J. Iron Steel Res. Int.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s42243-019-00317-8 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().
,- volV)

ORIGINAL PAPER

Microstructure and mechanical properties of hot-rolled low-carbon

steel containing Ti–Ca oxide particles: a comparison between base
metal and HAZ
Chao Wang1 • Xin Wang1 • Jian Kang1 • Guo Yuan1 • Guo-dong Wang1

Received: 15 February 2019 / Revised: 6 May 2019 / Accepted: 15 May 2019

 China Iron and Steel Research Institute Group 2019

Abstract
The effect of inclusion-induced nucleation on hot-rolled steel base metal was evaluated in comparison with welding heat-
affected zone (HAZ). Microstructure and mechanical properties of hot-rolled low-carbon steel containing Ti–Ca oxide
particles were studied. The results showed that inclusions in Ti–Ca deoxidized steel distributed dispersely and were
effective for intragranular acicular ferrite nucleation. Under hot rolling and controlled cooling conditions, microstructure in
steel base metal was significantly refined and mainly consisted of acicular ferrite and intragranular bainite, which exhibited
higher strength and excellent toughness. The microstructural evolution behavior followed the process that acicular ferrite
plates divided the austenite grain, intragranular bainite packets formed between interlocking acicular ferrite plates, and the
remaining austenite decomposed into fine polygonal ferrite grains. The resultant complex microstructure improved the
impact toughness significantly. By comparison, in HAZ microstructure, laminar grain boundary ferrite having similar
crystallography orientation showed adverse effect on toughness.

Keywords Low-carbon steel
Ti–Ca oxide
Hot rolling
Mechanical property
Acicular ferrite
Heat-affected zone

1 Introduction distribution of fine-sized inclusions, strong deoxidant such

as Al, Mg, Zr or Ca is usually added together with Ti
Particle-stimulated nucleation is frequently used in [11–13]. Besides, many other researches focused on factors
improving steel microstructure and mechanical properties. influencing AF nucleation ability such as steel composi-
One typical application is the grain refinement of steel weld tion, inclusion size and interface coherence [14, 15]. In a
metal and heat-affected zone [1–3]. Acicular ferrite (AF) sense, the above researches mainly considered
exhibits satisfactory combination of strength and toughness microstructural evolution under static conditions, where
due to its interlocking morphology. It is also the preferred materials thermo-mechanical processing was not taken into
microstructure in coarse-grained heat-affected zone account.
(CGHAZ) under large welding heat input, where detri- Thermo-mechanical processing involves austenite hot
mental ferrite side plates (FSP) are usually formed [4, 5]. A deformation and controlled cooling. Research showed that
number of researches have been carried out to enhance austenite deformation conditions have evident influence on
HAZ toughness by optimizing inclusion composition and AF formation of low-carbon steel containing Ti oxide [16].
distribution [6–9]. Ti oxide, Ti2O3 in particular, exhibits Under high holding temperature and slow cooling rate,
remarkable ability for AF nucleation and has received microstructure of heavy section steel was refined by Ti
greatest interest [10]. In order to promote a disperse oxide particles [17]. Proper cooling process was also in
favor of AF microstructure formation [18]. Some research
work also investigated particle evolution behavior during
& Guo Yuan thermo-mechanical process [19, 20]. Oxide or oxy-sulfide
yuanguo_neu@163.com particle composition did not change much during the hot-
1 working process. However, for steels using sulfide or
The State Key Laboratory of Rolling and Automation,
Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, Liaoning, China

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carbo-nitride as nucleating particles, precipitation during thermal cycle simulation and hot-rolling experiments.
thermo-mechanical process was necessary [21, 22]. Austenite continuous cooling transformation (CCT)
For weldable high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels, behavior was detected using Formastor-FII full-automatic
thermo-mechanical controlled process (TMCP) is widely transformation equipment. Cylinder samples of /3 mm 9
used to improve steel properties. By TMCP, low-temper- 10 mm were heated at 10 C/s to 1250 C and held for
ature deformation in austenite region and accelerated 5 min. Then, the samples were cooled to 900 C and
cooling result in significant microstructure refinement [23]. subsequently cooled at different rates of 0.15–50 C/s to
However, for certain products such as heavy plates, heavy ambient temperature. Dilation in sample length during
sections, hot-rolled bars and seamless pipes, TMCP cannot cooling was determined. Finally, the samples were cross-
be appropriately applied because of their special section sectioned and metallographically prepared for microstruc-
shapes. Austenite grains in these steel products grow such ture characterization.
that coarse microstructure is usually formed in spite of Hot-rolling experiments were carried out on a laboratory
accelerated cooling. The particle-stimulated nucleation rolling mill. Steel blocks were reheated to 1250 C and
tends to take place in large-sized austenite grains, and thus held for 30 min, and then hot rolled into 20-mm-thick
it shows special advantage for these products. However, plates through 5 reversible rolling passes. The interpass
microstructures and mechanical properties obtained by operation was continuous, and the finish rolling tempera-
TMCP and particle-stimulated nucleation still lack com- ture was between 1050 and 1100 C. The hot plates were
parative study. Moreover, the difference in transformation subsequently transferred to a water jet device and accel-
behaviors between hot-rolled base metal and welding HAZ erated cooled from above 1000 C to 600–650 C at a rate
need further understanding. In this study, low-carbon steels of 10–20 C/s and then cooled to ambient temperature in
with and without effective Ti–Ca oxide particles were air. The hot-rolled steels were still designated as TC and
prepared. The steels were subjected to hot rolling and HAZ AL plates, respectively. In addition, with the commonly
simulation, respectively. Characteristics of microstructure used two-stage controlled rolling process, another plate of
and mechanical properties under different conditions were AL steel was rolled with a lower finishing temperature of
analyzed. 830 C and similar cooling process as above. And the
controlled rolled AL steel plate was designated as AL–cr
plate. Tensile samples with gauge dimensions of 8 mm in
2 Experimental procedure diameter and 40 mm in length were machined in transverse
direction of the plates. Charpy V-notch impact samples
Two experimental steels were melted in a laboratory 50-kg with standard dimensions of 10 mm 9 10 mm 9 55 mm
vacuum induction furnace and cast into ingots in a 20 kPa were machined along rolling direction. Samples with
argon atmosphere. The basic composition of both steels dimensions of 11 mm 9 11 mm 9 55 mm were machined
was C 0.07, Si 0.21, Mn 1.75, S 0.004, P 0.01, and Fe from TC and AL plates for HAZ simulation experiment.
balance (wt.%). One heat was deoxidized with master alloy Coarse-grained HAZ for welding energy input of 200 kJ/
containing Ti–Ca and marked as TC steel. The other heat cm was simulated on a MMS300 machine, during which
was deoxidized by aluminum for comparison and marked the peak temperature was 1400 C (staying for 5 s) and the
as AL steel. In order to avoid the detrimental effect of non- cooling time from 800 to 500 C (t8/5) was 215 s. HAZ
metallic inclusions on steel ductility, the killing time before samples were then machined to standard dimensions for
casting after deoxidant addition was controlled such that Charpy V-notch impact test at - 40 C. Microstructure
coarse inclusions were able to cluster and float up. At the characterization was carried out using LEICA DMIRM
same time, adequate fine oxide inclusions were kept in optical microscope and FEI Quanta 600 SEM equipped
liquid steel as effective particles for microstructure with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) system.
refinement. The residual oxygen and deoxidant contents in
steels were approximately O 0.003%, Ti 0.01%, Ca 0.002%
and Al 0.02%, respectively. Almost all the oxide particles 3 Results and discussion
observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) during
experiment were sized under 2 lm. Composition analysis 3.1 Continuous cooling transformation
by SEM energy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS) showed
that Ti–Ca complex oxide and Al oxide were obtained in Continuous cooling transformation diagrams of two steels
TC steel and AL steel, respectively, as expected. MnS was are presented in Fig. 1, where Ae1, Ae3 and Ar3 points are
also frequently observed to precipitate on oxide particles. 703, 827 and 748 C, respectively. The corresponding
The ingots were hot-forged into 80 mm 9 80 mm microstructures are shown in Fig. 2. For the experimental
square billets and then cut into steel samples and blocks for cooling rates, the overall difference between two steels can

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Fig. 1 CCT diagrams of AL steel (a) and TC steel (b) with austenization at 1250 C. P Pearlite; UB upper bainite; M martensite; GBF grain
boundary ferrite; WF Widmanstätten ferrite; B Bainite

Fig. 2 Optical micrographs of AL steel (a–d) and TC steel (e–h) continuously cooled at 0.15 C/s (a, e), 1.5 C/s (b, f), 15 C/s (c, g) and 50 C/
s (d, h)

be described as that microstructures growing from growing from sympathetic nucleation had low-angle
austenite grain boundaries were formed in AL steel, misorientation with GBF and K–S relationship with parent
whereas intragranular transformation products were austenite [24]. Ferrite grains nucleating on precipitation
obtained in TC steel. For low cooling rates of particles at boundaries grew into a polygonal shape without
0.15–1.50 C/s, GBF was formed in both steels. However, special orientation relationship with austenite, and inhib-
apparent morphological difference exists between the two ited FSP from nucleating on the a/c interface [25, 26].
types of ferrite. In AL steel, laminar ferrite grew along Interior austenite then decomposed into acicular ferrite by
boundaries and readily promoted nucleation of WF or intragranular nucleation instead. Thus, both the intergran-
ferrite side plates (FSP), as shown in Fig. 2a, b. In TC steel, ular and intragranular reaction products were refined as a
GBF grains were mostly polygonal and appeared inert for result of a distribution of favorable oxide particles in TC
FSP nucleation, as shown in Fig. 2e, f. The different steel.
characteristics are related to GBF nucleation manner and At a medium cooling rate of 5 C/s, whole upper bainite
its crystallography. Laminar GBF had near Kurdjumov– and AF structure were obtained in AL steel and TC steel,
Sachs (K–S) relationship with one of neighboring austenite respectively. As the cooling rate increased up to 50 C/s, a
grains and could act as nucleating substrate for FSP. FSP microstructural transition from bainite to martensite could

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be observed in AL steel, as shown in Fig. 2c, d. However, oxide were also observed, as presented in Fig. 4. Among
different types of multi-phase structure were formed for TC the inclusions, Al2O3 was formed because of residual Al
steel, as shown in Fig. 2g, h. AF plates still partially element in the alloy used.
formed with cooling rates up to 50 C/s, which segmented
the austenite grain. Bainite or martensite packets formed 3.2 As-rolled and simulated HAZ characteristics
within the regions between AF plates, resulting in much
finer multi-phase structure. From the aspect of martensite Microstructures of hot-rolled and controlled cooled steel
formation tendency, the hardenability of TC steel plates are presented in Fig. 5. Accelerated water cooling
decreased compared with that of AL steel. It is a common stopped above 600 C and the following air cooling rate
phenomenon that carbo-nitride precipitation in low alloy was about 0.5 C/s for 20-mm-thick plates. For the high-
steels, such as NbC or VN precipitation [27, 28], could temperature rolled steels, GBF was significantly sup-
result in reduction in hardenability. It is obviously not the pressed with the controlled cooling process, as shown in
case for the present steels. On the other hand, oxygen Fig. 5a, b, and the intragranular structures also changed
content in weld metal can vary in a wide range and has a much from that without deformation. Coarse granular or
significant effect on WM microstructure and toughness lath bainite (GB/LB) sheaves were formed in AL steel plate
[29]. Hardenability of WM decreased with the increase in (Fig. 5a, d). Complex microstructure was obtained in TC
oxygen content and oxide inclusion number [30]. The steel plate, which was comprised of acicular ferrite,
effective oxide particles in the present TC steel exhibited polygonal or quasi-polygonal ferrite (PF/QPF), granular or
similar effect by stimulating AF nucleation even though the lath bainite, and microphase of degenerated pearlite (DP)
oxygen content was rather low. or martensite/austenite constituent (M/A), as shown in
Figure 3 shows a typical oxide particle promoting AF Fig. 5b, e, f. This type of microstructure is rather like that
nucleation and its composition distribution. The particle is of HSLA steel produced by TMCP technology such as AF
rich in Ti and Ca, with MnS precipitation on local surface. linepipe steel. Linepipe steels or Nb-microalloyed steels
It could be simplified as Ti2O3
CaO
MnS for discussion. are generally subjected to heavy reduction in the austenite
Each of the three constituents is favorable for stimulating non-recrystallization region, resulting in significantly
AF nucleation. The effectiveness of Ti2O3 is generally refined austenite grain size. In this experiment, austenite
attributed to the formation of Mn-depletion zone (MDZ) completely recrystallized at the high rolling temperature
through Mn atoms absorption into Ti2O3 or MnS adherent and grew into a coarse grain size of 50–100 lm. Thus, the
precipitation. CaO formed in liquid steel has high solubility microstructure refinement mainly depended on intragran-
for sulfur and would promote MnS precipitation on its ular transformation. However, under low-temperature
surface during cooling due to the decrease in sulfur solu- rolling process, austenite grain boundaries remarkably
bility. These factors all contribute to MDZ development increased and promoted massive PF nucleation in AL–cr
and strengthen AF-nucleating ability. Besides Ti2O3
steel plate, as shown in Fig. 5c.
CaO
MnS, other effective inclusion types containing Ti

Fig. 3 Elements distribution of an oxide particle nucleating acicular ferrite in TC steel analyzed by SEM

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Fig. 4 Al–Ca–Ti oxide particle (a, b) and Al–Ti oxide particle (c, d) observed in experimental steel

Fig. 5 Optical (a–c) and SEM (d–f) microstructures of as-rolled AL steel (a, d), TC steel (b, e, f), and AL–cr steel (c)

Mechanical properties of as-rolled steel plates are pre- bainite that nucleates intragranularly. From the aspect of
sented in Fig. 6. AL–cr steel plate had lowest tensile grain refinement strengthening, the effective grain size for
strength and highest impact toughness. AL steel plate had AF structure approximately corresponds to AF lath width,
higher strength, but the toughness deteriorated to a large whereas for bainite structure, the packets act as effective
degree. TC steel plate achieved the highest strength and grains. Thus, strength of TC steel plate increased compared
relatively good toughness. Acicular ferrite is a type of with AL steel as a result of grain refinement. The

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Fig. 6 Tensile curves (a) and impact toughness (b) of as-rolled steel plates

dislocation density, especially mobile dislocation, was TC steel HAZ still kept a relatively high level, while AL
relatively high for AF or bainite and caused continuous steel HAZ showed serious brittleness. HAZ microstructures
yielding of TC and AL steel plates. However, for AL–cr are shown in Fig. 8, where micrographs of Fig. 8c, d are
plate, the high fraction of polygonal ferrite which was low taken from cross section of impact fracture. Bainite sheaves
in dislocation density gave rise to a significant yield plateau or ferrite side plates dominated AL steel HAZ with an even
[31]. Impact toughness of TC plate was also improved as a coarser size (Fig. 8a). This caused longer distance propa-
result of grain refinement compared to that of AL plate. gation of impact crack in the common cleavage plane of
Under conditions of similar chemical composition and ferrite sheaves (Fig. 8c). TC steel HAZ obtained inter-
microstructure type, high-angle grain boundary density is a locking AF microstructure (Fig. 8b) similar to that of
determining factor influencing toughness. Grain boundaries continuous cooling transformation product without defor-
of misorientation angle [ 15 act as effective obstacles to mation (Fig. 2f). However, its laminar GBF increased in
crack propagation. EBSD analysis in next section showed comparison with that in Fig. 2f even though their cooling
that boundaries between AF plates were high-angled, while rates were similar. With the high HAZ peak temperature,
in AL steel, high-angle boundaries only existed between nitride or sulfide particles tended to dissolve. The number
coarse packets. As shown in Fig. 7a, b, impact fracture of of particles on austenite grain boundaries which acted as
TC plate consisted of dimpled ductile part and quasi- nucleation sites decreased. This induced rapid growth of
cleavage fracture, where the sizes of small dimples and ferrite along boundary and resulted in a large-sized two-
cleavage facets were similar to the size of intragranular AF dimensional structure, as indicated in the lower part of
or GB/LB. Fracture of AL steel plate was all brittle Fig. 8d. Impact crack tended to propagate directly along
cleavage type (Fig. 7c), and the coarse cleavage facet size GBF due to its similar crystallography orientation, but it
was corresponding to that of bainite packet or prior would be arrested when proceeding to the intragranular AF
austenite grain. region, as indicated in the upper part of Fig. 8d. These
Toughness of simulated coarse-grained HAZ of two factors led to decrease in toughness while still keeping a
steels both decreased compared to as-rolled plates, and the relatively good level.
impact values are also presented in Fig. 6b. The value of

Fig. 7 SEM fractographs from - 60 C impact sample fracture of hot-rolled TC steel (a, b) and AL steel (c)

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Fig. 8 Simulated coarse-grained HAZ microstructures of AL steel (a, c) and TC steel (b, d)

3.3 EBSD analysis LB packets were mostly high-angled. Low-angle interfaces

mainly distributed within bainite packets. The interiors of
Microstructural evolution and its relationship with AF plates also showed low-angle interfaces, especially in
mechanical properties were studied in combination with coarsened ferrite plates. It was indicated that acicular fer-
EBSD analysis. EBSD maps of as-rolled and simulated rite grains adjust the crystallographic orientation slightly
HAZ samples are shown in Fig. 9. The image quality (IQ) during their growth [32]. In comparison with as-rolled
map and inverse pole figure (IPF) map were made structure, the interlocking AF morphology was more
according to Kikuchi band quality and crystal orientation, developed in HAZ and misorientation between AF was
respectively. High-angle ([ 15) and low-angle (5–15) high-angled, as shown in Fig. 9j, k. In general, Fig. 9f, l
boundaries were also drawn in IQ and IPF maps. The local indicates that acicular ferrite had a relatively high dislo-
misorientation map, or kernel average misorientation cation density as a result of displacive transformation
(KAM) map, was made through evaluating the misorien- mechanism like bainite. It can be found that some larger-
tation of a pixel to its neighbors and coloring the pixel sized AF plates which formed at an early stage of trans-
according to the degree of the misorientation. Grain formation had low KAM value or dislocation density. At
boundaries [ 5 were neglected during calculating. KAM the initial transformation stage, displacive growth of AF
value could reflect the local deformation degree or dislo- was easy to occur with low matrix resistance. As trans-
cation density. High-angle grain boundaries were also formation proceeded, stress in austenite matrix increased
added on KAM maps. and the latterly formed AF plates had higher dislocation
According to Fig. 9a, b, boundaries between PF grains density. Additionally, in both hot rolling and HAZ
in AL–cr steel plate were high-angled and the low-angle microstructures of TC steel, there existed small-sized
interface or intragranular substructure was much less in intragranular PF/QPF grains with low dislocation density.
number. Figure 9c shows that local misorientation was low Its formation and effect will be discussed hereinafter.
in most PF grains, which indicated low dislocation density. Figure 9k, l shows that laminar GBF had the same crys-
In TC steel plate, as shown in Fig. 9d–f, intragranular GB/ tallography orientation, whereas polygonal GBF showed
LB with high dislocation density accounted for a consid- random orientation. The two types of GBF both had low
erable proportion. Boundaries between AF plates and GB/ dislocation density. Boundary misorientation distributions

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Fig. 9 EBSD maps of AL–cr steel plate (a, b, c), TC steel plate (d, e, f), AL steel HAZ (g, h, i) and TC steel HAZ (j, k, l). a, d, g, j Image quality
maps with boundaries [ 15 (black lines) and 5–15 (gray lines); b, e, h, k inverse pole figure maps with boundaries [ 15; c, f, i, l local
misorientation maps

of the samples are shown in Fig. 10. High-angle misori- carried out within each single grain. The average orienta-
entation frequency was the highest for AL–cr steel plate, tion of one grain was calculated firstly, and then the
while those of TC steel plate and HAZ were similar and deviation of each pixel from that orientation was calcu-
much higher than that of AL steel HAZ. The high-angle lated. The average misorientation angle of all pixels within
misorientation distribution distinctly corresponds with the grain with respect to the grain average orientation gave
impact toughness shown in Fig. 6b. the average intra-grain misorientation, i.e., GOS value.
In order to distinguish different grain types and char- Each grain was evenly colored according to its GOS value,
acterize their substructure degree more clearly, grain ori- as shown in Fig. 11. Like KAM, GOS can also reflect
entation spread (GOS) maps were made, as shown in substructure extent or dislocation density. PF/QPF is
Fig. 11. A misorientation angle of 15 was selected to formed through diffusional process and has low substruc-
determine grain boundaries, and GOS calculation was ture degree. QPF is transformed at lower temperatures and

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Microstructure and mechanical properties of hot-rolled low-carbon steel containing Ti–Ca…

Fig. 10 Grain boundary misorientation distribution of AL–cr steel plate (a), TC steel plate (b), AL steel HAZ (c) and TC steel HAZ (d)

higher cooling rates than polygonal ferrite and has irregular to occur in GBF compared with harder intragranular phase,
grain boundaries. Grains having GOS value of 5 or and thus cracks tended to initiate in GBF or at the interface
smaller were classified into QPF [33], which should also between GBF and intragranular hard phase. Especially in
include PF. Grains having GOS value [ 5 were consid- the case of laminar GBF with similar crystallographic
ered as AF or GB/LB here. In Fig. 11, grains in as-rolled orientation, the linear propagation of crack became much
AL–cr steel and HAZ were mostly PF/QPF and GB/LB, easier. Thus, under conditions of similar microstructural
respectively. In TC steel plate and HAZ, area fractions of type and grain boundary misorientation distribution in TC
PF/QPF grains were 0.31 and 0.37, respectively, and the steel plate and HAZ, impact toughness was influenced to a
average grain sizes of PF/QPF in two samples were 6.2 and great extent by PF/QPF grains distribution.
7.6 lm, respectively, where grains smaller than 3 lm were The overall transformation process of AF microstructure
neglected. In Fig. 11b, PF/QPF grains were uniform and was discussed in Sect. 3.1. Combined with EBSD tech-
dispersedly distributed between AF plates and GB/LB nique, microstructural evolution of TC steel plate and HAZ
packets. For HAZ structure (Fig. 11d), fine intragranular can be further analyzed in detail. For hot-rolled TC steel,
PF/QPF grains were also uniformly distributed, whereas GBF formation was suppressed under controlled cooling
GBF grains were much larger. Especially for laminar GBF, process. Primary AF plates nucleated on intragranular
even though the grain shape was not polygonal or quasi- oxide particles and were possible to grow a long distance.
polygonal, its substructure was not much developed and the Secondary AF plates nucleated on ferrite/austenite inter-
GOS value was also \ 5. PF/QPF or GBF was considered face and formed an interlocking structure together with
as soft phase in comparison with AF and GB/LB. During primary AF plates. Intragranular GB/LB packets were then
impact fracture process, uniformly distributed PF/QPF soft transformed within the divided austenite grain. During the
phase could relieve stress concentration in front of cracks air cooling process, carbon was able to partition from AF or
and increase crack propagation energy. However, when GB/LB to residual austenite. Bainitic transformation would
large-sized ferrite grains were distributed at coarse stop in carbon-enriched austenite as a result of the
austenite grain boundaries, strain concentration was likely incomplete reaction phenomenon. With the relatively high

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Fig. 11 GOS maps of AL–cr steel plate (a), TC steel plate (b), AL steel HAZ (c) and TC steel HAZ (d)

temperature, carbon-enriched residual austenite was then 4 Conclusion

decomposed into PF/QPF and/or pearlite. A small fraction
of austenite could also remain to low temperature as M/A Microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties
constituent. The main evolution process can be described of hot-rolled low-carbon steel containing Ti–Ca oxide
as AF ? GB/LB ? PF/QPF. By comparison, the coarse particles were studied and compared with simulated
GBF formed firstly in HAZ, and intragranular GB/LB coarse-grained HAZ. Oxide particles in Ti–Ca deoxidized
volume fraction decreased under the condition of well- steel were mainly Ti–Ca–O–Mn–S complex type and were
developed AF structure. Thus, the HAZ microstructural effective for acicular ferrite nucleation. By the aid of dis-
evolution process can be described as GBF ? AF ? PF/ persive particles, continuous cooling transformation prod-
QPF. Transformation of AF and GB/LB both satisfied K–S ucts changed from grain boundary structure into
relationship with parent austenite. intragranular types. Microstructure in steel base metal
The above results indicate that microstructure and obtained under hot rolling and controlled cooling process
mechanical properties of hot-rolled steel base metal can be mainly consisted of acicular ferrite and intragranular bai-
improved by effective oxide particles combined with nite, which exhibited high strength and excellent tough-
proper cooling process. The grain-refining behavior shows ness. Its evolution process can be described as AF ? GB/
similarity to that of welding HAZ, but still exhibits some LB ? PF/QPF. The resultant complex structure promoted
new characteristics. It also shows similar grain refinement the increase in crack propagation energy significantly.
effect to TMCP technology for HSLA steels and thus Laminar grain boundary ferrite in HAZ had similar crys-
provides a promising approach for producing high-perfor- tallography orientation and was the main reason for
mance hot-rolled steels which are not suitable for TMCP. toughness deterioration.
With the different requirements of compositions and
mechanical properties for different steel products, resear- Acknowledgements This work was supported by the National Natural
ches on the application technology and fundamentals are Science Foundation of China (U1860201 and 51904070), China
Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2018M631804) and the Funda-
still necessary to carry out. mental Research Funds for the Central Universities (N170703005).

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