain within the formation damaged zone. Karakas
a productivity model of vertical open holes is also relatively
and Tariq (1991) developed a procedure to calculate the
straightforward. Through integrating the relevant data with
perforation skin factor. The perforation skin factor is a
Darcy’s equation, a well-productivity model can be built that

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120 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133

( ) ( )
combination including the horizontal flow effect Sh , the a = a1 log rpd + a2 (13)
vertical converging effect (Sv ), and the wellbore effect(Swb ).
Hence,
b = b1 rpd + b2 (14)
Sp = Sh + Sv + Swb (7)
Finally, the wellbore skin effect, Swb , can be obtained by
The horizontal perforation skin factor,Sh, is given by: Karakas and Tariq (1991):

⎛ r ⎞ Swb = c1 ec2 rwd (15)

Sh = ln⎜ w ⎟ (8)
⎜ } ⎟ where rwd is given by
⎝ rw (𝜃) ⎠
rw
where rw� (𝜃) is the efficient wellbore radius and is a function rwd = (16)
lp + rw
of the perforation angle θ.
{ } The constants a1, a2 , b1, b2,c1 and c2 are given in Table 2
� lp ∕4
( ) if 𝜃 = 0 as functions of the perforation angle, θ.
rw (𝜃) =
𝛼𝜃 rw + lp otherwise (9)
Karakas and Tariq (1991) suggested using a modified
perforation length lw′ and the modified wellbore radius rw′
where lp is the perforation’s length, and αθ is phase depend-
when the perforation tunnel exceeds the formation dam-
ent on variables obtain from Table 1.
aged zone.
The vertical perforation skin effect is then given by Karakas
and Tariq (1991): ( )
� kd
rw = rw + 1 − Ld (17)
kf
Sv = 10a hb−1
d
b
rpd (10)
( )
where hd, rpd, a and b are given by: kd
√ lw� = lp − 1 − Ld (18)
kf
hp kh
hd = (11)
lp kv Using Karakas and Tariq’s semi-analytical model as a
foundation and reference point, the present study aims to
( √ ) compare and extend the investigations of near-wellbore
rper kv region flow, thereby expanding industry knowledge about
rpd = 1+ (12)
2hp kh well performance. This study involved four main investiga-
tive procedures of sample preparation, experimental, numer-
ical, and statistical analysis for a more accurate estimation of
Table 1  Dependency of rw� (𝜃) on phasing
the perforation skin factor for perforated wells. The experi-
Perforating phasing Phase (𝛼𝜃) mental approach has been used to validate the numerical
model for single-phase flow through the two perforation
0° (360°) 0.25
samples. Statistical analysis has been coupled with numeri-
180° 0.5
cal simulation to expand the investigation of fluid flow in the
120° 0.648
near-wellbore region that cannot be obtained experimentally,
90° 0.726
due to the limitations of the experimental setup, especially
60° 0.813
the small sample size.
45° 0.860

Table 2  Vertical and wellbore Perforating phas- a1 a2 b1 b2 c1 c2

skin correlation coefficients ing (θ)

0° (360°) − 2.091 0.0453 5.1313 1.8672 1.6 × ­10–1 2.675

180° − 2.025 0.0943 3.0373 1.8115 2.6 × ­10–2 4.532
120° − 2.018 0.0634 1.6136 1.7770 6.6 × ­10–3 5.320
90° − 1.905 0.1038 1.5674 1.6935 1.9 × ­10–3 6.155
60° − 1.898 0.1023 1.3654 1.6490 3.0 × ­10–4 7.509
45° − 1.788 0.2398 1.1915 1.6392 4.6 × ­10–5 8.791

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Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133 121

Samples preparation Table 3  The dimensions of synthetic samples

Dimensions and properties the sample Values (units)
Prototype artificial samples have been created that mimic
a near-wellbore region, utilizing two zones with differ- Sample height (H) 30.48 cm
ent levels of permeability. The model features cylindri- Diameter of sample (D) 15.24 cm
cal geometry as a means to enable radial flow toward Wellbore radius (rw) 1.27 cm
the borehole, while the boundary condition has been set Skin zone radius (rs) 5.08 cm
to a constant mass flow rate to help monitor any pres- Perforation radius ( rp) 1.5 mm
sure changes occurring at/near the wellbore. As sourcing Perforation length (lP) 3.81 cm
natural samples can be both expensive and challenging, Perforation space hp 3.81 cm
and because these samples, if found, are often anisotropic Perforation angle (𝜃) 90°
(i.e., display various characteristics depending on how
they are analyzed), laboratories tend to rely on mod-
els. Therefore, many researchers have presented differ-
ent ways to create artificial samples. Holt et al. (2000)
looked at synthetic samples for simulating in situ rock
conditions. Their results showed how synthetic speci-
mens are interchangeable with the real core in laboratory
tests. In similar work, Butt (1999) investigated samples
taken from a mine area in Nova Scotia, Canada, and also
Ahammad et al. (2018) tested real and artificial samples
in a laboratory. Laboratory samples are generally pre-
pared according to study specifications and other factors.
For our purposes, we investigated the samples using an
experimental setup that has a broad range of applications
related to near-wellbore flow phenomena (e.g., formation
damage), which occurs at the well completion stage. In
the laboratory experiments, two highly permeable artifi-
cial sandstone samples were prepared. The two cylindri-
cal samples were made from sand particles measuring
Fig. 1  The shape of two artificial sandstone samples
0.18 to 1.18 mm. Each artificial sample was created from
two different sandstone grain sizes. The fine grain size
was used to create a skin zone region (S1) around the 2008), as it does not create any transient shockwaves at the
wellbore, and the coarse grain size was used to create a perforation tunnel during drilling. They found only small
formation reservoir zone (S2). The sandstone particles amounts of very fine particles were produced, with negli-
and waterproof marine epoxy were mixed in different gible redistribution and little damage. This is the result of
quantities (depending on the size of the sand) using an the nature of the drilling process, and most of the damage
electric mixer for 10 min. The mixture was then placed in was confined to the perforated tunnel, causing only a slight
a plastic container throughout four different stages, using blockage of flow. Therefore, we assumed that the created
an electric vibrator to ensure the distribution of grain with samples were ideal perforations and did not have a crush
epoxy glue. Each sample was constructed in two stages; zone around the perforation. The shape and dimensions of
the skin zone was created and then perforated in the first two artificial sandstone samples are explained in Figs. 1
stage, and the formation zone was created by putting the and 2.
mixture of coarse grains (S2) around the skin zone. The Currently, mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) is
first sample was not perforated (open hole), the second one of the common techniques used to analyze sandstone
one cased and perforated (8 perforations). The dimensions samples' main index properties and pore morphologies.
of the two samples included perforation parameters, as The porosimeter uses a specialized pressure chamber as a
shown in Table 3. means to force the mercury to fill porous substrate voids.
The perforation by drilling (PD) technique was used Being forced by pressure, the mercury intrudes larger
to create the perforations in this study. This technique pores and then, under increasing pressure, starts intrud-
has been used by Rahman et al. (2006, 2007a, 2007b and ing smaller pores (Giesche, 2006). Using this approach,

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122 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133

Fig. 2  The dimensions of artificial sandstone samples

it is possible to characterize both intra- and inter-particle three value flow rates (1, 2, and 3 Liter/minute) of water
pores. MIP was used first to characterize and then ana- were injected through each sample within Darcy’s flow
lyze the pore morphology and index properties for the two range. Water was used instead of oil as water does not
zones in the artificial samples. cause permanent damage to the samples. RFC setup was
used to measure the differential pressure and flow rates,
with the water radially injected into our core sample for
Experimental procedure the single flow within the different flow rates.

In the present study, we used the experimental setup ini-

tially designed and built by Ahammad et al. (2018 and Numerical simulation procedure
2019) as a radial flow cell (RFC); the RFC was created for
the purpose of carrying out experiments under wellbore In the present work, ANSYS FLUENT 18.1 was used for
conditions. Figure 3 shows the RFC setup, which includes numerical simulations of fluid flow through a near-wellbore
three main sections: flow lines extending from inlet to out- region. Our aim was to present a single-phase fluid flow
let, an inner chamber for holding samples with axial loads, simulation for a reservoir described as three-dimensional,
and a data acquisition (DQ) system. vertical, and cylindrically layered. We created a sample that
From a literature review, we can see that experiments is vertical with a single layer of uniform thickness. Next,
carried out on perforation methods have mostly relied on we assumed the well was centrally located and had a drilled
rather simplistic assumptions; our experiments carried radius (rw ) throughout the formation. Further, the well was
out on simplistic assumptions, such as those presented by perforation completed and also had a horizontal-to-vertical
Rahman et al. (2007a and 2007b). Moreover, as a result of permeability ratio ( kh ∕kv ). Hence, we could apply the con-
laboratory constraints, the majority of the experimental ditions and assumptions enumerated below in developing
investigations in the published literature have neglected our model:
key reservoir characteristics such as thermal effects,
drawdown pressure, and actual reservoir pressure. In the 1. The medium is anisotropic and porous, of uniform thick-
experimental portion of our work, we injected a measured ness, and is constantly permeable (i.e., features constant
volume of water of a single-phase into our two samples; vertical permeability that is nonzero).

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Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133 123

Fig. 3  The schematic diagram of RFC for single-phase water

2. The flow through the reservoir can be described as

single-phase water, and either radial-vertical laminar or
Darcy’s flow.
3. Any flux proceeding into the well features uniform dis-
tribution across perforated intervals.
4. Thermal effects are ignored.
5. Although perforation skin has been considered in the
present research, other skin factors have not.
6. The perforations are assumed to be ideal without forma-
tion damage and a crushed zone.

In the numerical work, we injected a measured volume

of water into the cylindrical sample. The outer side of the
sample was considered an inlet, and the wellbore surface
was an outlet in the open hole completion case, while the Fig. 4  Vertical section for the outlet and the shape of uniform con-
perforations’ surface was taken as an outlet in the perforated figuration mesh
casing completion case. The uniform mesh and cut mesh
methods were utilized to produce a high mesh density, as density of a fluid. In order to properly determine these physical
shown in Fig. 4. This arrangement contributed to capturing changes, the two governing equations (mass and momentum
the significant pressure gradients around the border regions. equations) of fluid flow are needed to represent mathematical
Fluid flow in a near-wellbore region undergoes many meas- models of the conservation of physical laws. The conservation
ures of physical changes, such as pressure drop due to fric- equations for mass and momentum describing single-phase
tion losses around the perforations, gravity, acceleration, and

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124 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133

flow in a porous region could be expressed, respectively (Sun Table 4  The range of dimensionless parameters
et al. 2013) as: Dimensionless parameters Range
𝜕𝛾𝜌 ( )
+ ∇. 𝛾𝜌⃗v = 0 (19) Penetration ratio (Pr) 1.333–8
𝜕t Ratio of perforation radius to wellbore radius (Rr) 0.025–0.2
Permeability ratio (Kr) 1–10
( ) ( )
𝜕( ) ( ) 𝜇 C Ratio of perforation angle to 180° (𝜃d ) 0.33–1
⃗f −
𝛾𝜌⃗v + ∇. 𝛾𝜌⃗vv⃗ = −𝛾∇p+∇. 𝛾𝜏 + 𝛾 B v⃗ + − 2 𝜌||v⃗||v⃗
𝜕t k 2
(20)
The last term in Eq. (20) represents the viscous and iner- Table 5  The main index properties of the samples
tial loss imposed by the porous media on the fluid. The lami-
Index properties of the two artificial samples’ zones Values (units)
nar flows in porous media generally feature a pressure drop (S1 and S2)
proportional to permeability and velocity. By ignoring out
an inertial loss term, we can reduce the porous media model Permeability of skin zone (kd) 6.3 Darcy
to Darcy’s law, as expressed in the equation: Porosity of skin zone (𝛾s ) 26%
Permeability of formation zone (kf ) 26.6 Darcy
𝜇
∇p = − v⃗ (21) Porosity of formation zone (𝛾f ) 21%
k

dimensionless parameters, as presented in Table 4. Statisti-

Statistical procedure cal analysis was applied to determine the impact of each
dimensionless parameter on the perforation skin factor value
In the present work, we used Design of Experiments soft- in two cases. In the first case, the effect of three dimension-
ware (DoE) with Box–Behnken design (BBD) in designing less parameters (Pr , Rr and Kr ) on the perforation skin factor
the numerical runs needed for statistical analysis. The initial was analyzed at the perforation angle (360°). In the second
step in DoE is the identification of independent variables case, the same procedure was followed as in the first case
and/or factors that may have an effect on the outcomes. The with a range of perforation angles (60°–180°). Thirty-six
next step involves identifying the dependent variables and/ numerical runs in two cases were performed to obtain a suit-
or factors (Davim, 2016). The BBD, described as a response able statistical analysis using the ANOVA analysis with the
surface methodology (RSM) design, requires only three lev- BBD model.
els in its experimental or numerical runs (Box & Cox, 1964).
The model is then statistically validated through analysis of
variance (ANOVA) (Box and Behnken 1960; Ferreira, et al. Results and discussion
2007). Based on these initial processes, four dimensionless
The four investigative methods of sample preparation, exper-
(parameters
) were investigated,
( ) including the
( )penetration ratio imental, numerical, and statistical analysis were used to ana-
Pr , radius ratio Rr permeability
( ) ratio kr and the ratio of
perforation angle to 180° 𝜃d : lyze the interaction among the perforations’ parameters and
their effect on the pressure gradient in the near-wellbore
lp region. For the samples’ preparation, MIP techniques was
Pr = (22) used to obtain the main index properties (permeability and
hp
porosity) and to make sure the artificial samples are homo-
rp geneous. MIP measurements of the two artificial sandstone
Rr = (23) zones (S1 and S2) showed high values for permeability and
rw
porosity, as illustrated in Table 5. Using MIP experimental
data, Fig. 5 shows the pore size distribution (PSD) curves
kh as pore throat diameter vs. pore volume (dV/dlogD) for the
Kr = (24)
kv two artificial sandstone zones. The two artificial sandstone
zones’ PSD curves show single peaks, which means that the
𝜃 two sandstone samples have homogeneous pore size distri-
𝜃d = (25) butions. Moreover, pore sizes are mainly in the range of 50
180
to 350 µm.
Two boundary points were selected, and one mid- The statistical analysis was coupled with numeri-
point was determined by BBD for the intervals of the four cal simulation to expand fluid flow investigation in the

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Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133 125

Fig. 5  Pore size distribution 0.6

(PSD) curves of the two artifi-

dV/dlogD Pore Volume (mL/g)

cial sandstone zones Fine grain size (S1)
0.5
Coarse grain size (S2)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Pore diameter (µm)

Table 6  Dimensionless parameters of two artificial samples and flow sample at the same flow boundary conditions (Table 6).
boundary conditions The comparison between the experimental data and
Dimensionless parameters and flow boundary Values (units) numerical results for the single-phase flow (water) through
conditions the two artificial samples is shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The
results of validation showed a good agreement between the
Penetration ratio ( Pr) 1
numerical results and experimental data.
Ratio of perforation radius to wellbore radius 0.11811
( Rr ) The comparison results showed that the perforated sam-
Permeability Ration ( Kr) 1 ple strongly affects the injection pressure build-up, due
Perforation angle (𝜃) 90° to the casing resistance, by forcing the flow to pass only
Three water flow rates (Q) 1, 2 and 3 L/min through the perforations. Also, the results exhibited that the
Viscosity of water (𝜇) 0.00095 kg/m·s pressure build-up takes a short time to reach steady-state
condition; this time decreases with increasing water flow
rate (Q ). In the low flow rate cases, the required time for
near-wellbore region and analyze the results. For perfo- reaching steady-state conditions is longer than the high flow
rated wells, fluids can come into the wellbore via perfora- rate case due to the samples’ large storage capacity; a high
tion tunnel arrays. The perforations are usually created portion of the fluid will pass through the perforations, and a
around the wellbore helically (i.e., shaped like a helix or small portion will be stored within the pores. In addition, the
spiral). The CFD simulation results have been validated results show a slight deviation between the experimental and
with experimental data for the injection build-up pressure numerical results that appear in higher flow rate cases. This
through the open hole sample and the perforated casing may be related to the resistance of small damage or amounts

Fig. 6  The comparison between 9000

Num., ( Qw=1 l/m ) Exp., (Qw=1 l/m)
experimental data and numeri-
Num., ( Qw=2 l/m ) Exp., (Qw=2 l/m)
cal simulation results for a 8000
Num., ( Qw=3 l/m ) Exp., (Qw=3 l/m)
single-phase (water) flow at the
different flow rates through the 7000
open hole artificial sample
6000
Pressure (Pa)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

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126 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133

Fig. 7  The comparison between 16000

experimental data and numeri- Num., (Qw=1 l/m) Exp., (Qw=1 l/m)
cal simulation results for a 14000 Num., (Qw=2 l/m) Exp., (Qw=2 l/m)
single-phase (water) flow at Num., (Qw=3 l/m) Exp., (Qw=3 l/m)
the different flow rates through
12000
the casing perforated artificial
sample

Pressure (Pa)
10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

of very fine particles around the perforations produced by The present study provides an in-depth analysis of per-
the PD technique. forated well completion productivity. As part of the analy-
The perforation skin factor was obtained from the differ- sis, dimensionless groups were identified that control flows
ence for pressure drop results between the two completion within the perforations, along with the effects of these
samples in both experimental and numerical methods. The groups on wells’ productivity. Furthermore, using numeri-
numerical results exhibit a clear view of the effect of perfo- cal and statistical analyses, a series of results were obtained
ration parameters on the value and distribution of pressure that highlight the examined well’s perforation skin factor.
gradient for the single flow water at the same flow boundary The statistical analysis results show a clear view of the
condition. For example, the perforation skin factor value for interaction effect among the four dimensionless parameters
one of the numerical run cases was calculated; it was close (Pr , Rr , Kr and 𝜃d ) on the perforation skin factor (Sp) for two
to zero due to the similar pressure gradient results in both perforation angle cases (360° and 60°–180°), as illustrated
cases (an open hole and perforated sample), as shown in in Figs. 10 and 11. The results indicate that the increasing
Figs. 8 and 9. penetration ratio ( Pr ) decreased the perforation skin factor

Fig. 8  Numerical results of the pressure gradient for perforated completion case at boundary conditions (Q = 1 l/min, 𝜇 = 0.001003 kg/m·s,
re = 10 m, rw = 0.1 m, 𝛾 = 20%, Pr = 8, Rr = 0.1125, Kr = 1, and ϴ = 360°)

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Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133 127

Fig. 9  Numerical results of the pressure gradient for open hole completion at boundary conditions (Q = 1 l/min, 𝜇 = 0.001003 kg/m·s, re = 10 m,
rw = 0.1 m)

( )
Fig. 10  Interaction of the three dimensionless parameters (Pr , Rr and Kr ) eter Kr = 10 ; (b) Interaction between the two dimensionless param-
and their effects on the perforation skin factor (Sp ) at perforation angle (eters (Pr and) Kr ) with constant value for the dimensionless parameter
𝜃 = 360: (a) Interaction between the two dimensionless param- Rr = 0.025
eters (Pr and Rr ) with constant value for the dimensionless param-

due to the high radial flow rate. This means that if the perfo- skin factor’s value and increase the radial flow in the near-
rations are long and the distance between them is short, the wellbore region.
well productivity will be significantly increased. If the pen- In addition, the ratio of perforation radius to wellbore
etration ratio is low, the rise in perforation skin factor will be radius ( Rr ) and permeability ratio ( Kr ) have a moderate
higher. In this case, due to high resistance, higher injection effect, while the ratio of perforation angle (𝜃d ) has a low
pressure would be necessary to inject the required volume impact on the perforation skin factor value. The increase in
in the core sample. Therefore, long perforations, together Rr shows a moderate contribution to productivity, which
with high perforation density, will decrease the perforation indicates that perforation aperture widening for enhancing

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128 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133

Fig. 11  Interaction of the three dimensionless parameters (Pr , Rr , Kr and 𝜃d ) the two parameters (Pr and Kr ) with constant value for Rr = 0.1125 and
and their effects on the perforation skin factor (Sp ) at perforation angles 𝜃d = 0.666; (c) Interaction between the two parameters (Pr and 𝜃d ) with
𝜃 = 60 − 180: (a) Interaction between the two parameters (Pr and Rr ) constant value for Rr = 0.1125 and Kr = 5.5
with constant value for Kr = 5.5 and 𝜃d = 0.666; (b) Interaction between

bottom flow accomplishes relatively little. For vertical wells, perforation technique that will lead to a high flow rate, as
the reservoir anisotropy’s effect on productivity ratio is also well as choosing the best density and dimensions for the
tested in this work, showing that the productivity ratio gener- perforation as a means to accelerate radial inflow. The over-
ally declines(with )increasing the horizontal-vertical-perme- all outcome of these informed choices is an increase in the
/
ability ratio kh k . The skin factor for different perforation productivity index.
v
angles is reduced when the inflow angle decreases, whereas The current correlations used for simulating production
maximum value is achieved at a perforation angle of 360°, flows in perforated vertical wells require a relatively com-
as illustrated in Fig. 10. plex process involving tables and equations to calculate per-
We can learn the effect of each perforation param- foration skin factor. Aiming to streamline this process, the
eter from these results and, based on the results, choose present work proposed efficient and simple correlations for
the design that is optimal. This means choosing the best simulating the flows in the near-wellbore region that have

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Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133 129

helical and symmetrical perforations. Two correlations were available model (Karakas and Tariq (1991)) was performed
obtained from the statistical analysis based on the experi- to verify their computational accuracy and efficiency, as
mental and numerical results for the two cases: shown in Figs. 12, 13, 14 and 15. The comparison results
demonstrated good agreement between the current cor-
Sp (360◦ ) = 10(0.65−0.08756Pr −1.069Rr +0.01312Kr ) − 0.85 (26) relations and Karakas and Tariq’s semi-analytical model
results within the range of dimensionless parameters (see
Sp (60◦ − 180◦ ) = 10(0.655−0.1123Pr −1.428Rr +0.0302Kr +0.0703𝜃d ) − 1.75 Table 4). In addition, two novel correlations have been
produced from the current study that simplify the esti-
(27)
mation of the perforation skin factor in perforation wells
The two correlations are used to determine the effect compared to the available model. The correlations can be
of the four dimensionless parameters on the perforation used to calculate the perforation skin factor by integrating
skin factor value. A comparison of perforation skin fac- the horizontal-flow effect, the vertical converging effect,
tor results for obtained correlations and results of the and the wellbore effect.

Fig. 12  The comparison

between Karakas and Tariq’s
model and the obtained cor-
relation results of increasing
the penetration ratio ( Pr ) on
the perforation skin factor at
perforation angle 360°

Fig. 13  The comparison

between Karakas and Tariq’s
model and the obtained cor-
relation results of increasing
the penetration ratio ( Pr ) on
the perforation skin factor at
perforation angle 60°

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130 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133

Fig. 14  The comparison

between Karakas and Tariq’s
model and the obtained cor-
relation results of increasing
the penetration ratio ( Pr ) on
the perforation skin factor at
perforation angle 120°

Fig. 15  The comparison

between Karakas and Tariq’s
model and the obtained cor-
relation results of increasing
the penetration ratio ( Pr ) on
the perforation skin factor at
perforation angle 180°

Fig. 16  Effect of penetration

ratio ( Pr ) on productivity ration
PR at different perforation
angles (60°–360°)

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Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133 131

Fig. 17  Effect of ratio of perfo-

ration radius to wellbore radius
( Rr ) on productivity ration PR
at different perforation angles
(60°–360°)

Fig. 18  Effect of permeability

ratio ( Kr ) on productivity ration
PR at different perforation
angles (60°–360°)

The productivity ratio (PR) is a function of perforation length Conclusion

to penetration space or perforation shot densities. The produc-
tivity improvements are shown by increasing the perforation’s This work was conducted in order to expand the knowledge
depth or using high perforation densities, as illustrated in Fig. 16. regarding the effect of perforated wells on the perforation
Also, the results showed a slight improvement for productivity by skin factor and pressure gradient in a near-wellbore region.
increasing the ratio of perforation radius to wellbore radius (Rr), Based on experimental and numerical investigations, the fol-
while increasing the permeability ratio (Kr) leads to reduced pro- lowing conclusions can be drawn:
ductivity, as shown in Figs. 17 and 18. Additionally, the results
demonstrated improvement in productivity by decreasing the 1. The comparison results showed a good agreement
perforation angle. The pressure drop in the near-wellbore region between the experimental data and numerical results.
decreases at the small perforation angle cases due to the addition Based on these results, extensive numerical investiga-
of flow conduits from multiple directions. The maximum produc- tions were conducted to evaluate the effect of the per-
tion rate was found for perforation angles of 60° degrees, likely forated casing completion on the pressure drop in the
due to the suitability of the flow convergence. near-wellbore region.

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132 Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology (2022) 12:117–133

2. The numerical results exhibited a clear view of the effect Ahammad MJ, Rahman M, Zheng L, Alam J, Butt S (2018) Numerical
of perforation parameters on perforation skin factor in investigation of Two-phase fluid flow in a perforation tunnel. J Nat
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mal perforation parameters can be achieved, along with tal development to characterise the flow phenomena at the Near-
ways to boost productivity. Wellbore Region. ASME 2019 38th International Conference on
3. Two novel correlations have been produced from the Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering. Glasgow, Scotland, UK:
Volume 8: Polar and Arctic Sciences and Technology; Petroleum
current study that simplify the estimation of the perfo- Technology.
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Funding This publication was also made possible by the grant potential in three dimensions using computational fluid dynamics.
NPRP10-0101-170091 from Qatar National Research Fund (a mem- The SPE International Symposium and Exhibition on Formation
ber of the Qatar Foundation). Statements made herein are solely the Damage Control. Louisiana, USA.
responsibility of the authors. Byrne M, Jimenez M, Rojas E, Castillo E (2011) Computational fluid
dynamics for reservoir and well fluid flow performance mod-
Declarations elling. The SPE European Formation Damage Conference.
Noordwijk-Netherlands.
Conflict of interest The authors whose names are listed above certify Byrne M, Djayapertapa L, Watson K, Goodin B (2014) Complex com-
that they have no known competing financial interests that could have pletion design and Inflow prediction enabled by detailed numerical
appeared to influence the work reported in this manuscript. well modeling. the SPE International Symposium and Exhibition on
Formation Damage Control. Lafayette, Louisiana, USA.
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has not been published and will not be submitted elsewhere for pub- et Application des Principes a Suivre et des Formulesa Employer
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Springer, Cham
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- Economides MJ (2013) Petroleum production systems. Prentice Hall,
bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- Upper Saddle River, NJ
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long Economides MJ, Nolte KG (2000) Reservoir stimulation. Wiley,
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, Chichester
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